HINDU ART AND ARCHITECTURE PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

George Michell | 224 pages | 30 Oct 2000 | Thames & Hudson Ltd | 9780500203378 | English | London, United Kingdom Hindu Art and Architecture - George Michell - Google книги

Only the were allowed into the inner sanctum the garbha griha of a , therefore, the mandapa provided the place where devotees could gather while they waited for the to perform rituals. Ritual worship is called ; Brahmins perform pujas at set times of day, and they also perform them for individual worshippers. An essential part of puja for the devotee is to make a connection with the Divine. The elevation of the Kandariya Mahadeva temples has three horizontal zones. The first zone is a solid basement, which raises the floor level of the temple to thirteen feet above ground. The second zone has a series of walls and interim compartments, a series of projections and recesses to allow for maximum number of sculpted images. Here, three horizontal sculpted bands hold about six hundred and fifty life-size figures in total, carved in high relief. The elevation culminates in a grouping of roofs, reminiscent of a mountain range, that sweep upward towards the tall shikhara above the shrine. Indeed, the shikhara symbolizes the cosmic mountain of the Universe. Because texts for temple decoration during this time specified that images of women were a necessity, more female, mortal figures exist than gods. In fact, images of women have often been used as auspicious emblems throughout the history of . Here, they are depicted nude to the waist with large breasts, small waists, big hips, and heavy thighs, wearing lots of jewelry. In general, these types of women represent the potential for fertility in both the spiritual and material sense. The carvings also include both depictions of mithuna and couples, which represent the unity and the duality of male and female energies. Maithuna couples are explicitly shown engaged in sexual intercourse. The Chandellas were patrons of the Kaulas, an esoteric sect that practiced Tantric . When looking closely at the maithuna couples, it is apparent that these are not ordinary situations. Often, the couples have attendants and they are depicted in unusual positions. Normally, these things would be highly addictive, but the goal is that if one partakes in them, they will be able to overcome them and achieve enlightenment. This is great point in the lecture to ask your students what it means for Hinduism to accept aspects of life to the extent that it allows images of sex outside of a temple wall. In Southern , two important dynasties ruled in Tamil Nadu before The Pallavas created the site of Mamallpuram, also called Mahabalipuram, a coastal site about forty miles south of the modern city of Chennai. Mamallpuram contains an enormous amount of unique monuments carved out of natural granite outcroppings, divided into four types: great sculpted cliffs, rock-cut monolithic shrines created out of single boulders, rock-cut caves, and traditional free-standing temples built by masonry. Over half of the monuments are unfinished most likely due to the poor condition of the granite. These monuments were probably built over a period of a hundred years, showing the importance of the site and how the Pallava kings greatly fulfilled their . The relief dates from around the early to mid seventh century ce and is carved out of two granite monoliths with a natural cleft in the center. The boulders measure forty-nine by ninety-eight feet and incorporate a scene of a mountainous abode incorporating elephants at its base. is depicted twice on the relief: once at top on the proper right and again below in a shrine. A man stands in a tree pose in front of Shiva and is depicted again in front of the shrine. Shiva is shown with his hand in varada mudra , which is the gesture of gift bestowal. The relief could possibly depict both stories, but most accept the interpretation is that it depicts the descent of the Ganges. The site of Mamallapuram is far from the Ganges river and so, by creating this relief, the Pallava rulers brought the Ganges to their territory. Indeed, the snake deities called naga swimming along the natural cleft also emphasize a water theme in this relief. To add to this interpretation, an unfinished carving of the same subject can be found nearby. It was probably abandoned because of the quality of the granite. The production of portable metal images of deities was an important practice during the Chola dynasty mid ninth-thirteenth centuries ce , they also were located in Tamil Nadu. They used a copper alloy of copper with a small amount of lead, tin, gold, and silver—the combination of which they believed had magical properties. The objects were bathed, clothed, decorated with flowers, and kept in separate shrines in temples. The Rajarajeshvara temple built by Raja Raja Chola I in the eleventh century possessed sixty-six metal according to inscriptions. The metal images were used during festival processions where they would be attached to carts called rathas and taken out of the temple grounds. The idea is that if a devotee cannot go to the god, the god will come to the devotee. This allows for darshan , seeing the Divine and the Divine seeing the devotee. Initially, the image was carved out of wax, then the wax was encased in clay, and the clay fired. While being fired, the wax melted and ran out of passageways left from wax stems, and this left a clay mold. Molten metal was then poured into the mold. Concept Version Learning Objective Differentiate between the northen Nagara and southern Dravidian styles of Hindu temple architecture. Key Points Hindu art represents a plurality of beliefs and has deeply influenced the painting, , and architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities. A Hindu temple generally consists of an inner sanctum, in which the idol of the deity is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch. Two main styles of temples exist in India: the north Indian Nagara style, characterized by a beehive shaped central tower, and the south Indian Dravidia style, characterized by a graduated tower with multiple layered pavilions. