132 COMMODITY GOTHICISM COMMODITY GOTHICI would-be consumers Jacobs, W. & Jones, G. (1985) The Comic Book and bodily corruption, as wonderful than ‘table-turning’ ever was,” is also example of such invocations. Hen Heroes. New York: Crown. of the products of slavery find themselves thoroughly uncanny (Marx 1992: 31). And directly eicts commodities’ refu McCue, G. S. & Bloom, C. (1993) DarkKnights: The consuming enslaved bodies instead. Such indeed, as “critics as diverse as Jacques Derrida, “mirror” one another, by depictir New Comics in Context. London: Pluto Press. visions may well attain their most crystallized Chris Baldick, and Terry Eagleton,” point out figure who stands frozen, half-turn Pearson, R. E. & Uricchio, W. teds.) (1991) The form within what Timothy Morton has since this turn to the Gothic seems “central” to modiste’s glass. What stands refle York: Routledge. Many Lives of the Batman. New termed the “blood sugar’ topos” (Morton Marx’s thinking as a whole (Smith 2005: 39). mirror before her is not just her identity: The super- Round, 1. (2005) fragmented 2000: 172—3): that is, the Gothic scenario Where Marx’s fetishized table merely “stands rately dressed form; it is the emaci hero condition. International Journal ofComic Art whereby slave-produced sugar, once stirred on its head” (Marx 1992: 31), however, objects of the needlewoman who seems tc 7(2), 358—69. into a cup of tea, transforms itself (back) into in the commodity Gothic mode turn on their while laboring over the ball-go Sabin, R. (1996) Comics, Comix and Graphic Novels. all-too literal embodiment of its own consumers. In this, they London: Phaidon. a bloody, take the already would-be consumer has just put c brutal histories of origin. uncanny process of commodity fetishization 2003: 150, Wafldey 1981: 36—54). If Marx’s 1867 account of “the fetishism of one step further, in part by taking it a half step Punch cartoon of 1848, the pattern Commodities and the Secret Thereof’ (Marx back. What if objects, while retaining the tran smock, depicted in close-up, reveal. 1992: 31) postdates visions of “blood sugar,” scendent claims of commodities, attempted to eningly low going rate for ten hot Commodity Gothicism however, that work remains indispensible to resist, and perhaps avenge, their subjection interspersed with images of del understanding such visions’ force, not least as to abstraction, by laying bare the now-hidden, (Lootens 2003: 151; Walldey 1981: TRICIA LOOTENS key points of origin for the “post-Romantic “grotesque idea” of their own now-occluded these half-reversals are, moreove] Gothic imagination” (Smith 2005: 39). for in material, even corporeal origins? This is the draw power from earlier work. I In its most intense forms, the commodity Marx’s terms, even before blood sugar enters fear that creates blood sugar; and it is a fear child’s smock cartoon is named Gothic represents a sinister variant on what the teacup in the scenario above, that sugar that animates commodity Gothicism through the greatest of all object-heirs to b Elaine freedgood has influentially termed the has already undergone transformation into a out the nineteenth century and beyond. the subject, that is, of Thomas Hc “ideas in things.” As Freedgood conceives them, commodity. Like its counterpart, that now- With its Crystal Palace, department stores, successful “Song of the Shirt.” Ir those material objects that fill Victorian novels legendary “plain, homely, bodily form” of a and explosive development of advertising, ballad, the fabric of clothing comes are frightening enough in their own right: for table to which Marx’s account of fetishism so mid-Victorianism stakes clear and immediate its wearer, as if he were suddenly famously turns (Marx 1992: 13), such sugar has claims as a highpoint ofthe commodity Gothic. dying sweated laborers’ skin: “It i stockpiled in these things the knowledge that is undergone a process of abstraction. for by ren Certainly authors of the realist novel, and you’re wearing out, I But humar on the grisly specifics of conflicts and bears dering objects commodities — by replacing Dickens in particular, have provided particu lives!” (Hood 1970: 305). conquests that a culture can neither regularly their use value with exchange value — we put larly rich resources for investigations, both of Intensely Victorian though the acknowledge nor permanently destroy if it is out of sight both “the useful character of the the commodity Gothic and commodity fetish Gothic may be, however, many going to be able to count on its own history to in of labour embodied in them, and ism in general know itself and realize a future. (freedgood various kinds (see freedgood 2006, especially survives, like so much else that is of that labour” (Marx 1992: 138—58, 2006: 2) the concrete forms and Smith 2005). Still, the invocation well beyond the end of the nineteen 5). Now reduced to the status of a “mirror” of of commodities’ uncanny, often vengeful half- When, for example, Walter Benj am (Marx 1992: 24), the sugar has reversals As the commodity Gothic perceives them, abstract value of fetishization accepts no generic that the: “bourgeois interior of the a commodity. Still, however, such objects go one step further. Not lost something by becoming limits (Lootens 2003); and boundary crossings sixties to the nineties, with its gigar object’s perspective, content with containing ideas, they develop, or in another sense (from an may be particularly important here. Consider, overrun by carving, its sunless cor taken on new power. for threaten to develop, ideas of their own; and one might say), it has also example, the mid-century trope of the the palm tree stands [...J provide table, blood sugar, these ideas tend toward the possibility of For like Marx’s legendary genteel woman adorning herself in poisoned housing only for corpses,” his ass become “something wreaking historical vengeance at once through once commodified, has finery. Wfflcie Collins’ moonstone, in the novel “the bourgeois living space [...] ti (Marx 1992: 31). It has assumed of that and against the process of commodification transcendent” name; the maddening diamond neck nameless murder” (Benjamin 19 “the whole world of com lace itself. “a social relation” to of George Eliot’s (1876) Daniel Deronda transLation) looks beyond Dickens the ranks of those (Eliot As Charlotte Sussman’s Consuming Anxiet modities”; it has joined 1995: 358—9): these haunted, haunting criticism of John Ruskin, who read can appear as “inde objects ies dramatically demonstrates, the commodity human productions that and others like them may wield an surfaces of late-Victorian furniture with life,” even Gothic clearly predates the work of Marx pendent beings endowed impact whose force resonates, in part, through they had been by the effort “to bai “producers instead of (Sussman 2000: 110—29). Within the early anti seeming to “rule” their juxtaposition with even more explicit invoca fection” through mechanical i 1992: 24, 32, 35). slavery writing that Sussman studies, com being ruled by them” (Marx tions of commodities as things with vengeful as material accusations revealing a Marx’s suggestion modity Gothic fantasies repeatedly give shape Comic though it may be, ideas of their own (see VICTORIAN GOTHIC). aesthetics whose values acted t commodified, “evolves out Punch’s to powerful rhetorical invocations of the con that a table, once 1863 cartoon “The Haunted Lady, or expression, to check exertion, to pai ideas, far more fluence of commodification with cannibalism of its wooden brain grotesque ‘The Ghost’ in the Looking-Glass” offers one ity” (Ruskin 1904: 204). At the

‘The

in the Ghost’

one ity” offers 204). At 1904: (Ruskin

the

same time,

ookingGlas5” more far

ideas,

grotesque

brain

wooden 1863

its Punch’s or cartoon “The Lady, of

to Haunted check

expressiofl to

vital exertion, paralyze

out cannibalism

with

“evolves

modification

commodified,

once

table,

a

of ideas

own their

(see that to acted values whose

aesthetics GOTHIC).

VICTORIAN

con- “destroy the

of

suggestion

Marx’s invocations

be,

torical may

it

though

of tions Comic as

with things as vengeful

commodities a

material

revealing accusations shape

corrupting give 35). 32,

24,

repeatedly

1992:

fantasies

(Marx

them”

by

ruled

with

even more being

invoca explicit juxtaposition fection”

through

mechanical corn- produCtion of

studies,

instead

Sussman

“producers

that

their

“rule”

to

impact in force

whose part, seeming resonates, by they

had through

been the effort

“to

banish imper anti-

even early

the

life,”

Within

with

110—29).

endowed

beings

and objects

like them others

may pendent an

of wield

surfaces

as shaped furniture, late_Victorian

Marx

of

“inde

as

work

the

appear

can

predates

that

productions

(Eliot

1995:

these human

358—9):

of haunted,

criticism the John who haunting Ruskin,

read smooth

those commodity

of

the

ranks

the

y demonstrates,

joined

has

it

lace

of Eliot’s

George modities”; (1876) Daniel

to Deronda looks Dickens beyond translation) the

social

Anxiet com

of

Consuming world

whole

Sussman’s “the

:e to

relation”

of the that

name; social “a neck

diamond

nameless 89, my murder” maddening

1972: (Benjamin

assumed

has

It

31).

1992:

(Marx

[..i finery. in Collins’

the Wilkie transcendent” novel

“the moonstone, living

bourgeois

for space

trembles

“something

commodification

of

become

process

has

he

commodified,

genteel

in woman once

herself

for only adorning housing poisoned

his corpses”

that assertion

through

sugar,

once at

blood

table,

vengeance

)rical

legendary

Marx’s

[...) for like the of

For example, trope the the

mid-centurY tree palm

stands of

provides adequate

power. possibility

new the

on

taken toward

also

has :end

it

say),

may might be

here. one

by important its Consider,

overrun carving, sunless particularly

corners and

where

own;

their perspective,

of

ideas

object’s

an

evelop,

(from

sense

limits another

2003); and

in (Lootens to crossings the sixties

its with nineties, or boundary

buffets, gigantic

Still, develop, they

ideas,

commodity. a

containing

becoming

by

something

of reversals lost

no accepts the: that

generic fetishizatioll of

the

Not interior “bourgeois

[eighteen-I

has further.

sugar

step

the one

24), go

1992:

objects

h (Marx

value

of

uncanny, abstract

often commodities’ half- vengeful for

When,

example,

Walter them, Benjamin proposes

of

perceives “mirror”

a

of

Gothic

status

the

modity to

reduced

Now 138—58, and 2005).

5). Still, Smith the well invocation

the the end of beyond

century. nineteenth

1992:

(Marx

labour”

that of

forms

ism

concrete in

(see the general 2006,

especially so like Freedgood survives,

is else much that

Victorian,

and

them,

in

embodied

labour

of

kinds

the

various and

Gothic commodity

fetish

may be, Gothic commodity in many it

however, (freedgood respects

the of

future.

a

character realize

and useful f

“the

both

sight

larly

of

to

rich

for out

resources of both history

investigations, Intensely the

though Victorian own

its commoditY put

on

we count

to

value

— able

e

exchange

with

value is

use if it in Dickens their

have

particUlar provided destroy

lives!” particu 305).

