hartney & noble Learning * student cd included *

Cambridge Studies of Religion is an exciting new educational resource written specifically for the most recent Stage 6 Religion Syllabus. Clear, concise,

student-friendly language delivers the content in a way Cambridge designed to cater for all levels of student ability and learning styles. Cambridge Studies of Religion provides teachers with fl exibility in structuring courses to meet the needs of their students and in achieving course outcomes. key features include:

a wide range of pictorial and written sources

an attractive full colour presentation Studies a student CD-Rom, which includes a PDF of the book a teacher and student website Cambridge a wide variety of activities that develop a broad range of skills and consolidate knowledge of interesting quotes and commentary Studies Religion stage extension questions. of 6 contributing editor Religion A separate Teacher CD-ROM is available, christopher hartney jonathan noble which includes additional signifi cant people and ideas, worksheets and solutions. also in this series:

Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM stage 978-0-521-71254-5

6

Cambridge Studies of Religion stage 6 christopher hartney jonatcontributinghan noble editor cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, , Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

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National Library of Australia Cataloguing in Publication data Hartney, Christopher. Cambridge studies of religion : stage 6 / authors , Christopher Hartney, Jon Noble. Cambridge ; Port Melbourne : Cambridge University Press, 2008 9780521712538 (pbk + CD-ROM or DVD-ROM) Includes index. For secondary school age. Religion--Textbooks. Noble, Jonathan, 1952- Studies of religion 200

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Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are respectfully advised that references to deceased people are made in this book and may cause distress. introduction iii

Introduction

Studies of Religion can be a dangerous subject. A brief examination As you study religion, you may be inspired to look more of the history of our world shows that, while great art, music and deeply at those aspects that interest you most. As well as the architecture have been inspired by religion, it has also been the challenging and insightful text in Cambridge Studies of Religion, inspiration for great violence and destruction. The early conquest there are opportunities for you, and your teachers, to investigate by , the Crusades, the Inquisition, the attack on the United and research further. A variety of opinions are given and you States on 11 September 2001, even the genocide of entire racial are guided to research alternative perspectives within each groups, have all been done in the name of a god or religion. religious tradition. This means you can extend your study as far The study of religion is important for students in this as you wish and explore those areas that most appeal to you. To multicultural and multi-religious nation. Some understanding of ensure you cover the necessary parts of the syllabus, the text the issues of religious beliefs and lives can help in avoiding the includes a range of exercises and examination-style questions extremes and mistakes of the past. for you to complete. Answers and guidance in answering the Cambridge Studies of Religion provides a comprehensive questions are provided in the support material. coverage of the New South Wales preliminary and HSC Studies Cambridge Studies of Religion draws upon the expertise of Religion syllabus. It also provides the opportunity to explore of writers who combine academic achievement and practical some of those religious issues that have inspired such greatness, teaching expertise. Dr Chris Hartney lectures in Religion at and such grief, in the world. Sydney University and is a well known scholar and presenter. Its easy-to-read text will ensure that you are well prepared for Reverend Jon Noble is an experienced teacher of Studies of the HSC year by providing a complete text for the preliminary year, Religion, currently at MLC, and is President of the Association which is an essential basis to the HSC course. An understanding of for Studies of Religion. the origins, beliefs, texts, ethics and practices of several religions is This text provides a clear and comprehensive knowledge developed further in the Year 12 course, with greater emphasis on of Studies of Religion and will assist you in your study of this particular religious people, ethical areas and practices. Cambridge fascinating, complex subject. Welcome to the world of Studies Studies of Religion covers a range of material so that you are ready of Religion! for the HSC examination, and also gives you the opportunity to develop a greater understanding of religion in other areas of life. Cambridge Studies of Religion is presented in a format that is easy to use. It is written in a style that is easy to follow and includes glossary defi nitions of many terms. It is visually attractive, printed in colour and fully illustrated, and makes use of the latest statistics and information. The book comes with a CD-ROM which includes a full copy of the text, so you don’t need to carry around a heavy textbook. Support is also given through a dedicated website provided by Cambridge University Press, as well as a Teacher CD-ROM containing additional material that your teachers will make available to you, including coverage of sections not available in the textbook due to space restrictions. iv cambridge studies of religion

