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Actinomycetes: Source, Identification, and Their Applications

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Actinomycetes: Source, Identification, and Their Applications Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(2): 801-832 International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 3 Number 2 (2014) pp. 801-832 http://www.ijcmas.com Review Article Actinomycetes: Source, Identification, and Their Applications Mukesh Sharma*, Pinki Dangi and Meenakshi Choudhary Department of Biotechnology, Jaipur Institute of Biotechnology, Maharaj Vinayak Global University, Jaipur (Rajasthan) India *Corresponding author ABSTRACT The taxonomic and ecological positions of antibiotic producing actinomycetes are well recognized for their metabolic flexibility, commonly accompanied by the production of primary and secondary metabolites of economic significance. Various approaches including classical, chemo taxonomical, numerical taxonomic and molecular have been routinely employed for the identification of K e yw or ds actinomycetes. The metabolic perspective of actinomycetes not only provides an interesting area for research but also offers the possibility of commercialization of Actinomycetes; the metabolites generated in the process. Enzymes such as amylase, lipase, and antibiotic; cellulases produced from actinomycetes play an important role in food, bioremediation fermentation, textile and paper industries. Certain enzymes used as therapeutic en zymes; agents in human cancer, mostly in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Actinomycetes metabolic . are useful in cancer treatment, bioremediation and it produces some valuable antibiotics such as novobiocin, amphotericin , vancomycin, neomycin, gentamycin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, erythromycin, nystatin, etc. Actinomycetes are also used as plant growth promoting agents (help to produce plant growth hormone Indole-3-acetic acid), biocontrol tools, biopesticide agents, antifungal compounds, and biocorrosion and as a source of agroactive compounds. Therefore, actinomycetes play a significant role in the production of various antimicrobial agents and other industrially important substances such as enzymes. The potential of actinomycetes in the discovery of novel compounds with activity against microorganisms has been realized, and hence opens exciting avenues in the field of biotechnology and biomedical research. Introduction During 1914 to 1939, Selman A. growth. In 1940, he was able to isolate an Waksman had been consistently effective T.B. antibiotic, actinomycin and systematically screening soil bacteria and for this he got success in 1944, with the fungi to find an antibiotic for tuberculosis. discovery of Spectromycin.For all this In 1939, he discovers the effect of certain work in 1952, he got the Noble prize in fungi specially actinomycetes on bacterial physiological & medicine. 801 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(2): 801-832 Actinomycetes are filamentous Gram- (aclarubicin, daunomycin and positive bacteria, characterized by a doxorubicin), peptides (bleomycin and complex life cycle belonging to the actinomycin D), aureolic acids phylum Actinobacteria, which represents (mithramycin), enediynes one of the largest taxonomic units among (neocarzinostatin), antimetabolites the 18 major lineages currently recognized (pentostatin), carzinophilin, mitomycins, within the Domain Bacteria (Ventura et al. etc (Newman and Cragg 2007; Olano et 2007). Actinobacteria are widely al., 2009). However, the search for novel distributed in both terrestrial and aquatic drugs is still a priority goal for cancer ecosystems, mainly in soil, where they therapy.The rapid development of play an essential role in recycling resistance to multiple chemotherapeutic refractory biomaterials by decomposing drugs and their undesirable side effects has complex mixtures of polymers in dead increased demand for novel antitumor plants, animals and fungal materials. They drugs that are active against fewer side are also important in soil biodegradation effects with untreatable tumors, and with and humus formation as they recycle the the greater therapeutic efficiency (Demain nutrients associated with recalcitrant and Sanchez 2009). polymers, such as chitin, keratin, and lignocelluloses, (Goodfellow and Williams Progress has been made recently on drug 1983, McCarthy and Williams 1992, Stach discovery from actinomycetes by using and Bull 2005) this produces several high-throughput fermentation and volatile substances like geosmin screening, combinatorial biosynthesis and responsible of the characteristic “wet earth mining genomes for cryptic pathways, to odor” (Wilkins 1996) and exhibit diverse generate new secondary metabolites physiological and metabolic properties, for related to existing pharmacophores (Baltz example the manufacture of extracellular 