(Hood 1970:

permanently

replacing nor

by

ge

—

commodities

objects regularly

Certainly

of neither dering the

realist authors I novel, and

can

you’re

out, wearing But

human creatures’

culture

ren a by

that

for

abstraction.

of

and

process

a

conflicts

of

claims a as of

undergone the highpoiflt

dying

Gothic. specifics

is skin: sweated laborers’ not

“It commodity linen

grisly

has

the sugar

such

13),

1992:

things

(Marx

these

in

turns

stockpiled famously and is stakes

clear its if as he that IdVictoriani5m immediate wearer, were in suddenly

encased ledge

so

fetishism of

account

Marx’s

which

to

and

table of explosive of the ballad, development

fabric to

hang clothing on comes advertising, a

of

form”

bodily

for

right: homely,

own

“plain,

their

in

its With

legendary enough Crystal

stores, Palace,

ing of the “Song department

successful Shirt.” this In 1843

now-

that

novels counterpart,

its

Like

Victorian

fill

that

out

the commodity.

century

objects and the nineteenth is, beyond. that of subject, rial Hood’s Thomas a wildly

into

transformation them,

conceives undergone

already that

freedgood has

As animates commoditY all GothiCism

the of through to ings.”

greatest

blood sugar:

object-heirs

sugar

that

above,

the

scenario

termed

the

in

influentially teacup fear

has that

the a is it and blood creates sugar; fear

is child’s dgood

cartoon smock for of named one

enters

sugar

blood

what

on

before

even

variant

terms,

sinister

a material, Marx’s

even is

the corporeal origins?

This from draw ‘resents

power the earlier work. Indeed, in

For

39).

2005:

(Smith

commodity

the

imagination”

forms,

Gothic

of idea” own their intense

“grotesque these are, nowocclUded too they half_reversals St

moreover,

“post-Romantic

the

for

origin

of

points

to

by key laying

the bare abstraction,

151; 2003: 67). now-hidde1, (Lootens 1981: as Raw Waildey

as

least

not

force,

visions’

such

resist,

and understanding their avenge perhaps

with subjection of images interspersed death’s )TENS

heads to

indispensible

remains

work

that

however, scendent of

claims to

eningly low comm0dite5, going attempted for rate ten

hours’ sewing,

Gothicism

sugar,”

“blood

of

iodity

visions

postdates

31)

back. 1992:

if What

while objects the tran

in smock, retaining depicted reveals the close-up,

fright

(Marx

Thereof’

Secret

the

and

one

Commodities step by in a it part taking further, step half of Punch

the cartoon

a 1848, of child’s pattern of

fetishism

“the

of

account

1867

Marx’s

If of uncanny process 150, 2003: commoditY

a 36—54). 1981:

In fetishiZation Waildey related

origin.

of

histories

brutal In this, consumers.

they

the take

already has just on would-be

put consumer (Lootens own

its

of

embodiment

literal

all-too

in

the bloody,

a comm0dY on Gothic turn

mode

their while

the over that the laboring ball-gown

into

(back)

itself

Phaidon.

transforms

tea,

of

cup

a

on its into head”

Novels.

31), 1992: (Marx

of the however, objects

who Graphic to seems died have needlewoman

and

stirred Comix once Comics,

sugar,

1996)

slave-produced

Where whereby Marx’s

table

merely rately “stands fetishized it is form; the dressed

corpse emaciated

scenario

8—69. Gothic

the

is,

that

Art

172—3):

Comic

of

Marx’s 2000:

a as

whole Journal 39). (Smith 2005: thinking is her mirror

before her just not own elabo

International

(Morton

ndition.

topos”

sugar’

super

The

the

this cblood identity: turn termed to

the seems

Gothic

to

glass. “central” modiste’s stands What in I

the fragmented

reflected

since

(2005) has

Morton

Timothy

Routledge. what

York:

within

New

Chris form

and Botman. Baldick, Terry

out Eagleton”

who point the

stands frozen, figure a of toward

halfturfled .ives

crystallized

most

The

their

(1991)

attain

(eds.) well

may

W.

as indeed, visions Uricchio,

as as diverse “critics &

I. by one Derrida, Jacques a

“mirror” R. another,

female Such depicting

instead.

Press.

bodies

Pluto

enslaved London:

Context.

in consuming uncanny thorougllY 31).

omics 1992: (Marx

And

directly enacts

to refusal fully

commodities’

themselves

The

find

Knights:

slavery

Dark

of

(1993)

C.

products Bloom,

&

the S.

3. of

wonderful

than is was,”

of ever also such

example the Here, artist invocatiofl5. ‘able-tUrnirg’

consumers

would-be

as

Crown.

corruption, York:

New bodily and

Book

Comic The

(1985)

G. Jones, &

vV.

133 COMMODITY GOTHIC1SM

GOTHICISM COMMODITY 134 COMMODITY GOTHICISM CONTEMPORARY GO’] though, Benjamin’s point also speaks to the the terrors of the commodity Gothic tend to Waildey, C. (1981) The Ghost in the Looking Glass: “butcher and his fiend-like que later writer’s own fascination with modernity’s turn toward the ends of social reform: invoca The Victorian Seamstress. London: Peter Owen. Scene 11, 35), and their presenc relations to the collector. tions of horror, here, most often signal com embodies the slaughter of innoc mitment to hope (see JACKSON, SHIRLEY). Indeed, as far as students of the Gothic FURTHER READING to haunt. Just as they refuse to “j are concerned, Victorian commodity Gothic the opening scene, so does child’ visions may live, at once sharpened, diffused, SEE ALSO: Jackson, Shirley; Victorian Gothic. Abbas, A. (198$) Walter Benjamin’s collector: The an important part of the theatri fate of modern experience. and reversed, in the bitter vision of a work like New Literary History Dolls frequently accompany the 20, 217—37. Shirley Jackson’s 1948 The Road through the and, in order to embody Banqu Bowen, J. (2000) Other Dickens: Pickwick to Chuzzle Wall. Here, on comfortable suburban Pepper REFERENCES kings, myriad toy wit. Oxford: Oxford University Press. puppets desce Desmond and other “descendents rafters. Far more chilling Street, a Mr. Benjamin, W. (1972) Hochherrschaftlich Moblierte Houston, G. T. (2005) from Dickens to Dracula: to a of farmers” are “accustomed to thinking of Zehnzimmerwohnung [Manorially furnished Gothic, Economics, and Victorian Fiction. Cam century audience, as the child; themselves as owners”; and the objects they ten-room apartmentJ. In Einbahnstrasse. Walter bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Macbeth they keen in a nursery own allow them to do so. True: Benjamin: Gesammelte Schriften, Vol. IV, I [One- Richards, T. (1990) The Commodity Culture of Vic “Macbe-eth!” “Macbe-eth!” way street. Walter Benjamin: Collected works] torian England: Advertising and Spectacle, 1851— In an age in which we no bill even the very chair on which Mr. Desmond sat (ed. R. Tiedemann & H. Schweppenhaeuser). 1914. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. witches (see WITCHCRAFT) or spir suffer Tubingen: Suhrkamp Verlag, 83—148. Wagner, I. S. & Hassan, N. (eds.) (2007) Consuming in the evenings belonged to him only on pp. the divine right of kings — neither ance; it had belonged first to someone who made Collins, W. (1991 [1868]) The Moonstone (ed. Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century. Lanham, sorcery can be relied on to prov MD: it, in turn governed by someone who planned it, A. Trodd). New York: Oxford University Press. Lexington. factor” for a contemporary audie although he not known Eliot, G. (1995 [1876]) Daniel Deronda (ed. T. Cave). and Mr. Desmond, had child and adult spectators alike s it, had chosen it because it had been presented New York: Penguin. a confrontation with three terrify to him as completely choosable (Jackson 1969: Freedgood, E. (2006) The Ideas in Things: Fugitive three dead-alive children proved 128—9). Meaning in the Victorian Novel. Chicago, IL: Uni versity of Chicago Press. match for them in the uncanny “st Contemporary Gothic over, though the production sp True, too, that it is “on the same principle” that Hood, T. (1970 [1843]) The song of the shirt. In Thomas Hood (ed. Clubbe). LUCIE ARMITT opinions (Michael Billington of 1 Mr. Desmond has “a house,” that he has “a Selected Poems of J. j Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, and Susannah Clapp being amor street in front of his house.” Still, none of these 304—7. Summer 2011 saw the launch of the Royal tors; see Billington 2011; Clapp 2( objects are telling. And thus, Mr. Desmond pp. Jackson, S. (1969 [1946]) The Road Through the Shakespeare Company’s new production of Spencer (2011) in The Telegrap) continues to live “on the patience of all the Wall. New York: McFadden-Bartell. Macbeth (dir. Michael Boyd), with Jonathan how the changes in production people who did not kill him.” Eating “the foods Lootens, T. (2003) Fear of furniture: Commodity Slinger in the title role. Macbeth is, of course, a play’s original sense of superstitic they are allowed to buy” and sleeping “at night Gothicism teaching of Victorian litera and the play around which superstition and the sinister between sheets made by hands they would ture. In D. L. Hoeveler & T. Heller (eds.), Gothic accrue like no other, and in this respect Boyd’s never shake,” he and his neighbors remain, fiction: The British and American Traditions. New There were many moments whet production is controversial, abandoning what apparently unthinkingly, subject to York: Modern Language Association of America, my palms were clammy and my he is arguably its most Gothic ingredient: the And when I emerged into pp. 148—58. the fr three witches on the heath who greet Macbeth interval and heard the bells of unseen governors: the prices in a distant town, Marx, K. ([1867] 1992) Marx’s Capital: A Student in Act I Scene 3 and whom for Church ringing, it felt like a blesse regulated by minds and hungers in a town even Edition (ed. C. J. Arthur). London: Lawrence and to he returns evil. But then it was back to the h farther away, all the possessions which depended Wishart. evil counsel in Act IV Scene 1. In Boyd’s pro heart of darkness. on someone in another place, someone who con Morton, T. (2000) The Poetics of Spice: Romantic duction these bags, and their culinary experi trolled words and paper and ink, who could by Consumerism and the Exotic. Cambridge, UK: ments with “Eye of newt and toe of frog, I Wool the changing of a word on paper influence the Cambridge University Press. of bat and tongue of dog” (Act IV, Scene 1, It is this preponderant fascinati period. The very texture of the ground. Ruskin, J. (1904) Second, or Gothic, 14—15), disappear and are replaced by fearful haunted or haunting child that A nature of Gothic. In Complete Works. Vol. 10: The apparitions of more familiar proportions. So fies, in Twentieth-Century Gothic Stones of Venice (ed. E. T. Cook & A. Wedder With “nothing to say about how soon their the play opens with three children’s corpses key characteristic setting apart th burn). London: George Allen, pp. 180—2 15. rot, when the sheets being lowered from the fly loft on rary houses” “begin to Smith, A. (2005) Dickens’ ghosts: Invisible econo wires. As Gothic from its antecedents. I might tear” (Jackson 1969: 128—9), Mr. mies and Christmas. Victorian Review 31(2), they descend they start to kick and it is only tion that began with Henry James Desmond and his Pepper Street neighbors will 36—55. then that the audience recognizes them to the Screw in 1898 (see JAMES, H] not have much to say, either, when their chil Sussman, C. (2000) Consuming Anxieties: Consumer be “undead” children, lowered like the half- which, with its unspoken/unspea dren begin dying. In this, they might serve to Protest, Gender, and British Slavery, 1713—1833. lynched. These are Macduff’s “pretty ones” and the indeterminate language c remind us, by reverse example, that in the end, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. (Act IV, Scene 3, 217), slaughtered by the guilt that consumes Miles and Fl 174 DEGENERATION DEGENERATI( gothic novel, Klosterheim: 01; The Masque in 1827 and which he returned to and refined Nordau and Lombroso would so classify’ him” It is thus not accidental that subse (1832), which is a wonderful metaphysical in 1839 and 1854. This was a return to the (Stoker 1996: 342) (see STOKER, BRAM). Her modelings of degeneration took muddle of intense dream sequences, Radclif sensational aspects ofthe Westniorland Gazette, conclusion is based upon a description that similar contexts of political upheav fian device, and thinly disguised autobiograph which reported murder trials alongside the Jonathan Harker had earlier made in his Italy in the l870s (Lombroso) and ical detail — Landgrave, the villain, for example, general news. Presented as a connoisseur’s journal of the Count’s physiognomical attri siècle Britain (Nordau). tortures students with a set of “tyrannical regu lecture, De Quincey gleefully analyzes various butes. Harker’s description, as Leonard Wolf Lombroso’s work on criminality lations” from the author’s own experience of horrible murders in the same way that Burke has noted, is a paraphrase of Cesare Lombro upon a notion of atavism in order I the Manchester Free Grammar School. De had considered the Sublime and Aristotelian so’s description of the archetypal criminal h the degenerate, delinquent type (1 Quincey was out of his comfort zone with an tragedy, the gallows humor and sustained irony his Criminal Man (1876) (Wolf 1975: 300). The 126), who needed to be isolated fro extended narrative, however, and tried to have masking a genuine interest in the violent and link signifies the Count’s inherent degenera of society. As in Morel, the und it excised from his collected works. De Quinc macabre that is present in his letters and jour tion as it marks out his innate criminality. was that various social issues such w ey’s relationship with the Gothic discourse was, nalism. Dark humor, horror, and suspense can Mina’s reference to Max Nordau, whose Degen tion, for example, should be seen i: however, rarely so literal. As R. L. Snyder notes, also be found in “The English Mail-Coach” eration was first published in 1892 (carrying terms, and Lombroso went to great De Quincey’s stylistic attraction to the Gothic stories, published in Blackwood’s in 1849. a dedication to Lombroso), compounds the photograph the faces of criminals (at mode is best explained through his sensitivity In Albert Zugsmith’s 1962 film version of Count’s degeneracy by aligning him with an faces such as ears) in order to develo1 to the delicate balance between illusion and the Confessions, Vincent Price played “Gilbert amoral foppishness (the Count as dissolute ite images of particular types of reality (1981: 130). This metaphysical insight is De Quincey,” a descendant of Thomas who aristocrat) that Nordau regarded as a troubling propensity. most realized in the surreal self-exploration rescues slave girls from the San Francisco Tong characteristic of the fin de siècle (see FIN-DE Both Morel and Lombroso saw d of his autobiographical writing, which De Wars with a wisecracking dwarf. SIÈCLE GOTHIC). Theories of degeneracy thus as potentially lurking within certah