Contents introduction iii about the authors viii acknowledgements ix

chapter 1

The nature of religion [Preliminary 1 and 2 Unit (16 hours)] 11 The nature of religion and beliefs 17 Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spiritualities – the Dreaming 24 chapter 2

Religion in Australia pre-1945 [Preliminary 2 Unit (16 hours)] 31 Arrival of Christianity 33 Arrival and establishment of other religious traditions 37 Issues related to the development of Christianity pre-1945 41 The contribution of one religious tradition 44 Conclusion 49 chapter 3

The religious landscape in Australia post-1945 [HSC 1 and 2 Unit (16 hours)] 53 The diversity of contemporary Aboriginal spiritualities 57 Religious expression in Australia – 1945 to the present 63

chapter 4 Buddhism: The basic facts [Preliminary 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 75 Religion tradition study Historical and cultural context 78 The Buddha 79 Formation of the sangha 82 The main schools of Buddhism 84 Principal beliefs 87 Sacred texts and writings 91 Core ethical teachings 93 Personal devotion in the home 94 chapter 5

Buddhism depth study [HSC 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 99 Signifi cant people and schools of thought 101 Ethics 111 Signifi cant practices in the lives of adherents 115 contents v

chapter 6

Christianity: The basic facts [Preliminary 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 119 Religion tradition study Historical and cultural content 121 Jesus Christ/Jesus of Nazareth 123 Development of early Christian communities 127 Principal beliefs 130 Sacred texts and writings 133 Core ethical teachings 134 Personal devotion 136 chapter 7

Christianity depth study [HSC 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 141 Signifi cant people and schools of thought 144 Ethics 152 Signifi cant practices in the lives of adherents 158 chapter 8

Hinduism: The basic facts [Preliminary 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 163 Religion tradition study The two main variants in 168 Principal beliefs 171 Sacred texts and writings 174 Core ethical teachings 177 Personal devotion in the home: puja 179 chapter 9

Hinduism depth study [HSC 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 183 Signifi cant people and schools of thought 186 Ethics 191 Signifi cant practices in the lives of adherents: Pilgrimage 195 chapter 10

Islam: The basic facts [Preliminary 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 201 Religion tradition study Origins 204 The life of the Prophet Muhammad 206 Islam after the Prophet 208 Principal beliefs 211 Sacred texts and writings 213 Core ethical teachings 214 Expression of faith 215 chapter 11

Islam depth study [HSC 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 221 Signifi cant people and schools of thought 224 Ethics 231 Signifi cant practices in the lives of adherents 236 vi cambridge studies of religion

chapter 12

Judaism: The basic facts [Preliminary 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 241 Religion tradition study Origins 244 Modern Judaism – its major divisions 249 Principal beliefs 251 Sacred texts and writings 253 Core ethical teachings 259 Observance : Shabbat 262 chapter 13

Judaism depth study [HSC 1 and 2 Unit (22 hours)] 267 Signifi cant people and schools of thought 270 Ethics 276 Signifi cant practices in the lives of adherents 280 chapter 14

Religions of ancient origin [Preliminary 2 Unit (22 hours)] 285 The nature of three religions of ancient origin Religion 1: Taoism 288 Religion 2: Shinto 292 Religion 3: Nordic – Scandinavian 295 chapter 15

Religions and peace [HSC 2 Unit (22 hours)] 303 Understanding peace in three religious traditions Religion and peace 305 Christianity and peace 307 Hinduism and peace 311 Islam and peace 314 Conclusion 318 chapter 16

Religion and non-religion [HSC 2 Unit (16 hours)] 321 The religious dimension in human history 323 Global distribution of the major religious traditions 327 New religious expression 329 Non-religious world views 336 The difference between religious and non-religious world views 339 Conclusion 341