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of Hindu states and was a productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture. Hindu Temples A Hindu temple generally consists of a garba griha "womb chamber" , the inner sanctum in which the , or idol of the deity, is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The Nagara Style In the northern Nagara style, the shikhara takes the shape of a curvilinear beehive. Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa The 11th century Lingaraj Temple is a fine example of the north Indian Nagara style of temple architecture, marked by its curvilinear, beehive-shaped shikhara. Edit this content. Prev Concept Jain Illustrated Manuscripts. Hindu Sculpture. Hinduism has no single founder and is a conglomeration of diverse traditions and philosophies rather than a rigid set of beliefs. Most believe in a single supreme God who appears in many different manifestations as devas celestial beings or deities , and they may worship specific devas as individual facets of the same God. Hindu art reflects this plurality of beliefs, and Hindu temples, in which architecture and sculpture are inextricably connected, are usually devoted to different deities. Hindu art is also characterized by a number of recurring holy symbols, including the , an invocation of the divine consciousness of God; the swastika, a symbol of auspiciousness; and the lotus flower, a symbol of purity, beauty, fertility, and transcendence. The garba griha is surmounted by a shikhara , or tower. Two main styles of temples exist in India: the northern Nagara style and the southern Dravida style. In the northern Nagara style, the shikhara takes the shape of a curvilinear beehive. The temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side, giving a cruciform shape with a number of re-entrant angles on each side. The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the shikhara, giving a strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation. Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa : The 11th century Lingaraj Temple is a fine example of the north Indian Nagara style of temple architecture, marked by its curvilinear, beehive-shaped shikhara. In the southern Dravidian style, the tower or gopuram consists of progressive smaller stories of pavilions. These temples were square in plan and pyramidal in shape; included porches mandapams and pillard halls chaultris or chawadis ; and contained tanks or wells for water to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests. The multiple stories are ornately carved. The earliest Hindu temples found in India date back to the Gupta period ca. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of states, most of which were ruled by Hindu dynasties. This was a deeply productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture, and many beautiful examples survive to the present day. Although many Hindu temples were destroyed during the period of Muslim rule in India 12th to 18th centuries , Hindu influence on Indian art and architecture has withstood the test of time and continues to shape works of art. Hindu sculpture represents the themes of its religion through its depiction of deities and recurring symbols, such as the lotus flower. Hinduism and Hindu Art | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

Because texts for temple decoration during this time specified that images of women were a necessity, more female, mortal figures exist than gods. In fact, images of women have often been used as auspicious emblems throughout the history of Indian art. Here, they are depicted nude to the waist with large breasts, small waists, big hips, and heavy thighs, wearing lots of jewelry. In general, these types of women represent the potential for fertility in both the spiritual and material sense. The carvings also include both depictions of mithuna and maithuna couples, which represent the unity and the duality of male and female energies. Maithuna couples are explicitly shown engaged in sexual intercourse. The Chandellas were patrons of the Kaulas, an esoteric sect that practiced Tantric Hinduism. When looking closely at the maithuna couples, it is apparent that these are not ordinary situations. Often, the couples have attendants and they are depicted in unusual positions. Normally, these things would be highly addictive, but the goal is that if one partakes in them, they will be able to overcome them and achieve enlightenment. This is great point in the lecture to ask your students what it means for Hinduism to accept aspects of life to the extent that it allows images of sex outside of a temple wall. In Southern India, two important dynasties ruled in Tamil Nadu before The Pallavas created the site of Mamallpuram, also called Mahabalipuram, a coastal site about forty miles south of the modern city of Chennai. Mamallpuram contains an enormous amount of unique monuments carved out of natural granite outcroppings, divided into four types: great sculpted cliffs, rock-cut monolithic shrines created out of single boulders, rock-cut caves, and traditional free-standing temples built by masonry. Over half of the monuments are unfinished most likely due to the poor condition of the granite. These monuments were probably built over a period of a hundred years, showing the importance of the site and how the Pallava kings greatly fulfilled their dharma. The relief dates from around the early to mid seventh century ce and is carved out of two granite monoliths with a natural cleft in the center. The boulders measure forty-nine by ninety-eight feet and incorporate a scene of a mountainous abode incorporating elephants at its base. Shiva is depicted twice on the relief: once at top on the proper right and again below in a shrine. A man stands in a tree pose in front of Shiva and is depicted again in front of the shrine. Shiva is shown with his hand in varada mudra , which is the gesture of gift bestowal. The relief could possibly depict both stories, but most accept the interpretation is that it depicts the descent of the Ganges. The site of Mamallapuram is far from the Ganges river and so, by creating this relief, the Pallava rulers brought the Ganges to their territory. Indeed, the snake deities called naga swimming along the natural cleft also emphasize a water theme in this relief. To add to this interpretation, an unfinished carving of the same subject can be found nearby. It was probably abandoned because of the quality of the granite. The production of portable metal images of deities was an important practice during the Chola dynasty mid ninth-thirteenth centuries ce , they also were located in Tamil Nadu. They used a copper alloy of copper with a small amount of lead, tin, gold, and silver—the combination of which they believed had magical properties. The objects were bathed, clothed, decorated with flowers, and kept in separate shrines in temples. The Rajarajeshvara temple built by Raja Raja Chola I in the eleventh century possessed sixty-six metal sculptures according to inscriptions. The metal images were used during festival processions where they would be attached to carts called rathas and taken out of the temple grounds. The idea is that if a devotee cannot go to the god, the god will come to the devotee. This allows for darshan , seeing the Divine and the Divine seeing the devotee. Initially, the image was carved out of wax, then the wax was encased in clay, and the clay fired. While being fired, the wax melted and ran out of passageways left from wax stems, and this left a clay mold. Molten metal was then poured into the mold. Once cool, the mold was broken and the image remained with all of its detail. The Shiva was the supreme Chola image, with dozens in existence, and it is an image that has religious and political connotations. The objects show Shiva dancing the destruction of our era of time in the Universe. Because Shiva is the god of contradictions, the Universe is also manifesting itself at the same time. Shiva could perhaps be a political emblem of the Cholas, signifying their power to create or destroy their subjects. A good essay about the Nataraja can be found at Smarthistory. Have the students review the short video of the festival again and talk about the idea of darshan. Try to link contemporary Hindu practices with ancient examples. Smarthistory on the Roots of Hinduism. Her interests are Hindu and Buddhist iconography, the female image in South Asian art, and fashion in art. Hindu Art and Architecture Before Shiva represents the destructive force in the Universe, destroying those whose time has come. Because of the belief in samsara , once a being is destroyed, they will automatically be reborn and so, Shiva is also the god of procreation. One of his main attributes is a trident called trishula , which represents creation, destruction, and procreation; the cycle of samsara. Emphasizing his role as creator, Shiva is often represented as a linga , a phallic form, placed in a yoni , a vaginal form—the equal, yet opposing forces of the Universe. is the god who represents the preservation of the Universe. His symbolism often relates to the military: a , which is a conch used to alert troops to war, a , a mace, and a chakra , a sharpened wheel used as a weapon. Vishnu is the focal point of the two Hindu epics, the and the . All Hindus are familiar with these great epics. They are so popular in Hindu culture that there are comic books that retell parts of their stories. Vishnu has many different forms, he is a shown as a god or as one of his ten incarnations—beings that exist on earth, called avataras. completes the trinity of the gods called or three forms with Vishnu and Shiva. They are believed to be one in the same, different aspects of Supreme Enlightenment the . In all of India, there is only one water hole and one temple dedicated to Brahma. Brahma is honored, but he is never the main god. The Goddess has many forms in Hinduism, generically called . , the warrior goddess, is one popular form, depicted with a lion as her vehicle. The Goddess is the or the energizing force in the Universe that causes action to occur. Therefore, the Goddess is often portrayed in an active form. The limited number of artworks allows for a thorough explanation of each work: Vishnu Temple at Deogarh, c. The Mahabharata was composed between bce and CE and is the longest epic in world literature. It is the story about the battle between the Pandavas and Kauravas, who were cousins. The garba griha is surmounted by a shikhara , or tower. Two main styles of temples