Quincey described as “impassioned prose” shape Stoker’s novel in particular, but they also physiology — an idea that would (1889: Works: I, 14). The Confessions follow SEE ALSO: Romanticism; Tales of Terror; provide a more general context that underpins culminate in a movement for euger both the evangelical and Enlightenment forms Urban Gothic. the fin-de-siècle Gothic’s engagement with tion. However, Nordau transposed t of revelatory narrative, while anticipating New disease, the body, race, and decadence. In order symptomology from a medical or and Gonzo Journalism. Although the pariah to appreciate this it is important to consider context to an artistic one in order t REFERENCES status of the author is implicit, these are not how theories of degeneration elaborated a lan for what he, and other reactionar sordid depictions of addiction but meditations De Quincey, T. (1889) The Collected Writings of guage of “otherness” that the Gothic could commentators, regarded as troublit on imagination and psychology, with the Thomas Dc Quincey (ed. D. Masson), 14 vols. conceptually import within the form’s ideo siècle forms of art. Nordau grouped a author’s self-awareness, memory, and creativ Edinburgh: A&C Black. logical construction of the abnormal. range of writers including Ibsen, A ity explored through the analysis of the opium Snyder, R. L. (1981) Klosterheinl: De Quincey’s The roots of a theory of degeneration are to Zola in order to account for what ki Gothic Masque. Research Studies 49, 129—42. dream. Hypnogogic and hallucinatory pas be found in the work of Bénèdict Augustin failure of moral vision in the focus sages are epic, sublime, and terrible, and exter Morel, who published widely on the topic in of social and economic conflict (l nal urban spaces always dark and labyrinthine FURTHER READING the 1840s and 1850s in France. He was famous celebration of symbolic forms (Ibse for his work — De Quincey’s London is a lot closer to the on “Cretinism” and he attempted dangerous art for art’s sake attitud Bridgewater, P. (2004) Dc Quincey and the Gothic rookeries of Reynolds, Dickens, Poe, Baude to map a theory of heredity that included social While Nordau’s Degeneration was a Masquerade. New York: Rodopi. diseases and ethical issues such as alcoholism received critique of laire, and Stevenson than that of his contem Hayter, A. (1968) Opium and the Romantic Imagina the fin de sièc and poraries. In Gothic terms, it is the psychological tion. London: Faber & Faber. supposed sexual impropriety. Morel thus not without its detractors (includiti sought dissonance of the addict and the deep narcosis Lindop, G. (1981) The Opium-Eater: A Life of to develop a theory of human behavior James and George Bernard Shaw). described in “The Pains ofOpium” that provide Thomas Dc Qllincey. London: J. hi. Dent. that medicalized culturally illicit practices and book’s reliance on an implicit dis the most influential material, as well as the Morrison, R. (2001) Poe’s Dc Quincey, Poe’s Dupin. saw their reproduction in biological terms. atavism (inherited from Lombroso) symbolic experimentation of the author in Essays in Criticism 51(4), 424—41. Daniel Pick has noted that Morel’s exploration vides a context for a certain strand search of a language of dreams. Much of the I of degeneration in France should be seen fin-de-siècle Gothic. psychological urban Gothic of the later nine within the political context of, and social As critics such as David Punter (1 dilemmas teenth century would have been unthinkable Degeneration inaugurated by, the foundation of noted, the fin-dc-siècle Gothic en without De Quincey (see URBAN GOTHIC). France’s Second Empire in 1848 (1989: 54). troubling fear that humanity may re After the Confessions, De Quincey is prob ANDREW SMITH Morel’s account of the hereditary degenerate a state of animalistic barbarism. ably most remembered for his Swiftian treatise was thus part of a national soul-searching that means that one cannot (as in Nordau “On Murder Considered as One of the Fine In Dracula (1897), Min.a Harker declares that sought to pathologize behaviors and traits much confidence in the prevailing Arts,” which he wrote initially for Blackwood’s “The Count is a criminal and of criminal type. that could threaten the health of the nation. civilization because they may conta

type.

that

the could

of the threaten criminal

health nation. of and civilization

they may because

contain within

criminal a

is

Count “The

Blackwood’s

for

initially

wrote

he

that

to

sought declares

behaviors traits and pathologize J-Iarker

much in

the confidence of prevailing models Mina

(1897),

Dracula In

fine

the

of

One

as

Considered

was a of thus part national

that means

that soul-searching one in

cannot (as Nordau) have too

treatise

Swiftian

his for

membered

Morel’s of the account a

hereditary of state

degenerate

animalistic

This also barbarism.

SMITH

ANDREW

prob

is

Quincey

De

Confessions,

France’s Second in 1848 Empire 54). (1989: fear troubling that may humanity into relapse

GOTHIC). Degeneration URBAN

(see

Quincey

by, dilemmas the

of inaugurated the foundation noted, a fin-dc-siècle Gothic entertains

unthinkable

been

have

would

iry

within the

of, political context and

social As critics as such David

Punter (1996) have

nine

later

the

of Gothic

urban

sl

of in

France degeneration be should seen

Gothic. fin-de-siëcle

the

of

Much

dreams. of

language

Daniel has

that Pick

noted

Morel’s a vides a exploration for context

certain

strand of

British 424—41.

51(4),

Criticism in

Essays in

author

the

of

cperimentafion

saw

their Dupin.

in biological reproduction Poe’s terms.

atavism from

(inherited

that Quincey, De pro

Lombroso) Poe’s

(2001) R.

Morrison,

the

as

well

as

material,

iftuential

I.

Dent. that

M.

culturally medicalized illicit and practices book’s

an on London: reliance

of implicit discourse Quincey.

Dc

Thomas

provide

that

Opium” of

Pains

of L11 “The

A

Opium-Eater:

to sought The theory a

of develop human

behavior (1981) James and

George G. is Bernard the It Shaw).

Lindop,

narcosis

deep

the

and

addict

the

of

Faber. & and Faber sexual

supposed thus

impropriety. not Morel

its London:

without detractors tion. (including William

psychological

the

is it

terms,

RomanticImngina

Gothic the

and

Opium

(1968) A. diseases

as and such ethical

issues Hayter,

alcoholism of fin the critique received de siècle, it was

contem

his

of

that

than

Rodopi.

tevenson York:

New

to Masquerade. map a of

theory

that heredity

included social

Nordau’s While a was Degeneration popularly

Gothic

Baude

the

and

Poe,

Quincey Dickens,

Dc

(2004)

P. Reynolds,

f

Bridgewater,

for his on work

and he

“Cretinism”

attempted

art’s for art sake dangerous attitude (Wilde).

the to

closer

lot a is

London

cey’s

the

1840s and in 1850s

He

was France. famous

of celebration forms symbolic (Ibsen), a and

READING

FURTHER

labyrinthine

and

dark

always

paces

Morel,

who on widely in the published of social topic and

economic conflict the (Zola),

exter

and

terrible, and

sublime,

ic,

be found

in

the of work Bénédict of Augustin in failure moral Vision

the

on focus

images

129—42.

pas 49,

Studies

hallucinatory Research and Masque.

Gothic

pnogogic

a The of roots theory of to

degeneration

in are

to Zola

order account

a he what for as saw

Quincey’s

Dc

Klosterheim: opium

the

of

(1981)

L.

R. analysis the

Snyder,

through

:1

logical

of the

construction abnormal. of range

writers Ibsen, including and Wilde,

Black. A&C creativ

and

Edinburgh:

memory,

if-awareness,

the import ideo form’s within

conceptually of forms siècle art. Nordau

a

vols. grouped 14

disparate

Masson),

D. ted.

Quincey

the De

with

Thomas

psychology,

and

iation

guage of

that

the “otherness” of could Gothic

as

troubling

regarded commentators, Writings

fin-dc- Collected

The

(1889) T.

Quincey,

IDe

meditations

but

addiction of

ictions

how

of theories

a lan elaborated degeneration for and he, what

other

cultural reactionary

not

are

these

implicit,

is

author he

REFERENCES

to

is it this to appreciate to important an consider

context in one artistic to order account

pariah

the

Although

Journalism.

disease, the body, and race, In

order decadence. a from or

medical criminal symptomology

New

anticipating

while

narrative,

ry

the

Gothic’s fin-de-siècle with tion. engagement

However, idea Nordau of the

transposed

Gothic. Urban

forms

Enlightenment

and

vangelical

Terror;

a provide of more

that context general a Tales in underpins

culminate for movement eugenic regula

Romanticism;

ALSO:

SEE

follow

Confessions The

14).