glossary 343 answers to multiple choice questions 354 index 355

contents vii

teacher cd rom contents

The Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM includes a range of material for teachers and students, including the following: 1 Additional activities including a range of crossword, fi nd-a-word, true/false and gap puzzles for each chapter of the Cambridge Studies of Religion textbook. 2 Suggested responses for each Exercise within the textbook. 3 Suggested responses for the end of chapter questions. 4 A 1 Unit and a 2 Unit Sample HSC examination paper 5 Suggested responses and marking criteria for both the 1 Unit and the 2 Unit HSC examination papers. 6 22 PowerPoint presentations covering sections of each chapter of the textbook. 7 Additional text material for each HSC Religious Traditions Depth Study chapter in the textbook, including: a) Chapter 5 – Buddhism (i) People/Schools of thought – Nargajuna, Vasubandhu, Guru Rinpoche, Sister Dhammadinna, Tenzin Palmo, XIV Dalai Lama, Chen Yen, Pure Land Buddhism, Won Buddhism (ii) Ethics – Bioethics, Environmental ethics (iii) Signifi cant practices – Pilgrimage, Temple puja b) Chapter 7 – Christianity (i) People/Schools of thought – Martin Luther, Catherine Booth, Pope John XXIII, Billy Graham, Dennis Bennett, Sarah Maitland, Liberation Theology, Feminist Theology (ii) Ethics – Bioethics, Environmental ethics (iii) Signifi cant practices – Marriage, Saturday/Sunday worship c) Chapter 9 – Hinduism (i) People/Schools of thought – Ramanuja, Madhva, Mirabai, Ram Mohan Roy, Ramakrishna, Bhakti movement, Purva Mimamsa, Vedanta, Shaiva Siddhanta, (ii) Ethics – Bioethics, Environmental ethics (iii) Signifi cant practices – Marriage, Temple worship d) Chapter 11 – Islam (i) People/Schools of thought – Kadisha Bint Khuwaylid, Fatima Al Zahara, Imam Malik, Imam Abu Hanifa, Rabi’a Al-Adawiyya, Imam Al-Shafi , Abu ali Hussein Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, Sayyid Maudidu, Sayyid Qutb (ii) Ethics – Bioethics, Environmental ethics (iii) Signifi cant practices – Funerals, Hajj (pilgrimage) e) Chapter 13 – Judaism (i) People/Schools of thought – Deborah, Isaiah, Hillel (and Shamai), Beruriah, Rabbi Solomon Isaac (Rashi), Moses Mendelssohn, Abraham Geiger, Rabbi Isaac Abraham Hacohen Kook (Rav Kook), Kabbalah, Zionism, Jewish feminism (ii) Ethics – Bioethics, Environmental ethics (iii) Signifi cant practices – Death and mourning, Marriage. viii cambridge studies of religion

About the authors

christopher hartney BA, PhD (Syd) jonathan noble BTh(Hons), BA, DipEd Chris grew up in the western suburbs of Sydney when many Jonathan Gordon Noble, born in 1952, is the son of a Presbyterian/ religions new to Australia were starting communities there. Uniting Church minister and grew up in and Chris began study at the but found it , where his father was a fl ying Patrol Padre for confusing. He left and worked for a few years before returning the Australian Inland Mission. Formative experiences included to finish his bachelor’s degree. He originally chose Studies of outback Australia, contact with Aboriginal spirituality and life in Religion courses just to make up his quota, but fell in love with rural ecumenical parishes. the subject. Jonathan studied theology at the Bible Institute and Chris began specialising in Asian religions and wrote Moore Theological College in Sydney, as a Presbyterian candidate, a doctoral thesis on Caodaism, a new religion that began in and was awarded the Bachelor of Theology (Hons). He then achieved Vietnam in the 1920s. The incredible Caodaist temple can be a Bachelor of Arts (Social Welfare) from . seen in Wiley Park, Sydney. He visited Caodaist communities For 18 months Jonathan worked with the homeless in inner in North America, Europe and Vietnam and studied French, Sydney, before being ordained in the –Goulburn Anglican Vietnamese and Chinese. Chris also organised bus tours of Diocese, and served as parish priest in rural parishes of that diocese, the various religious communities in Sydney. His knowledge before several years at Castle Cove in Sydney. After 18 months as of the religions of the world comes not only from books, but executive director of a Christian camping organisation, Jonathan also from the hospitality of diverse religious groups. went to All College in Bathurst as chaplain and Religious In 2006 Chris was appointed lecturer at the University Studies teacher. He completed his Graduate Diploma in Education of Sydney in the Department of Studies of Religion. He and in 2001 became a Studies of Religion teacher at the MLC School teaches the two first-year courses, A history of God and in Burwood, Sydney, where he currently teaches. Paths to enlightenment, which cover all the major religions Jonathan is also an HSC marker and judge, and has served of the world. Students who have completed the HSC Studies on the Consultative Committee for HSC Studies of Religion. He of Religion course often take these courses to expand their was elected Chairman of the Association for Studies of Religion in knowledge. 2006. Jonathan has presented seminars on Studies of Religion for Chris has over 30 scholarly articles to his name and is students and teachers in NSW. In 2003, Jonathan co-authored the currently completing a diploma in Latin with Classical Greek Macquarie revision guide: HSC Studies of Religion and has contributed and Akkadian. Chris also lectures on art and civilisation at to The Leading Edge HSC and Preliminary Studies of Religion. He has the Art Gallery of New South Wales and takes tours to places also been a writer of the Academic Resources Curriculum Trial such as Morocco, Spain and Greece. He regularly attends Examination Papers for Studies of Religion. conferences for teachers on HSC Studies of Religion. Jon is married with adult children and enjoys reading, movies Chris is interested in religion and culture, and takes and music, with a particular interest in travel, Asian Christian courses in Daoism (Taoism) and Confucianism, religion and theology and Hinduism. Jon considers himself to be of the ‘middle- the arts, religion and film, and even religion and television. church’ Anglican Christian tradition and now attends the Uniting Church in Strathfi eld. acknowledgements ix