exist in India: the northern Nagara style and the southern Dravida style. In the northern Nagara style, the shikhara takes the shape of a curvilinear beehive. The temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side, giving a cruciform shape with a number of re-entrant angles on each side. The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the shikhara, giving a strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation. The 11th century Lingaraj Temple is a fine example of the north Indian Nagara style of temple architecture, marked by its curvilinear, beehive-shaped shikhara. In the southern Dravidian style, the tower or gopuram consists of progressive smaller stories of pavilions. These temples were square in plan and pyramidal in shape; included porches mandapams and pillard halls chaultris or chawadis ; and contained tanks or wells for water to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests. The multiple stories are ornately carved. The earliest Hindu temples found in India date back to the Gupta period ca. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of states, most of which were ruled by Hindu dynasties. This was a deeply productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture, and many beautiful examples survive to the present day. Although many Hindu temples were destroyed during the period of Muslim rule in India 12th to 18th centuries , Hindu influence on Indian art and architecture has withstood the test of time and continues to shape works of art. Art History. Boundless Art History. Hindu Art. Concept Version Learning Objective Differentiate between the northen Nagara and southern Dravidian styles of Hindu temple architecture. Key Points Hindu art represents a plurality of beliefs and has deeply influenced the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities. Hindu Art and Architecture Before | Art History Teaching Resources

The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of states, most of which were ruled by Hindu dynasties. This was a deeply productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture, and many beautiful examples survive to the present day. Although many Hindu temples were destroyed during the period of Muslim rule in India 12th to 18th centuries , Hindu influence on Indian art and architecture has withstood the test of time and continues to shape works of art. Art History. Boundless Art History. Hindu Art. Concept Version Learning Objective Differentiate between the northen Nagara and southern Dravidian styles of Hindu temple architecture. Key Points Hindu art represents a plurality of beliefs and has deeply influenced the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities. A Hindu temple generally consists of an inner sanctum, in which the idol of the deity is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch. Two main styles of temples exist in India: the north Indian Nagara style, characterized by a beehive shaped central tower, and the south Indian Dravidia style, characterized by a graduated tower with multiple layered pavilions. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of Hindu states and was a productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture. About two hundred years after the site of Elephanta was made, the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora was constructed. The Kailasanatha Temple was a huge undertaking at a size of one by 98 by 98 feet, carved completely out of the negative space of a hill. For example, one can find two free standing rock-cut elephants and a column on the floor of the courtyard. The entire temple complex was commissioned by I reigned of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. In what other examples do we see the use of divinity to legitimize a ruler? The actual building of this temple was a tremendous effort that required tons of resources, such as laborers to remove the rock, an architect to design the temple, artists to create sculptures and paintings, members of the clergy to manage production, etc. Once finished, markets opened up outside of the temples to take advantage of the foot traffic. Ask your students how this is similar to contemporary major building projects, like the building of sports complexes. In general, a Hindu temple like Kailasanatha has four main parts: gopura gateway , mandapa porch or hallway for worshippers to gather , garbha griha the inner shrine , and the shikhara the exterior tower. All four sections are preserved at Kailasanatha , but unfortunately, only fragments of its paintings remain. The first temple they commissioned was the Laksmana temple, which was completed in and established sovereignty of the new dynasty. The Chandellas are best known for their temples and artificial lakes, with twenty-two temples still intact occupying one square mile. The rulers built a temple for every year they were power, which would mean that there were originally eighty-five completed Hindu temples at this site—the majority erected between c. It is not unusual to build many structures on the same site, but the enormity of this site a square mile suggests a special goal—perhaps a declaration of power? A desire to create a seat of religious learning? The Kandariya Mahadeva temple also called Kandariya Mahadeo temple was the climax of building activity in ce. The Kandariya Mahadeva temple rises ninety-eight feet high with one entrance, an assembly hall mandapa , a vestibule before the main shrine shrine, and a garbha griha main shrine surrounded by a processional passage for circumambulation. Only the Brahmins were allowed