I,

)rks:

shape

in novel Stoker’s but also they particular, an

that physiology idea

would

ultimately —

prose”

“impassioned as

described

SIÈCLE

of GOTHIC).

as Theories thus degeneracy

dwarf. potentially lurking within of types certain

wisecracking a

with

Wars

De

which

writing,

tobiographical

Tong

of the characteristic fin

de

siècle (see Francisco San Both and

Morel

FIN-OF- saw Lombroso the degeneracy

from girls

slave

rescues

self-exploration

surreal the

in

ized

who

aristocrat) that as Nordau Thomas a

regarded of troubling propensity.

descendant a

Quincey,” De

is

insight

metaphysical

This

130).

81:

amoral

“Gilbert

as foppishness (the Count played ite

of dissolute images

types Price of particular criminal

Vincent

Confessions,

the

and

illusion

between

balance

licate

of

Count’s

by version

him aligning degeneracy film an

with

faces as to ears) such 1962 in

order develop compos

Zugsmith’s

Albert In

sensitivity

his

through

explained

est

a

to 1849. dedication

in

the LombroSo), compounds faces the

of

photograph of (and criminals Blackwood’s parts in

published stories,

Gothic

the

to

attraction

stylistic

ey’s

eration was in first

Mail-Coach”

1892

published

terms, (carrying

and to

went English Lombroso to great lengths

“The

in

found

be

also

notes,

Snyder

L. R.

As

literal.

so

rarely

can Mina’s

to

Max

reference suspense whose Nordau, and Degen tion,

for

be should example, in seen

horror, physical

humor,

Dark

nalism.

was,

discourse

Gothic

the

with

Dnship

tion jour

as it and

his out marks innate letters

that was criminality.

his social various as issues in such

prostitu

present is

that

macabre

Quinc

De

works.

collected

his

from

and link

signifies

the Count’s violent the of

inherent in As degenera in society.

Morel, the

interest

understanding genuine

a

masking

have

to

tried

and

however,

narrative,

his irony

Crimiflat

Man (1876) 300). (Wolf 1975: The sustained who 126), to be

and

needed the from isolated

rest

humor

gallows the

tragedy,

an

with

zone

comfort

his

of

out

was

so’s

of the Aristotelian description in criminal archetypal the

and degenerate

type (Pick delinquent 1989: Sublime

the

considered

had

De

School.

Grammar

Free

chester

has Burke is noted, a that

of

a Cesare way of upon Lombro paraphrase

atavism notion in same

to order identify the

in

murders

horrible

of

experience

own

author’s

the

butes.

various

Crom as Harker’s

Leonard description

Wolf analyzes

on work Lombroso’s

criminality depended gleefully

Quincey

IDe

lecture,

regu

“tyrannical of set a

with

,tudents

journal

of

the

Count’s connoisseur’s attri a siècle

physiognomical Britain as

(Nordau). Presented

news.

general

example,

for

villain,

the

Landgrave,

the

Jonathan — had Harker

made earlier

his in alongside in the Italy

1870s trials and in fin-de (Lombroso)

murder

reported

which

autobiograph

disguised

thinly

and

Ce,

conclusion

Gazette, a is upon based that description similar of

contexts

as such political Westmouland upheaval the

of

aspects

sensational

Radclif

sequences,

dream

intense

of

the

(Stoker

to 1996: (see 342)

return a Her STOKER, of

BRAM). modelings was took

in place

degeneration

This

1854.

and 1839 in

metaphysical

wonderful

a

is

which

Nordau refined and

so Lombroso and classify would to him”

It

is thus not

that

re returned accidental subsequent he

which and

1827

in

Masque

The or, Kiosterheirn: iovel,

175 DEGENERATION

ON I RAT F N G E F ) 176 DICKENS, CHARLES DICKENS, CHAt them the possibility of a reversion to a more Theories of degeneration provide a very in Byron’s Don Juan: that “truth is stranger that the villain was compelled tc primitive state. useful way in which to explore the fin-de-siècle than fiction” (Byron 1902: 541) (see BYRON, crime (see CRIME). The dog Lior A novella such as R. L. Stevenson’s The Gothic because those theories employ a lan GEORGE GORDON, SIXTH BARON). In the context Little Dorrit (1855—7), smelling ev Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886) guage of otherness and are shaped by fears of of Gothic, this implied that the true sphere of derer Rigaud and attacking him tacitly reworks a discourse of degeneracy regression that are so readily embraced by the terror lay not in remote times and Catholic as Gowan’s model in Venice, see (found, for example, in one of Nordau’s pre Gothic. The Gothic of the period, like Jekyll places but in the here and now of contem have derived from such readinl cursors: Edwin Lankester’s Degeneration: A and Hyde and Dracula, tacitly asserts that porary urban society (see URBAN GOTHIC). generally, Dickens’ partiality as Chapter in Darwin, 1880) in order to argue that models of civilization are not quite so safe or The emerging techniques of fianeurial realist “providential plotting” may owe the ostensibly civilized world of the bourgeois secure after all. writing and reportage — focused upon the this source. professions (such as medicine and the law) physiognomical signs of human appearance, More generally still, we m are ghosted by the possibility of a return to a SEE ALSO: Anti-Semitism; Disability; Fin-de with the supposedly disinterested passer-by whether this “shiftiness” in The Ti more savage identity (see STEVENSON, ROBERT Siècle Gothic; Imperial Gothic; Race; Stevenson, engaging in a fashionable new activity of helped the young writer to percei LouIs). However, more radically it could be Robert Louis; Stoker, Bram; Wells, H. G. (Herbert detecting urban mysteries and observing and fiction as it then stood was anythi: argued that the novella claims that it is an George). interpreting what he saw in the streets of great and stable or fully evolved ge adherence to middle-class rituals that develops cities — gave birth to a new version of Gothic instead eminently suitable and r monsters of its own. Henry Rider Haggard that came to maturity in the Victorian period, ployment. Having presumably i REFERENCES explored in depth the relationship between in the work of Dickens and Willde Collins time read Mrs. Radcliffe and 01 savagery and civilization via a nuanced critique Stoker, B. (1996 118971) Dracula. Oxford: Oxford above all (see COLLINS, WILKIE). Gothic writers such as Mary Shel of degeneration in She (1887), in which the University Press. Dickens had nevertheless begun as a pretty Dickens refers, as we shall see, in C presence of fallen empires is used as a gloss for Pick, D. (1989) Faces of Degeneration: A European average consumer of fairly standard Gothic or tions (1860—1)), the flâneur/narrai 1848—1918. Cambridge, UK: Cam L contemporary concerns about British empire Disorder, c. r sub-Gothic reading matter. As a boy in the by Box (1836) shows himself rea bridge University Press. building (see IMPERIAL GOTHIC). H. G. Wells, 1820s, he regularly imbibed terror from such to effect such realignments. For Punter, D. (1996) The Literature of Terror: The weekly sources as The Portfolio of Entertaining “The Bloomsbury Christening” who was a trenchant critic of the misuse of Modern Gothic. New York: Longman. and Instructive Varieties in History and The Ter London street transport through Darwin in theories of degeneration (see his Wolf, L. (1975) Annotated Dracula. London: C. N. spectacles: “Cabs whisked about,’ critique of Lankester in “Zoological Retrogres Potter. rific Register: A Record of Crimes, Judgments, sion,” 1891) also explored the image of threat Providences and Calamities. We may pick out as carefully boxed up behind two ened empire in The War of the Worlds (1898) the word “Providences” from the latter title to curtains as any mysterious pictt and the relationship between the human and FURTHER READING highlight a fundamental ambivalence in its Mrs Radcliffe’s castles” (Dickens effect is one of making the far the nonhuman in The Island of Dr. Moreau Greenslade, W. (1994) Degeneration, Culture and pages, which betray a transparently hypocriti The (1896) (see WELLS, H. G. (HERBERT GEORGE)). the Novel. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University cal appetite, not unfamiliar before or since in Gothic seems here to consort well These concerns were given an aesthetic twist Press. such publications, for simultaneously indulg rator’s aim of achieving a psei byWdde in The Picture ofDorian Gray (1891), Hurley, K. (1996) The Gothic Body: Sexuality, Mate ing in and deploring sensation. The Terrific detachment that will enable him where the representation of the double life rialism, and Degeneration at the Fin-De-Siècle. Register offered a rather monotonous cata a “physiology” or anthropolog (mapped in Jekyll and Hyde) works against the Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. logue of grisly crimes while attempting at urban life. Victorian Demons: Medicine, Mas novel’s apparent endorsement ofWalter Pater’s Smith, A. (2004) all times to maintain high moral ground by But Dickens goes further culinity and the Gothic at the Fin-de-Sidcle. Man art for art’s sake ethos (in which Dorian insisting that murder will always out, in conse another, more polemical, refer chester: Manchester University Press. becomes bad art by trying to cultivate beauty). quence of a “providential” unseen divinity Radcliffe in Sketches by Box (se It is, however, Dracula that explicitly ex that mysteriously intervenes in human affairs ANN). In “Criminal Courts,” goin{ plores the concern that the middle-class pro to ensure that evil will sooner or later be Prison, the narrator’s peripatetic fessional harbors within him the possibility of Dickens, Charles punished. “The Dog of Montargis” of French glimpse of what lies inside the fot a degenerative decline. Much of this concern is foildore is a representative exhibit from The of this modern “Castle of Udo focused through the figure ofthe recently qual MICHAEL HOLLINGTON Terrific Register that obviously left its mark on triggers a meditation on the ified solicitor, Jonathan Harker, who is required Dickens. In medieval times, his owner having prison visitor Elizabeth Fry in re to transform himself from bourgeois pen Charles Dickens (18 12—70) shot to fame in the been murdered in his presence, this dog is Radcliffe: “We have a great respe pusher to heroic man of action. This also 1830s, and as he did he effected decisive and supposed to have betrayed such regular signs but she certainly ought to have makes clear, as do the other texts mentioned lasting change in the history of Gothic fiction. of aggression toward the perpetrator that he romances than Mrs Radcliffe” (F here, how much such concerns are imbricated Essentially, he fastened on to a Romantic was eventually licensed to take part in a trial 161). Here we encounter for thi clearest I by combat in which he fought so ferociously Dickens’ writing the cutting ed with a discourse of masculinity. paradox enunciated at its simplest and

nally

in

his 1848.) Russian published and religious

characters The political Facrie romance

his

and

physical, as

depravity

mental

the

takes

story

the

within,

from

felt

Oxford: pp.

Classics, Oxford

World 1—56.

:down

(Origi

in of tained

mode

and

contrast in

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he

heart, its

at

invariably

are

mental

of

depiction A

him. Creature and

Other

(trans. Stories Myers). A. know to

s

a Edmund nature. sus would employ Spenser oppressed

and

impoverished

the While

version.

who

junior

F. (1999)

Golyadkin

A Dostoevsky,

In nights.”