Acknowledgements

The authors and publisher wish to thank the following Merlini; p. 151, The Art Archive/ Biblioteca Civica Lucca/ for permission to reproduce material: Gianni Dagli Orti; p. 152, Shutterstock/ Benjamin F Haith; p. 154 top left, Fairfax Photos/ Paul Harris; p. 154 top right, AAP Cover top left, Shutterstock/ Tatarszkij; Cover top right, Image/ AFP; p. 154 bottom, Shutterstock/ Carsten Reisinger; p. Shutterstock/ Niclas Aberg; Cover centre, Shutterstock/ Anita 157, Shutterstock/ Jurand; p. 159, Istockphoto/ Terry Healy; p. Huszti; Cover bottom left, Shutterstock/ Mikhail Levit; Cover 163, Shutterstock/ Mary Lane; p. 165, Photolibrary/ Paolo Koch; bottom right, Shutterstock/ Taolmor; p. 8, Collection of the p. 167, Shutterstock/ Oblong1; p. 168, Photolibrary/ Anders Authors; p. 10, Shutterstock/ Tan Kim Pin; p. 12, Shutterstock/ Blomqvist; p. 169, Shutterstock/ Oliver Alexander Anderson Nir Levy; p. 13, ABS data used with permission from the Huerta; p. 171 left, Shutterstock/ Nagy Melinda; p. 171 right, Australian Bureau of Statistics; p. 14, Shutterstock/ Joel Blit; p. Shutterstock/ Debasis Das; p. 173, Shutterstock/ Iofoto; p. 178, 18, Shutterstock/ Andrejs Pidjass; p. 20, Shutterstock/ James Shutterstock/ Lawrence Wee; p. 179, Photolibrary/ Alamy/ Steidl; p. 21, Shutterstock/ Lisa F Young; p. 25 left, Dreamstime/ Arkreligion.com; p. 180, Shutterstock/ Christian Noval; p. Alan Lazarus; p. 25 right, Creation story told by Aunty Beryl 182, Shutterstock/ Chen Wei Seng; p. 183, Shutterstock/ Mary Carmichael; p. 30, Shutterstock/ Scott Maxwell/ LuMaxArt; p. Lane; p. 185 top left, Corbis/ Bettmann; p. 185 top right, 31, National Library of Australia, nla.pic-an24648764-v; p. 35, Shutterstock/ Tonis Valing; p. 185 bottom, Getty Images/ AFP; National Library of Australia, nla.pic-an14182923; p. 36, State p. 188, Corbis/ Jeremy Horner; p. 190, Shutterstock/ Iconex; p. Library of , B 23825; p. 37, National Archives of 193, Getty Images/ AFP; p. 194, Getty Images/ AFP; p. 196 top, Australia, A1200, L83908; p. 39, Fairfax Photos/ David Moir; Shutterstock/ Galyna Andrushko; p. 196 centre, Shutterstock/ p. 42, National Library of Australia, nla.pic-vn3295797; p. 44, Heather Lewis; p. 196 bottom, Shutterstock/ Dario Diament; National Library of Australia, nla.pic-an24680767; p. 46, State p. 201, Shutterstock/ Javarman; p. 203, Shutterstock/ Georgios Library of New South Wales; p. 48, AAP Image/ Dean Lewins; p. Kollidas; p. 205 bottom, Shutterstock/ Ayazad; p. 207, Whipple 53, AAP Image/ AFP/ William West; p. 54, Shutterstock/ Jenny Museum of the History of Science, University of Cambridge; Solomon; p. 58, Shutterstock/ Jeff Chandler; p. 59, State Records p. 215, Shutterstock/ Kaspars Grinvalds; p. 217, Library of of New South Wales, 4346_a020_a020000148; p. 61, Fairfax Congress; p. 220, Michelle Cottrill; p. 221, Shutterstock/ Photos; pp. 66–67, Collection of the