2008). The isolation of marine enzymes (McCarthy and Williams 1992, actinomycetes has been a great source of Schrempf 2001). new compounds and their isolation all around the world from deepest sediments The bioactive secondary metabolites to the shallow costal sediments from the produced by microorganisms is reported to Mariana Trench, demonstrates that be around 23,000 of which 10,000 are actinomycetes are ever-present in marine produced by actinomycetes,thus sediments, but at lower numbers than in representing 45% of all bioactive soil (Ghanem et al. 2000, Zheng et al. microbial metabolites discovered (Berdy 2000, Fiedler et al. 2005, Maldonado et al. 2005). Among actinomycetes, 2009). Marine microorganisms encompass approximately 7,600 compounds are a complex and diverse assemblage of produced by Streptomyces species (Berdy microscopic life forms, of which it is 2005). Several of these secondary estimated that only 1% has been cultured metabolites are potent antibiotics. As a or identified (Bernan et al. 2004). In result of which streptomycetes have addition, marine actinomycetes have been become the primary antibiotic-producing found in symbiosis with different marine organisms exploited by the pharmaceutical invertebrates, especially sponges (Piel industry (Berdy 2005). Members of this 2004, Kim and Fuerst 2006). Marine group are producers of clinically useful actinomycetes have attracted great antitumor drugs such as anthracyclines attention since they have developed unique 802 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(2): 801-832 metabolic and physiological capabilities Presumably this resemblance results partly that not only ensure survival in extreme from adaptation to the same habitat. habitats, but also offer the prospective to Studies of the fine structure of produce compounds with antitumor and actinomycetes spores during germination other interesting pharmacological have been confined to the genera activities that would not be observed in Streptomyces (Kalakoutswl and Agre terrestrial microorganisms (Blunt et al. 1973). The latter genus forms endospores 2006, Mayer et al. 2007, Williams 2009, which behave in a similar way to those of Blunt et al. 2009, Fenical et al. 2002), Bacillus, a new wall layer being perhaps because of their close synthesized inside the cortex of the spore relationships with marine eukaryotic and extending to form the germ-tube wall. organisms including mammals (Baltz 2008, Piel 2004). In the Streptomyces species studied, the spores had a two-layered wall and the However, one of the main problems inner one extended to form the germ-tube associated with marine actinomycetes is wall. It is not clear if this layer is newly the difficulty often found in their culture, synthesized during germination or if it is because of specific necessities like sea salt formed by reorganization of wall material while in some cases these microorganisms existing in the dormant spore. Ultra are obligate halophiles (Tsueng et al. structural changes during the germination 2008). There are a number of reports on of fungal spores have been studied more techniques and approaches for accessing extensively. Most fungi fall into one of previously uncultured soil actinomycetes two groups: (i) those in which the germ- and the biosynthesis gene clusters they tube wall is formed from a layer which is harbor (Janssen et al. 2002, donadio et al. synthesized de now within the existing 2002). In the case of marine actinomycetes spore wall; (ii) those in which the germ- these studies are only beginning, several tube wall is formed by the extension of a attempts to optimize their isolation and wall layer already present in the dormant growth from several sources (Piel 2004, spore (Bartnicki-Garcsi 1968). Some Bull and Stach 2007, Bull et al. 2005) as conflicting results have been obtained and well as the improvement of the closely related species have been reported fermentation process for the production of to fall into different groups (Khan 1975). specific compounds (Tsueng et al. 2008, This may be partly due to the use of Lam et al. 2007, Selvin et al. 2009) and different fixatives, potassium the development of tools to facilitate the permanganate giving inferior results to genetic manipulation of the isolated those obtained with osmium tetroxide or biosynthesis gene clusters (Moore et al. aldehydes (Borderd and Trincia 1970). 2005). Marked changes in spore wall layers can also be induced by hydration during Structure of Actinomycetes specimen preparation (Florancee et al. 1972). The actinomycetes (sing. actinomycete) are a large group of aerobic, high G-C When grown on an agar-surface, the percentage gram-positive bacteria that actinomycetes branch forming a network form branching filaments or hyphae and of hyphae growing both on the surface and asexual spores. These bacteria closely under-surface of the agar. The on-the-
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