“White Gentle, Mr

a

discovers

per and virtue vice,

was in sexual

dualistic fundamentally and

violence, sin,

suicide,

evil,

with

Golyad

Mr in lished

1872.) Russian where

(1846),

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and highly

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is

Dostoevsky

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all

In

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comic

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Accordingly, Ivan’s

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If

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Novels. Major Bristol: sei Press. Bristol Classical

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Classics. in

(Originally

published Russian

Dostoevsky

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Examination Dead

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Oxford: serfs. Oxford

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Crime

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Press.

from

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a

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reams,

Freud, and overimagina.

numerous novelists, an

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waking

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monstrous

turn, souls,

his

“White )rtured

writing has

M. such as influenced M.

Bakhtin, figures of (1984)

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DostoyeVsky’s

to him

returns

Rejection

with

filled

are

and

doppelganger,

i

a most

trough I Press. parricide. extreme and

states

In darkest recesses.

epileptic

an as described

best

beauty

dramatized

struggles

psychological

M. most ed TX: Holquist).

of Austin, internal,

Texas a f University

Gothic

he where for

the explores mind’s

falls who

dreamer

a

about

is

(1847)

form

the

in

sometimes

evil,

and

Four C. Essays (trans.

M. & Emerson

good Hoiquist; - etween

his at and realism, its is work L

“The

(see

DOUBLES).

allowed

usually

confrontations

enact M. M.

Bakhtin, The

(1981)

Dialogic novels Imagination:

His

tial.

His chiller.

convention subject primary and matter is style

contemporary

than

psychology

of

and

Pushkin,

Poe,

Hoffman,

Dickens, realms

represent as rs

the

of furthest

reaches poten human deeper

into

READING fuRTHER

doppelganger the

of

theme

writ such I

admire

to came subsequently ie

189

DOUBLES

FYODOR DOSTOEVSKY, 88 t

DOUBLES 190 DOU

once their opposites or mirrored “negatives” Queene (1590, 1596), and later, John Milton readers. The eventual exposure of his turpi Wieland’s Private History of Fere been explored and found wanting. would exploit the dualisms of Protestant have tude, however, brings about his death, and the Philosopher (1791), and arguably with the publica Christianity with his epic account of the stri,lg However, it is only from this moment onwards in the history of Chamisso’s Peter Schlemthls William Godwin’s Caleb Williams: Or, gle between light and dark, good and evil in tion of the Gothic aesthetic, an intimate relationship Geschichte (1814), in which the figures Things They Are in 1794 that the double Paradise Lost (1667, 1674), doubling the as between doubling and death, splitting and ter sells his shadow to the devil, b assumes of the features that the trope, in of God and Satan accordingly. Doubles seem some mortality is set firmly in place. relinquishes a considerable porti also to have been the particular provenance of its most characteristic forms, would come to Demonstrably under the influence of Lewis, soul. The double also featured p display British Gothic fiction of the late Shakespearean comedy, particularly as wit in E. T. A. Hoffmann’s first novel, The Devil’s selected works by such other Ge eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (see nessed in the systematic coupling and uncou Etixirs (1814), at once consolidated earlier of the Romantic period as Rair GODWIN, WILLIAM). this text, the political pling, the pointed comparison and contrast of In fictional representations of the double, as and heck. But it was probably in Godwin’s earlier treatise lovers, siblings, spaces, genders, and sexualities tensions addressed well as setting in place many of the character Richter’s novels Siebenkas (1796- Concerning Political Justice (1793) are in such plays as A Ivlidsummer Night’s Dream Enquiry istics upon which subsequent manifestations (1800) that Hoffmann encounte given fictional realization in the suspicious, (1600), Twelfth Night(1601, 1623), andAs You of the trope would come to rely (see I40f F influential treatment of the d mutually antagonistic relationship between MANN, E.T.A. Like It (1599, 1623). (ERNST THEODOR AMADEUS)). literature of his day. Indeed, the eponymous and his employer, Mr. And yet, as most studies of the literary the Caleb Consequently, the text is habitually regarded Richter not only upon Hoffmar Albeit the same extent as in double assert, it is only with the rise of Roman Falkiand. not to as a seminal work in the development of the writers and critics from the ninet subsequent Gothic fictions, soon becomes ticism in Europe during the latter half of the it literary double, be it in Britain, Europe, through to the present day, is atte doubles of eighteenth century that the trope would come clear that Caleb and Falidand are America or further afield. Hoffmann would continued use of the term Doppe ROMANTICISM). another, with the former, as William into its own (see The particu one continue to exploit the fictional possibilities of ally “double-goer”), first used an Hazlitt pointed out The Spirit of the Age lar form that the double would assume during in the double in such fictions as “The Story of footnote in Siebcnkas, as a means period, together with the specific textual (1825), serving as the externalized conscience the Lost Reflection,” this “The Doubles,” and “The resenting and critically describinl latter’s systematic abuse of aristocratic functions that it would come to fulfill, render for the Sandman.” Throughout the novel, Monk nonliterary manifestations of the

— power. Moreover, Falkiand himself is doubled the literary double a decidedly though by no Medardus is doubled with Count Viktorin, his Recasting the ever-shifting po

— the novel with another one of his adversar identical means exclusively Gothic affair. With hind in alter ego and half-brother through between the pursuer and the pu Barnabas Tyrrel, well as with Gines, his sight, it is easy to see that Horace Walpole in ies, as the paternal line; predictably, visual misrecog father’s Caleb Williams, Mary She pursuer rapidly becomes the pursued, The Castle of Otranto (1764) unwittingly ren spy. The nitions and confusions of identity, both fortu kenstein (1818, 1831) would cc master and slave continuously dered the nascent Gothic aesthetic a rich and and the roles of itous and unfortunate, abound. As both an simple distinction between the sel place: many pairs of later Gothic fertile seed-bed for the double in his expressed change like agent of supernatural import and a psycho avowed other by figuring the Cn doubles, Caleb and fa&land are mutually logical intentions to yoke together in his tale not only projection of the disavowed aspects monstrous externalization of as the antithetical forces of the modern novel locked into a complex dynamic of shifting of Medardus’ own psyche, Count Viktorin, creator’s own psyche (see SHF power relations. In a rapid reversal of fortunes like and the ancient romance, but also the crucial Ambrosio’s secret self in The Monk, facili WOLLSTONECRAFT). Acting out, in the novel, each character comes differences in dramatic mode (comedy and at the end of tates his double’s negotiation of lust, pride, and the scripts of Victor’s own repre culpability, while tragedy, laughter and sublimity) and their to acknowledge his own other compromising pleasures. While the the monster, Victor soon realizes, acknowledging of his adversary. attendant relations to class (the lofty status of the virtues influence of The Devil’s Elixirs on subsequent vampire, my own spirit let Loose fre preoccupation religious the nobility, the humble deportment ofthe ser Matthew Lewis’ with manifestations of the double in British Gothic (Shelley 1992: 78). With Frank-ens double standards in The Monk vants) (see wALPOLE, HORACE). Doubling the hypocrisy and fiction during the period cannot be overem trality of the double to the Gothi (1796) would do much to galvanize the trope phasized, formal strictures of fact with the unrestrained it is also important to acknowledge been assured. Picking up on the F a Romantic imaginings of fancy, Otranto also includes of the double in Gothic fiction of the the extent to which Hoffmann himself was the of earlier treatments of the litei period (see LEWIS, MATTHEW). In this romance, child in its preoccupations with turpitude and ille of his literary milieu. Doubles, in fact, the Irish Protestant clergyman Cli doubling identifiable between two separate had gitimacy, both political and familial, mirror- the featured significantly in the earlier work of Maturin would fashion an ex characters earlier fictions reworked the images oftheir opposite: romantic love in place in Gothic is major German Romantics in the last few of Gothic doubling between a individual, father Ambro of incestuous embrace, ideal fathers in place in the figure of one decades of the eighteenth century: Schiller tempter and his various victims and of paternal tyranny. A similar scheme of dou sio, the monk of the novel’s title. Split would effect the doubling ofthe brothers Franz the Wanderer (1820). The influe romances divided between a public self of religious piety, and bling occurs throughout the Gothic Karl Moor in Die Rlluber (1781), while Jean Paul and Hoffmann upon the c RAD and respect, on the one hand, and a Goethe of Ann Radcliffe during the 1790s (see authority, would undertake a careful doubling of British literature was assured by private of blasphemy and illicit passion, on of CLIFFE, ANN), in which a range of bourgeois self Faust and Mephistopheles in the first part ance of R. P. Gillies’ English tr moral the other, Ambrosio pursues his path of base of Faust values pertaining to property and place, (1808). Other examples of doubles Hoffmann’s TheDevil’sElixirsin 1 8 the novel’s in ity and marriage are eventually set in place only desiring beyond the eyes of all but German literature of the period include ing to Hoffmann together with

I

in

of the

to ing period German literature include such with

together other Hoffmann

novel’s

the

but

all

of

eyes the

beyond

desiring

only

place

in

set

eventually

are

of arriage

faust of Other (1808). examples doubles

1824. Hoffmann’s Respond base

TheDevit’sEliXirsin of

path

his

pursues

Ambrosio

other,

the

moral

place,

and

property

to

of rtaining and Faust

R. of ance the P. first Gillies’ part of English fl on translation Mephistopheles

passion,

illicit

and

blasphemy

of

self

private

bourgeois

of

range

a

which in

a

Goethe

would NN), by of British doubling careful undertake was the a assured literature appear

and

hand,

one the

on

respect, and

authority,

(see RAD

1790s

the

during

and tadcliffe in Karl

Die

Moor while Jean (1781), and Rauber upon the Paul

Hoffmann

development piety,

religious of

self public a

between

divided

romances

Gothic

the

throughout

urs

would of the effect the

Franz doubling brothers The of (1820). both

influence Wanderer and

tile

Split

title.

novel’s

the

of

monk

the

sio,

dou

of

scheme

similar

A

tyranny.

al

of the decades Schiller and in century: his tempter eighteenth

various victims Melmoth

Ambro

father

individual,

one

of

figure

the

in

place

in

fathers

ideal

embrace, the bus

the of few in major a last German Romantics doubling Gothic between

supernatural

reworked is fictions

Gothic

earlier in

characters

place

in love

romantic

opposite:

had

their

the in of work earlier featured an significantly fashion would Maturin tale extended

separate

two

between

identifiable

doubling

the

mirror

familial,

and

political

both

of child his in the fact, milieu. literary Irish Doubles,

Charles clergyman Robert

Protestant

romance,

this In

MATTHEw).