into the inner sanctum the garbha griha of a Hindu temple, therefore, the mandapa provided the place where devotees could gather while they waited for the Brahmin to perform rituals. Ritual worship is called puja ; Brahmins perform pujas at set times of day, and they also perform them for individual worshippers. An essential part of puja for the devotee is to make a connection with the Divine. The elevation of the Kandariya Mahadeva temples has three horizontal zones. The first zone is a solid basement, which raises the floor level of the temple to thirteen feet above ground. The second zone has a series of walls and interim compartments, a series of projections and recesses to allow for maximum number of sculpted images. Here, three horizontal sculpted bands hold about six hundred and fifty life-size figures in total, carved in high relief. The elevation culminates in a grouping of roofs, reminiscent of a mountain range, that sweep upward towards the tall shikhara above the shrine. Indeed, the shikhara symbolizes the cosmic mountain of the Universe. Because texts for temple decoration during this time specified that images of women were a necessity, more female, mortal figures exist than gods. In fact, images of women have often been used as auspicious emblems throughout the history of Indian art. Here, they are depicted nude to the waist with large breasts, small waists, big hips, and heavy thighs, wearing lots of jewelry. In general, these types of women represent the potential for fertility in both the spiritual and material sense. The carvings also include both depictions of mithuna and maithuna couples, which represent the unity and the duality of male and female energies. Maithuna couples are explicitly shown engaged in sexual intercourse. The Chandellas were patrons of the Kaulas, an esoteric sect that practiced Tantric Hinduism. When looking closely at the maithuna couples, it is apparent that these are not ordinary situations. Often, the couples have attendants and they are depicted in unusual positions. Normally, these things would be highly addictive, but the goal is that if one partakes in them, they will be able to overcome them and achieve enlightenment. This is great point in the lecture to ask your students what it means for Hinduism to accept aspects of life to the extent that it allows images of sex outside of a temple wall. In Southern India, two important dynasties ruled in Tamil Nadu before The Pallavas created the site of Mamallpuram, also called Mahabalipuram, a coastal site about forty miles south of the modern city of Chennai. Mamallpuram contains an enormous amount of unique monuments carved out of natural granite outcroppings, divided into four types: great sculpted cliffs, rock-cut monolithic shrines created out of single boulders, rock-cut caves, and traditional free-standing temples built by masonry. Over half of the monuments are unfinished most likely due to the poor condition of the granite. These monuments were probably built over a period of a hundred years, showing the importance of the site and how the Pallava kings greatly fulfilled their dharma. The relief dates from around the early to mid seventh century ce and is carved out of two granite monoliths with a natural cleft in the center. The boulders measure forty-nine by ninety-eight feet and incorporate a scene of a mountainous abode incorporating elephants at its base. Shiva is depicted twice on the relief: once at top on the proper right and again below in a shrine. As the goddess of learning and art, she is depicted in this way as very capable and powerful in her area of expertise. Chola dynasty copper alloy sculpture, ca. The deity is depicted as having multiple arms, as is common for idols of Hindu gods. Hindu sculpture is also characterized by a number of recurring holy symbols, including the om , an invocation of the divine consciousness of God; the swastika, a symbol of auspiciousness; and the lotus flower, a symbol of purity, beauty, prosperity, fertility, and transcendence. The lotus flower is associated with these attributes due to its own process of blossoming: the flower grows out of mud and rests atop the water in which it grows, illustrating the hardship it must endure in order to achieve maximum beauty. Many deities have their name based on the Sanskrit word for lotus, such as Lakshimi. In addition to these symbols, flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, and idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism. Sculpture is inextricably linked with architecture in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities. The Hindu temple style reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma , beliefs, values , and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Elaborately ornamented with sculpture throughout, these temples are a network of art, pillars with carvings, and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life under Hinduism—the pursuit of prosperity, wealth , the pursuit of pleasure, sex , the pursuit of dharma virtues, ethical life , and the pursuit of release, self-knowledge. Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. Search for:. Hindu Art. Architecture of Hindu Temples , representing a plurality of beliefs, is commonly divided into the northern Nagara and southern Dravidian styles. Learning Objectives Differentiate between the northen Nagara and southern Dravidian styles of Hindu temple architecture. Key Takeaways Key Points Hindu art represents a plurality of beliefs and has deeply influenced the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities.