Authors; p. 69, Shutterstock/ Javarman; p. 222, Shutterstock/ Olga Kolos; p. 223 top, Lanbo; p. 71, Newspix; p. 75, Shutterstock/ LE Media; p. 77 Shutterstock/ Ayazad; p. 223 bottom, Courtesy Mehmet top left, Shutterstock/ Georgios Kollidas; p. 77 bottom left, Ozalp; p. 225, Shutterstock/ Ayazad; p. 227, Shutterstock/ Shutterstock/ Zaporozhchenko Yury; p. 77 right, Shutterstock/ Vera Bogaerts; p. 228, Shutterstock/ Bianda Ahmad Hisham; p. Kheng Guan Toh; p. 79, Shutterstock/ Regien Paassen; p. 82, 230, Shutterstock/ Paul Cowan; p. 231, Shutterstock/ Darrell Courtesy Pariyatti; p. 87, Shutterstock/ Bianda Ahmad Hisham; J Rohl; p. 234, Reuters/ Lou Dematteis; p. 237, Shutterstock/ p. 92, Shutterstock/ Vova Pomortzeff; p. 94, Shutterstock/ Michael Ransburg; p. 241, Shutterstock/ Salamanderman; p. Salamanderman; p. 95, Shutterstock/ Tomo Jesenicnik; p. 97, 242, Shutterstock/ Nip; p. 243, Shutterstock/ Martha Dean; Photolibrary/ Alamy/ Peter Widmann; p. 99, Shutterstock/ p. 245, Shutterstock/ Pichugin Dmitry; p. 247, Shutterstock/ LE Media; p. 100, Shutterstock/ Ximagination; p. 101, Getty Danilo Ascione; p. 250, Shutterstock/ Salamanderman; p. 256, Images/ Popperfoto; p. 104, Shutterstock/ Rémi Cauzid; p. 105, Shutterstock/ Keith Levit; p. 261, Shutterstock/ Stavchansky Corbis/ Kimbell Art Museum; p. 106 top, Shutterstock/ Jacob J Yakov; p. 262, Shutterstock/ Lisa F Young; p. 265, Newspix/ Rodriguez-Call; p. 106 centre, Shutterstock/ Steve Yager; p. 106 Kristi Miller; p. 267, Shutterstock/ Salamanderman; p. 269 top, bottom, Shutterstock/ Mazzzur; p. 107, Corbis/ Lowell Georgia; Istockphoto/ Sean Locke; p. 269 bottom, Shutterstock/ Mikhail p. 112, Shutterstock/ Vova Pomortzeff; p. 114, Courtesy Tenzin Levit; p. 270, Getty Images/ Kean Collection; pp. 273–4, Palmo; p. 116 top, Michael Wu; p. 116 bottom, AAP Image/ Shutterstock/ Salamanderman; p. 277, Shutterstock/ Dimitri; p. Tim Cole; p. 119, Shutterstock/ Thorsten Rust; p. 124, Institute 278, Getty Images/ David Silverman; p. 279, Reuters/ Yonathan of Antiquity and Christianity; p. 126, Shutterstock/ Anthony Weitzman; p. 280, Shutterstock/ Tomasz Parys; p. 281 bottom Ricci; p. 127, Shutterstock/ Alexey Arkhipov; p. 129, Fairfax left, Juda S. Engelmayer; p. 281 bottom right, Photolibrary/ Photos/ Dean Sewell; p. 132, Shutterstock/ Bruce Rolff; p. 134, Woog-Wagner Susan; p. 281 top, Shutterstock/ Howard Sandler; Shutterstock/ Robert J Beyers II; p. 136, Shutterstock/ Jason p. 282, Shutterstock/ Rob Swanson; p. 285, Shutterstock/ JoLin; Stitt; p. 137, Shutterstock/ Marc Dietrich; p. 139, Shutterstock/ p. 286, Shutterstock/ Grigory Kubatyan; p. 288, Shutterstock/ Glenda M Powers; p. 141, Shutterstock/ Thorsten Rust; p. Robert Spriggs; p. 289, Photolibrary/ The Bridgeman Art 143, Newspix/ Anthony Weate; p. 144, Shutterstock/ Massimo Library; p. 290, Shutterstock/ PapiMami; p. 293, Shutterstock/ x cambridge studies of religion