(see

LEWIS,

period

ille

and

turpitude

with

the occupations

to of which extent the Hoffmann

earlier was himself of the literary double, treatments

Romantic

the

of

fiction

Gothic

in

double

the

of

includes

also

Otranto

fancy,

of it gs

to is up also

phasized been on the Picking important assured. echoes acknowledge Faustian

trope

the

galvanize

to

much do

would

(1796)

unrestrained

the

with

fact

of

fiction the :rictures

to be during of the the trality cannot period

overem double had mode Gothic

Monk

The

in

standards

double and

hypocrisy

the

Doubling

HORACE).

of

the in WALPOLE, 78). British double ce With manifestations cen the 1992: (Shelley Gothic

Frankenstein,

religious

with

preoccupation

Lewis’

Matthew

5cr-

the

of

deportment

humble the

ity,

on of influence Etixirs The my Devil’s let own the subsequent from spirit vampire, loose

grave”

adversary.

his

of

virtues

the

acknowledging

of status

lofty

(the

class to

relations

other

the the While

“my is soon pleasures. it Victor monster, own realizes,

while compromising

culpability,

own

his

acknowledge

to

their and

sublimity)

and

tates laughter

his lust,

of of double’s the own and pride, scripts negotiation Victor’s

desires, repressed

comes

character

each

novel, the

of

end

the

at

and

(comedy

mode

dramatic

in like

:es

in self secret Ambrosio’s facili The

Acting Monk, in out,

senses, some

WOLLSTONECRAFT).

fortunes

of

reversal

rapid a

In

relations.

power

crucial

the

also

but

romance,

of

ancient

own Count psyche, Medardus’ own creator’s Viktorin, (see psyche

MARY SHELLEY, shifting

of

dynamic

complex a

into

locked

novel

modern

the

of

forces

thetical logical the of

its of of aspects disavowed projection monstrous aspects

externalization

mutually

are

falidand

and

Caleb

doubles,

only

not

tale

his

in

together

yoke

to

agent ns

by of and a import the as other avowed supernatural psycho

figuring the Creature Gothic

later

of

pairs

many

like

place:

change

expressed

his

in

double

the

for

itous

and ed-bed As an both

abound. unfortunate, its the simple dis and self

between distinction

continuously

slave

and

master of

roles

the

and

and

rich a

aesthetic

Gothic

nascent

w nitions

both of and fortu 1831) identity, confusions kenstein any (1818, would

confound

pursued,

the

becomes

rapidly

pursuer

The

spy.

ren

unwittingly

(1764)

Otranto

the

of

visual line; ;tle

paternal misrecog

Caleb in Mary father’s predictably Williams, fran Shelley, his

Gines, with

as

well

as

Tyrrel,

Barnabas

ies,

in

Walpole

Horace

that

see

to

easy

is identical

ego alter and the in and between the through her pursuer half-brother

pursued

adversar his

of

one

another

with

novel

the

in

hind- With

affair.

Gothic

is

xclusively Medardus with — Count doubled his Viktorin, the Recasting

power ever-shifting relations

doubled is

himself

faildand

Moreover,

power.

no

by

though

decidedly

— a

double

the ary novel, Sandman.” of Monk the nonliterary Throughout double.

manifestations aristocratic

of

abuse

systematic

latter’s

the

for

render

fulfill, to

come

would

it

the that Lost ns

“The and Doubles,” Reflection,”

resenting “The and literary critically and describing

conscience

externalized the as

serving

(1825),

textual

specific

the

with

together the

in

double nod, of as such

Story in “The fictions of

rep both footnote a Siebenkäs, means

Age

as the of

Spirit

The in out

pointed

Hazlitt

during

assume

would

double

the

to that

the continue a

of exploit ally fictional a used

in and first possibilities glossed “double-goer”),

William

as

former, the with

another,

one

particu

The

(see RoMANTIcIsM).

America own or

afield. further

term the would Hoffmann of use of (liter continued

Doppelgaflger

doubles

are

faildand

and

Caleb

that

clear

come

would

trope

the

that

century

literary

it in nth be double, to Britain, the by to is Europe,

day,

the attested through present

becomes

soon

it

fictions,

Gothic

subsequent

the

of

half

latter

the

during

as a

Europe

in in of work seminal

the the and

development from in the critics writers century

nineteenth as

extent

same

the

to

not

Albeit

Falkiand.

Roman-

of

rise

the

with

only is it

assert,

is

the text habitually upon only not regarded Richter upon but Mr. Consequently, Hoffmann,

employer,

his

and

Caleb

eponymous

the

literary

the

of

studies

most

as

yet,

I

MANN, of the day. his Indeed, literature E.T.A. of (ERNST influence AMADEUS)). THEODOR between

relationship

antagonistic

mutually

1623). of

the

(1599,

come would trope to rely (see the of in influential

the treatment double HOFF

suspicious,

the in

realization

fictional

given

Yoti

As

and

1623),

Night(1601, istics Twelfth

which upon that (1800) subsequent

the manifestations most are Hoffmann

encountered (1793)

Justice

Political

Concerning

Enqtnry

Dream

Night’s

Midsummer A

as

well plays in as

many setting of place the

character Richter’s i (1796—7) novels

and Siebenkäs Titan treatise

earlier

Godwin’s in

addressed

tensions

sexualities

and

genders,

spaces,

fictional siblings, of the and

as it Tieck. double, But was Paul representations

in Jean probably political

the

text, this In

WILLIAM).

GODWIN, of

contrast

and

comparison

Elixirs pointed at the

(1814), once of the as earlier consolidated

period Romantic (see Heine, Raimund,

centuries

nineteenth

early

and

eighteenth

uncou

and

coupling

systematic I. the A. in

first The novel,

by selected Hoffmann’s . Devil’s such works late

German other writers

the

of

fiction

Gothic

British in

display

wit-

as

particularly

comedy,

the of 3pearean soul. Demonstrably

Lewis, under also The influence double in featured to

prominently come

would

forms,

characteristic

most

its

of

provenance

particular the

been

mortality is in have

set a place. firmly of

own his in portion relinquishes

considerable

trope,

the that

features the

of

some

assumes

seem

Doubles

accordingly.

Satan

between and

and d and death,

his ter splitting doubling to sells so the in but devil, shadow

doing

double

the that

1794

in Are

The)’

as

Things

figures

the

doubling

1674),

(1667,

the

Lost Gothic

an aesthetic, ise intimate (1814), relationship the in

which Geschichte titular Or, charac

Williams: Caleb

Godwin’s

William

of

tion

in

evil

and

good

dark,

and

light from this

of the tween

in history onwards moment Peter Chamisso’s Schlemihls

wundersame

publica

the

with

only

arguably

is

it

However,

strug

the

of

account

epic

his

tude, with

tianity his brings the about however,

and death, and (1791), von Adalbert Philosopher

wanting.

found

and

explored

been

have

Protestant

of

dualisms

the

readers. exploit

of J The eventual

turpi his exposure

of Private Wieland’s History Proteus Peregrinus

“negatives”

mirrored or

opposites

their

once

Milton

John

later, and 1596), (1590, w

191 DOUBLES DOUBLES I 192 DOUBLES DOUBL] contemporary accounts of psychological (1842). The particular inflection given the Stevenson in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde also Being Earnest (1895) and “The duality as The Confession of Nicol Muschett of Gothic double in Poe’s “William Wilson” is brought Fishei the trope to bear upon some of the His Soul” Boghall (reprinted 1818) and Life of David highly significant, for, in place of the forms (1891). quasiscientific discourses of his day, including Though Haggard, James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, of moral turpitude figured in the doubles of Andrew I. Webber’s study, evolutionary theory and its corollary, degen pelgãnger anonymously published The Private Memoirs numerous earlier texts, the identical (1996), is primarily concej double in eration; the criminology of writers and Confessions of such as examples from German literature, a Justified Sinner in Edin this story, rendered singular only through his Cesare Lombroso; and the nascent science of what it identifies as the burgh in 1824 (see HOGG, JAMEs). As in Hoff- barely audible whisper, is his host-subject’s sexology. characteri Into this already heady mix, te reso of the double mann, the doubling that occurs here is between morally better self, a voice of rectitude and might fruitfully be a nances of a curiously split and divided autho Gothic two half-brothers, Robert Wringhim and conscience. Nonetheless, the havoc doubles in the British and he wreaks rial biography inevitably found their way. George Colwan, themselves doubles for their The traditions from the nineteenth centur) is no less deadly than in other examples, as respectable Dr. Jekyll variously encounters, through his (Webber 1996: 3—5). for as the assumed paternal figures, as well as Wilson, finally confronting his double before a dependence fictio: upon a Hoffrnanesque elixir, a venson and through Wringhim and the demonic Gil- mirror, presages in the glass his own death. Wilde so clearly demons beast-like double of monstrous proportions, Gothic Martin, a thinly disguised satanic tempter; in Albeit not always in a distinctly Gothic vein, double, though not without its ent-ering with him, like so many of his fictional both fictions, the double is, at once, an agent of counterparts, is primarily a visual p doubles would feature in Russian literature of precursors, into a carefully choreographed non. Articulating a post-Cartesian supernatural power and the embodiment of the 1830s and 1840s, particularly in such stories dance splil of hide and seek, persecution and para the mind and disavowed aspects of the host’s self. In Hogg’s by Gogol as “The Nose” (1836) and “The Over the body, the literary noia. Divested of its relations to the Supernatu intimately Gothic fiction, double begets double, en abyme, coat” (1843), and most famously in Dos inscribed in the nineteenth ral, the alter ego in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde as Gil-Martin begins to assume features of discursive invention of sexuality (Rog both toevsky’s humorous treatment of duplicity in is the product of contemporary science, the 15; Webber 1996: 12). Bearing brothers. Hogg’s thematic treatment of doubles his novel The Double of 1846. beast-like testam vestiges of humankind’s animal ever-shifting relationship is matched by the formal construction of the In mid-nineteenth-century Britain, the origins, between the queer impulsions of man’s poly and the alter narrative: the story told by an editor is retold by double appears to have fallen somewhat out of ego, the self and its di morphously perverse sexuality. aspects, Wringhim, the justified sinner, in the second literary vogue. However, it would resurface, the double is intimately i Four years later, Oscar Wilde would put the within the part of the text, both versions serving to consti albeit in considerably less intense power-dynamics of ma a form, in Gothic double to similar use in his exploration tute a “double vision” of the events slave. For Robert Alter, this makes th therein Charlotte Brontë’s treatment of the relation of the divided psyche in The Picture of Donna fundamentally violent and described. Hogg would also return to a formal ship between Bertha Mason and Jane Eyre Gray aggressive I (1891). Self-consciously referring back start (Alter and thematic treatment of the double in the in her 1847 novel of that name, Emily 1986: 1190). Invariably alli while not only to the doubling effects of the story ccStrange Letter of a Lunatic” portrait doubles that have come before, the (1830). Bronte would consistently double names, in the Gothic fictions of Radcliffe, Lewis, and double is intertextual by its very The transmission of the double across the appearances, identities, and actions in Wuther his natur kinsman Maturin, but also to Poe’s treat The Picture Atlantic to America was largely the work of ing Heights (1847). Other significant examples of Dorian Gray itself all ment of similar concerns in “The Oval Por Charles Brockden Brown, who, under earlier works, so more recent Gothic dc the of the double in mid-Victorian fiction, and trait,” Wilde in Donian Gray parallels the undertaken in such texts as influence of writers such as William Godwin, examples not always steeped in the Gothic aes hedonistic Will Self’s pursuits of his title character with a (2002) and would figure versions of the Gothic double in thetic’s characteristic responses of horror and Oliver Parker’s Donian Gra3 series of horrid changes inflicted upon a veiled texts such as Wieland: Or, the Transformation, rework, with varying degrees of fide terror, include Wilkie Collins’ The Woman in and carefully concealed portrait. In an enact Wildean original. As its highly AnAmerican Tale (1798) and EdgarHuntty: Or, White (1859—60), Armadale (1864—6), as well allusive ment of the philosophy of Wildean aestheti Memoirs ofa Sleepwalker (1799). In indicates, the double itself is bound u accordance as the Frankensteinian relationship between cism, art, the novel suggests, facilitates the maddening dynamics of return with Godwinian precedents, both texts stage Pip and Magwitch in Dickens’ Great Expecta indulgences and re of a double life, a life of beauty, And although the ongoing antagonisms bound up in the dia tions (1861). Given the significance of doubling it is usually gendered as n stimulation, and indulgence, and one not Gothic lectic of master and slave, while neither charges to earlier Gothic modes, it double bears the capacity to th is unsurprising to entirely removed from that being pursued its particular rendition of the con distinctions between the sexes into d double with acknowledge that the Gothic renaissance of the currently by Wilde himself. As in Stevenson, even in its seemingly less ambiguous supernatural portent. The best-known practi Victorian fin de siècle brought with it at least though, ft the vanquishing of time and moral forms in the tioner of Gothic doubles in nineteenth-century two major contributions to the fiction of dou fiction of Djuna Barnes, I consequence that the double life in Dorian American fiction is undoubtedly Edgar Allan bleness. Du Maurier, and Angela Carter. Inspired by the real-life account of Gray apparently affords is only temporary, and As Stevenson and Wilde’s use Poe, most famously in his short story “William double-dealing in the life of Edinburgh’s in a of con hideous reversal of fortune, the double, rary theories Wilson” (1839), but also in the doubling of Deacon Brodie, Robert Louis Stevenson pub on evolution, criminolo1 though once the guarantor of Dorian’s narcis Lady Rowena Trevanion with Ligeia in the sexology suggest, fictional representat lished The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. sism, becomes the agent of death. Albeit not the double are inseparable from story of that name (1838), and the complex, Hyde in 1886 (see STEVENSON, ROBERT LOUIs). to the the I same sensational Gothic effects, Wilde cultural discourses death-inducing relationship between a paint While reinvigorating the fictional double of his on subjectivity with would continue to explore the theme of the they ing and its subject in “The Oval Portrait” fellow Scotsman are contemporary. In Europe, Hogg of six decades before, double life in such texts as The Importance of tists and psychiatric researchers of th