Hindu Art | Boundless Art History

Boundless Art History. Hindu Art. Concept Version Learning Objective Differentiate between the northen Nagara and southern Dravidian styles of Hindu temple architecture. Key Points Hindu art represents a plurality of beliefs and has deeply influenced the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities. A Hindu temple generally consists of an inner sanctum, in which the idol of the deity is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch. Two main styles of temples exist in India: the north Indian Nagara style, characterized by a beehive shaped central tower, and the south Indian Dravidia style, characterized by a graduated tower with multiple layered pavilions. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of Hindu states and was a productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture. Hindu Temples A Hindu temple generally consists of a garba griha "womb chamber" , the inner sanctum in which the murti , or idol of the deity, is housed; a congregation hall; and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The Nagara Style In the northern Nagara style, the shikhara takes the shape of a curvilinear beehive. Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa The 11th century Lingaraj Temple is a fine example of the north Indian Nagara style of temple architecture, marked by its curvilinear, beehive-shaped shikhara. Edit this content. The temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side, giving a cruciform shape with a number of re-entrant angles on each side. The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the shikhara, giving a strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation. Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa : The 11th century Lingaraj Temple is a fine example of the north Indian Nagara style of temple architecture, marked by its curvilinear, beehive-shaped shikhara. In the southern Dravidian style, the tower or gopuram consists of progressive smaller stories of pavilions. These temples were square in plan and pyramidal in shape; included porches mandapams and pillard halls chaultris or chawadis ; and contained tanks or wells for water to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests. The multiple stories are ornately carved. The earliest Hindu temples found in India date back to the Gupta period ca. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of states, most of which were ruled by Hindu dynasties. This was a deeply productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture, and many beautiful examples survive to the present day. Although many Hindu temples were destroyed during the period of Muslim rule in India 12th to 18th centuries , Hindu influence on Indian art and architecture has withstood the test of time and continues to shape works of art. Hindu sculpture represents the themes of its religion through its depiction of deities and recurring symbols, such as the lotus flower. Hinduism is a conglomeration of diverse traditions and philosophies rather than a rigid set of beliefs. Hindu sculpture, as seen in other forms of Hindu art, reflects this plurality of beliefs. Because religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism, recurring symbols such as the gods and their , the lotus flower, extra limbs, and even the traditional arts make their appearances in many sculptures of Hindu origin. For example, the goddess Sarasvati is always depicted with a minimum of four arms: two of the arms will be playing a vina, representing the tuning of her knowledge; her other two hands often hold prayer beads and a scripture, both of which represent her devotion to her spirituality. As the goddess of learning and art, she is depicted in this way as very capable and powerful in her area of expertise. Chola dynasty copper alloy sculpture, ca. The deity is depicted as having multiple arms, as is common for idols of Hindu gods. The multiplicity of arms emphasizes the immense power of the deity and his or her ability to perform several feats at the same time. The Indian artist found this a simple and an effective means of expressing the omnipresence and omnipotence of a deity. Demons are frequently portrayed with multiple heads to indicate their superhuman power. The occasional depiction of a deity with more than one head is generally motivated by the desire to portray varying aspects of the character of that deity. Thus, when the god Shiva is portrayed with a triple head, the central face indicates his essential character and the flanking faces depict his fierce and blissful aspects. The Hindu Temple Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in India. Thus, if one speaks of Indian architecture without taking note of the lavish sculptured decoration with which monuments are covered, a partial and distorted picture is presented. In the Hindu temple , large niches in the three exterior walls of the sanctum house sculpted images that portray various aspects of the deity enshrined within. The sanctum image expresses the essence of the deity. For instance, the niches of a temple dedicated to a Vishnu may portray his incarnations; those of a temple to Shiva , his various combative feats; and those of a temple to the Great Goddess, her battles with various demons. Regional variations exist, too; in the eastern state of Odisha, for example, the niches of a temple to Shiva customarily contain images of his family— his consort, , and their sons, , the god of overcoming obstacles, and warlike Skanda. The exterior of the halls and porch are also covered with figural sculpture. A series of niches highlight events from the mythology of the enshrined deity, and frequently a place is set aside for a variety of other gods. In addition, temple walls feature repeated banks of scroll-like foliage, images of women, and loving couples known as mithunas. Signifying growth, abundance, and prosperity, they were considered auspicious motifs. Dehejia, . Eck, Diana L. Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India. Chamberburg, Pa. Michell, George. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, https://uploads.strikinglycdn.com/files/0f0d55b1-e870-4f12-9bc0-54b4433faec1/vielleicht-morgen-839.pdf https://files8.webydo.com/9588869/UploadedFiles/8ECB9DA5-D556-58F9-EB48-52F81F7FECF6.pdf https://files8.webydo.com/9593177/UploadedFiles/3998DF67-F192-3848-9FBB-BA7C2DED43B4.pdf https://files8.webydo.com/9589112/UploadedFiles/F3AE147E-AE59-C08A-0276-C85A3023A77F.pdf https://files8.webydo.com/9589667/UploadedFiles/E4D11A1A-4840-AB50-1B99-DF88FEE8726A.pdf