life

double

in

such

as texts

The

of

Importance tists before, and

decades psychiatric

the of researchers six early

of

Hogg

Scotsman

fellow

Portrait”

Oval

“The

would in

to

continue

the

explore

subject

of theme his the of they are

double

In

Europe, scien contemporary. fictional

the

reinvigorating

While

paint-

a

between

to

the

same

relationship

sensational Gothic

effects, :ing

Wilde

cultural

LOUIS). on discourses

with

ROBERT which subjectivity

(see STEVENSON,

1886

in

Hyde

complex,

the

and

sism,

(1838),

becomes the

agent of

death. name not Albeit Mr.

the .t

and double are

Jekyll

from inseparable the

Dr. of broader

Case

Strange

The

lished

the

in

Ligeia

with

though

once

the

of Trevanion

Dorian’s guarantor na pub narcis

sexology suggest,

Stevenson fictional of

Louis representations

Robert

Brodie,

Deacon

of

doubling

the

in

a in

also

hideous reversal but

of

the

fortune,

339), double,

rary on theories Edinburgh’s

of evolution, life

and

criminology, the

in

double-dealing

“William

story

Gray short

his

in

affords

is only

apparently of and imously

temporary As account

and Stevenson

use of Wilde’s

real-life contempo the

by

Inspired

bleness.

Allan

Edgar

undoubtedly

that consequence

the is

double life in iction dou Doria” of Du Maunier, and

Angela fiction Carter. the

to

contributions

major

two

nineteenth-century

in

though,

the

doubles

of time

and least )thic moral vanquishing at in

it forms the

of

fiction with Ujuna Barnes, Daphne brought

siècle

de

fin

Victorian

practi

best-known

by The

Wilde currently himself.

As

in portent. the

si

of in Stevenson, even

its

seemingly less

renaissance ambiguous feminine

Gothic

the

that

acknowledge

with

double

the of

entirely

from removed

that

rendition being to ar con

pursued

distinctions between

the unsurprising sexes is into

disarray,

it

modes,

Gothic

earlier to

charges

neither

while

stimulation, slave, and

and

and indulgence, one

not ster doubling

Gothic

of double the bears

to capacity

throw the significance

the

Given

(1861).

tions

dia

the

in

up

bound

a of indulgences

life, g a double

of life antagonisms beauty,

And Expecta is it

although usually Great

as

male, gendered the

Dickens’ in

Magwitch

and

Pip

stage

texts

both

cism,

art,

the

novel

precedents,

suggests, the facilitates rinian betweefl dynamics of return maddening

and

relationship repetition.

Frankensteinian

the

as

accordance

In

(1799). ment

of

the

of

philosophy

Sleepwalker well Wildean a

aestheti as

the indicates, double is up itself

(1864—6), in bound the

Armadale

(1859—60),

White

Or,

EdgarHuntty:

and and

carefully

(1798)

concealed In

in an Tale portrait. enact in

Woman Wildean original. As its The highly

allusive

nature Collins’

Wilkie

include

terror,

Ti-ansformation,

the series

of Or,

horrid

changes

a VVieland: upon inflicted and as veiled

with rework, horror varying of

of degrees fidelity, the

responses

characteristic

thetic’s

in

double

Gothic

the

of

hedonistic

of

pursuits his

title versions

a aes with character re and (2002)

Gothic Oliver

Parker’s the Dorian in Gray (2009)

steeped

always

not

examples

Godwin,

William

as

trait,”

such

Wilde

in Dorian

Gray

writers and parallels f the

in undertaken fiction, such as texts

Will Self’s

Dorian

mid-Victorian

in

double

the

of

the

under

who,

ment

of

Brown,

similar

in

concerns

“The Oval rockden

Por examples earlier

so works,

more

recent Gothic

significant doublings

Other

(1847).

Heights

ing

of

work

the

largely

his

was kinsman

Maturin, but to also

Poe’s America treat Tile Wuther of

in Pictrtre

Dorian Gray

itself actions to alludes and

identities,

appearances,

the

across

double in

the the

of

Gothic fictions

of

Lewis, Radcliffe, tnsmission and names,

is double by its

intertextUal double very

nature: just as

consistently

would

Brontë

(1830).

not lunatic”

a

to only

of

the

of

effects doubling Letter

the

Emily Inge portrait

doubles

that

have while come before,

the name,

Gothic

that

of

novel

1847

her

in

the

in

double

the

Gray of

(1891).

treatment Eyre referring back atic start

Jane (Alter 5eif_consci011sly

1986: 1190). and

to alluding invariably Mason

Bertha

between

ship

formal a

to

return

of

the also

divided would

The in

psyche

of Hogg

Dorian Picture relation the

violent fundamentally and of

from aggressive the

treatment

Bronte’s

Charlotte

therein

events

the of

Gothic

to

double

vision” in use

similar

in his ouble F exploration slave. or form, a

Alter,

Robert this

makes

intense the double less

considerably

in

albeit

consti

to

serving

Four

versions

later, years

Oscar both

would Wilde put text, the

resurface, within the

of would

master and it power-dynamit

However,

vogue.

literary

second

the

in

sinner,

justified

of perverse

sexuality. rnorphously the out a,

aspects, the is

double

somewhat

intimately inscribed fallen

have

to

appears

double

by

retold

is

editor an

onigins by

the

told

queer of impulsiofls

story the poly man’s the and

the alter

ego, the Britain, self

and its

disavowed

mid-nineteenth-century

In

the

of

construction

beast-like

formal

of

the vestiges

by

d animal humankind’s

relationship between the ever-shifting ego

1846.

of

Double

The

novel his

doubles

of

is treatment

the

of product thematic

in

contempora1’ Hogg’s the science,

duplicity 12). 1996: 15;Webber

of Bearing to

the testament

treatment

humorous

toevsky’s

both

of

features

ral,

assume the

to

alter ego

Dr. in

begins and Jekyll Mr.

Dos Hyde irtin in

of discursive

invention

sexuality famously (Rogers 1970:

most

and

(1843),

coat”

abyme, en

double,

noia.

begets

of its Divested

to double

relations the Over :fion,

supernatu

“The intimately

in

the and inscribed

(1836)

Nose” by

“The

jeteenth_centUry

as

Gogol

Hogg’s

In

self.

host’s

dance

of the of

and hide

seek,

and aspects

stories d persecution para

the mind

and such the body,

in the literary

is

double

particularly

1840s,

and

1830s

the

of

embodiment

the

and

into precurSOrS a

of

carefully power

non. ural

choreographed a literature

Articulating Russian split post-Cartesian

between in

feature

would

doubles

of

agent

an

once,

at

is,

with entering double

him, so like many

of

the

his

vein, ions, fictional

is Gothic counterparts,

a primarily

visual distinctly a

phenome in

always

not

Albeit

in

tempter;

satanic

beast-like

of double

disguised

monstrous

thinly a death.

proportiOns

Gothic double, own though not

his its

without glass auditory

the

in

presages

mirror,

Gil-

demonic

the

and

dependence a

a upon

a elixir, Wringhim before

and venson

so Wilde

offmanesqUe double clearly his the

demonstrate,

confronting

finally

Wilson,

as

well

as

figures,

respectable

paternal Dr.

as

Jekyll

encounters,

his assumed through i

1996: examples, (Webber 3—5).

for as the

of other

Ste fictions in

than

deadly

less

no

is

their

for

doubles

na1

themselves

biography inevitably

found way. their wreaks The Coiwan,

he traditions the

from havoc nineteenth century the onwards

Nonetheless,

conscience.

and

Wringhim

nances

a Robert of

curiously split

and

and

autho divided If-brothers,

Gothic in the doubles rectitude

British

and of

American voice

a

self,

better

morally

between is

here

sexology. occurs

that

Into this

already heady

mix, the reso doubling the of ie

double host-subject’s might

be fruitfully his

is to applied

whisper,

audible

barely

Hoff

in

As

Cesare JAMES).

HOGG, and his (see LombrOSO

the

1824

nascent of science it what

through as

the identifies

only

traits characteristic

singular

rendered

story,

this

Edin

in

Sinner

eration;

Justified a the

of

of in

writers criminology as such

zfessions double examples from

German literature, identical of much

the

texts,

earlier

numerous

Memoirs

Private

The

theory

of

and its voiutionary published

corollary,

degen iously doubles is (1996), petginger

the primarily in

concerned with

figured

turpitude

moral

of

Shepherd,

Ettrick

the

quasiscientific

Hogg,

of

his discourses

day, forms

James l, including the

Though s Andrew of

study,

J.Webber place TheDop in

for,

significant,

highly

David

of

Life

and

brought

1818) the to trope is

bear

upon of (reprinted the

some

His

Soul” Wilson” (1891).

“William

Poe’s

in

double

Gothic

of

Muschett

Nicol

of

Stevenson

Dr.

in the

Confession arid

Jekyll Mr. The Hyde also as Being

given Earnest (1895) and

“The and

fisherman inflection

particular

The

(1842).

psychological

of accounts iporary

193 DOUBLES DOUBLES r 194 DOUBLES DOUBLES nineteenth century variously came to postulate exits the realm of art and becomes one of the workings of replication and multiplication — it Hogg, James; Lewis, Matthew; Radclif] the existence of a dark, unknown self that dominant tropes oftwentieth-century psychol also bears with it the ghastly potential to serve Romanticism; Shelley, Mary Wollstoneci lurked at the margins of rationality. Franz Mes pgy. With its topographical discovery of the as the harbinger of mortality: “originally venson, Robert Louis; mer’s theory of animal magnetism had probed unconscious, Freudian psychoanalysis drew Walpole, Horace. created as a wish-defense against a dreaded’ beyond the limits of consciousness in suggest upon, and consolidated, the figuring ofpsycho external destruction, he reappears in supersti ing that human behavior was governed by a logical duplicity in the work of his nineteenth- REFERENCES tion as the messenger of death” (Rank 1971: complex and involuntary flow of psychic and century literary and scientific forebears; 86). Freud would draw extensively upon Rank’s Alter, R. (1986) Playing host to the dopp corporeal energies; G. H. Schubert’s popular post-Freudian reworkings of classical psycho account of the contradictory significations of Times Literary Supplement (October 24), ization of Mesmer’s theories, together with his analysis in the work of Carl Jung and Jacques Bruhm, the double in his essay “The Uncanny” of 1919: S. (2001) Reflecting Narcissus: A Qi notion of the “shadow self,” was extremely Lacan replicated Freud’s doubling of the con thetic. Minneapolis, while reiterating the oscillation between nar MN: University of M influential among German writers of the Ro scious and unconscious mind with the self and Press. cissism and death, the double, as epitomized mantic period (see GERMAN GoTHIc). The the “shadow self,” the subject and his or her Rank, 0. (1971) The Dollble:A Psychoanaly for Freud in the fiction of Hoffmann, is a prime nineteenth-century science of hypnotism, itself mirrored ego respectively. R. D. Laing would (trans. and ed. H. Tucker, Jr.). Chapel F agent of uncanniness, a particularly disturbing University of North Carolina Press. the offspring of the work of Mesmer and lend further psychological import to the double compound of the (0 forces of familiarity and published in German 1925.) Schubert, did much to formalize the existence in his account of human psychopathology in strangeness, self and other; consequently, the Rogers, R. (1970) A Psychoanalytic Studj of a second self existing, in secret, at the limits The Divided Selfin 1960. Freudian uncanny has served as the primary Double in Literature. Detroit, of conscious identity. As Andrew Webber has Given its centrality to psychoanalysis, it is MI: Wayi I. theoretical lens for reading doubles in fiction, University Press. pointed out, the literary double, particularly in perhaps unsurprising to note that the double particularly in Gothic fictions of the nine Sage, V. (1988) Horror Fiction in the Protestar German literature of the nineteenth century, has itself become the object of much psycho teenth and twentieth centuries. tion. New York: St. Martin’s Press. invariably had its nonliterary scientific and analytic attention in literary and cultural criti Though not without the psychoanalytic Shelley, M. (1992 [1818, 18311) Frankenstein philosophical underpinnings: Kant’s philo cism ofthe twentieth and twenty-first centuries; Modern Prometheus leanings of earlier studies, Ralph Tymms’ (ed. M. Hindle). I sophical doublings were given fictional treat indeed, the movement of the double from lit Penguin. Doubles in Literary Psychology (1949) was a par ment in the work of Kleist; Fichte’s theories erature into psychology from the late nine Tymms, R. (1949) Doubles in Literary Psy ticularly exhaustive account of doubles in lit Cambridge, UK: Bowes & were fictionally explored by Jean Paul; and teenth century onwards has been followed by erature well beyond the Bowes. well-known examples Walker King, D. (2000) Body G. H. Schubert’s account of duality given liter a shift toward a self-reflexive enquiry as to how in the Palitics and German Romantic canon. In addition to tional Double. ary form in the work of E. T. A. Hoffmann the double, whatever its cultural form, might Bloomington, IN: Indiana 1 their reappearance in the postmodern fictional sity Press. (Webber 1996). As Victor Sage has argued, the be read, conceptualized, and interpreted. Otto and filmic reworkings of earlier Gothic texts, Webber, A. J. (1996) The Doppelganger: double in nineteenth-century British Gothic Rank’s psychoanalytic study of doubling, ini doubles also feature strongly within the theo Visions in German Literature. literature is inseparable from the theological tially in Der Doppelganger in 1914 and ampli retical endeavors of contemporary culture, not Clarendon. pursuits of Protestantism in both its Anglican fied in a more extensive study of 1925, was only in Jacques Derrida’s notion of “double- and Dissenting forms: notions of the internal crucial in this respect: for Rank, the double writing,” but also in Steven Bruhm’s queering of FURTHER ized conscience inscribed within the Protestant was as much literary as it was anthropological READING narcissism in Reflecting Narcissus: A Queer Aes subject a secret, internal self (Sage, 1988). and psychological. Citing many of the well- Daffron, B. E. (2002) thetic (2001) and in the Anglo-American femi Romantic Doubles: S Indeed, philosophical and scientific accounts known fictional treatments of doubles men Sympathy in British Gothic Literature, 179( nism ofDebra Walker King in Body Politics and of the fundamental duality of the human tioned above, Rank’s study proceeds to discuss New York: AMS Press. the Fictional Double (2000). In these and other spirit proliferated throughout the nineteenth the sociological antecedents of doubling, as Dryden, L. (2003) The Modern Cothic and 1 writers, the double has become the site ofpoliti century, figuring most prominently in the well as its implications for conceptualizing the Doubles: Stevenson, Wilde and Wells. Basin cal struggle. Even so, the double’s Gothic poten Palgrave. work of Thomas Carlyle, Friedrich Schlegel, relationship between authors and their texts: tial continues to be exploited by contemporary Herdman, J. (1990) The Double Max Dessoir, and Frederic Myers. In almost ever since Freud, classical psychoanalysis has in Nine, writers of fiction, with the trope, restored to its Century Fiction. Basingstoke: Macmillan. all instances, doubles in nineteenth-century tended to perceive the literary work as the horrific and terrific effects, figuring promi Hock Soon Ng, A. (ed.) (2008) The Poc Gothic fiction are cultural responses to a sense dark, repressed double of the authorial psyche. nently in such texts as Stephen King’s The Dark Shadows: The Double in Literature and Phdc of the human subject in crisis. Discursively, in What becomes particularly important in Rank’s Half (1989), Chuck Palahniuk’s Fight Club Stuttgart: Ibidem-Verlag. fact, the foundations ofwhat, following the rise account is the range of contradictory meanings Miller, K. (1985) (1996), Carlos Ruiz Zafon’s The Shadow of the Doubles: Studies in LiteraryL of psychoanalysis, would become known as the between which most manifestations of the Oxford: Oxford University Wind (2004), and Audrey Niffenegger’s Her Press. Miyoshi, M. (1969) unconscious had been in place since at least the double are said to shuttle: though often con Feaful Symmetry (2009). The Divided Self A Pers final decades of the eighteenth century; conse structed according to the impulses of primary on the Literature ofthe Victarians. New Yorl York University Press. — double seems to quently, with Freud, the double, while never narcissism by this logic, the SEE ALSO: German Gothic; Godwin, William; Royle, N. (2003) The Uncanny: An Introth losing its literary and artistic manifestations, secure the persistence of the self through the Hoffinann, E. T. A. (Ernst Theodor Amadeus); Manchester: Manchester University Press.

L

A. Hoffmann,

T. E. (Ernst

Amadeus); Theodor

Manchester: the University Manchester

Press.

through self of the

the persistence

secure

manifestations,

artistic

and

te

rary

SEE

ALSO:

German

Gothic;

N. Royle, William; Godwin,

(2003) The An

Uncanny:

Introduction. to

seems

double the

logic,

this by

narcissism — never while double, the

Freud,

th

York

University Press.

primary

of

impulses

the

to

according

structed

conse century;

eighteenth the

of

s

on

of tiue Literature

the

Victorians. New New York:

Fearful

Symmetry (2009).

con

often

though

shuttle:

to

said

are

double

the

least at

since

place

in been

s had

M.

(1969) Miyoshi, The

Self

A Divided Perspective

Wind

(2004), and

Audrey

Her Niffenegger’s

r

the

of

manifestations

most

which

‘between

the

as

known become

would Oxford:

talysis, Oxford University

Press.

(1996),

Carlos

Ruiz of The

the Zafón’s Shadow

meanings

contradictory of range

the is

account

rise

the following (1985) K. Miller, what, of Doubles: in Studies

Literary History.

Lndations

Half

(1989),

Chuck

Palahniuk’s

Fight

Club

Rank’s

in

important

particularly

becomes

What

in

Stuttgart: Discursively, Ibidem-Verlag.

crisis. in

subject

an

nently

such in

as texts

Stephen

The Dark King’s

psyche.

authorial

the

of

double

repressed

dark,

The in Double Shadows:

sense a and Literature to Philosophy.

responses

cultural

are

on

horrific

and

terrific effects,

figuring promi

the

as

work

literary the

Ng, Soon Hock perceive A. to ted.) The tended

(2008)

of Poetics

nineteenth-century in doubles

s,

writers

of the trope, with

fiction, to restored

its

has

psychoanalysis

Century fiction.

classical Basingstoke:

Macmillan. Freud,

since

ever

almost In

Myers.

Frederic

and

ir,

tial

be to continues

by

exploited

contemporary

J.

texts:

their 1-Ierdman, and The (1990) Double in

authors Nineteenth-

between

relationship

Schlegel,

Friedrich

Carlyle,

homas

cal

struggle.

so, Even the

double’s Gothic poten

the

Palgrave.

conceptualizing for

implications its

as

well

the in

prominently

most

guring

writers,

the double politi has the

of become site

Doubles:

Wilde and Stevenson, Wells. Basingstoke:

as

doubling, of

antecedents

sociological the

nineteenth

the

throughout

ferated

the L. Dryden,

The (2003) Double Fictional Modern In Gothic

(2000). and these

and

Literary other

discuss

to proceeds

study

Rank’s

above,

tioned

human

the of

duality

sdamental

New

York:

AIvIS Press. nism of

Debra

Walker King in Body and Politics

men

doubles

of

treatments

fictional

known

accounts

scientific

and

ilosophical

in Sympathy Gothic British Literature,

1790—1830.

thetic

and (2001)

the in

Anglo-American femi

well-

the

of

many

Citing

psychological. and

1988).

(Sage, self internal

E. B.

Daffron, secret,

(2002)

Romantic

Sex Doubles:

and

in

narcissism

Reflecting A

Narcissus:

Aes Queer

anthropological

was

as

it literary

as much

was

Protestant

the

within

inscribed

ence

writing,” in also but

Steven

Bruhm’s of queering

FURTHER

double READING the Rank,

for

hsrespect: this

in

crucial

internal

the

of

notions

forms:

ting

only

in

Jacques

of Derrida’s notion

“double-

was 1925, of study

extensive

more in a

fied

Anglican its both in

Protestantism

retical

of

endeavors

culture, contemporary not

ampli

and

1914 in

Doppelganger

Der in

tially Clarendon.

theological the

from

inseparable

5

doubles

also feature strongly

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