Sarah Fields Photography; p. 294, Shutterstock/ John Leung; p. The authors would like to thank the following: 298, Shutterstock/ Povl E Petersen; p. 299, Shutterstock/ Marco Regalia; p. 301, Shutterstock/ Iconex; p. 303, Shutterstock/ Heartfelt thanks to the publisher, Linda Kowarzik – for her support, Yuri Arcurs; p. 305 top, Shutterstock/ Holger Mette; p. 305 assistance, advice and often-needed harassment. bottom, Shutterstock/ Arkady Mazor; p. 306, Shutterstock/ chris hartney and jon noble Salamanderman; p. 307, Courtesy The Abbey of the Genesee; p. 308, Shutterstock/ Ronald Sumners; p. 309, Photolibrary/ I would like to recognise the immense support given to me by Alamy/ Arkreligion.com; p. 311 top, Sujit Kumar; p. 311 bottom, Cassandra Wenman during the writing this work. Thank you. Shutterstock/ Andrey Plis; p. 313, Istockphoto/Duncan Walker; Thanks also to my colleagues Carole Cusack and Tony Swain for p. 315, Shutterstock/ Wael Hamdan; p. 316, Istockphoto/ their help and inspiration throughout the years. Additional thanks Daniel Hassard; p. 321, Shutterstock/ Giovanni Benintende; to those members of religious communities who helped with the p. 325 top, Shutterstock/ Iofoto; p. 325 bottom, Shutterstock/ presentation of certain ideas. Moxduul; p. 326 top, Shutterstock/ Joe Gough; p. 326 bottom, chris hartney Istockphoto/ Peter Hazlett; p. 329, Shutterstock/ Corky Buczyk; p. 330, Shutterstock/ Gina Smith; p. 332, Shutterstock/ Svetlana For Susan and Janice – two special people who have come into my life. Larina; p. 340, Shutterstock/ Daniel Kvarfordt. jon noble Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The publishers apologise for any accidental infringement and welcome information that would rectify any error or omission in The publisher would like to thank the following: subsequent editions. My thanks to Mark Sattler, Edwina Hamilton, Paul Glasbergen and Father James Grant for reviewing the text and providing feedback. linda kowarzik chapter 1

The nature of religion 12 cambridge studies of religion

Man is by his constitution a religious animal; atheism is against not only our reason, but our instincts. edmund burke (1729–1797)

chapter summary

This chapter discusses:

• This book and how to use it • Aboriginal beliefs and spiritualities – the Dreaming • Tips for Studies of Religion students » The nature of the Dreaming » Interview, visit and experience » Origins of the universe – but be prepared and respectful! » Dreaming stories and art » • The nature of religion and beliefs Diversity of the Dreaming » What is religion as a worldview? » The importance of the Dreaming » The supernatural dimension » The Dreaming, land and identity » The characteristics of religion » An example of the characteristics of religion – Judaism » The contribution of religion chapter 1 the nature of religion 13 This book and how to use it

In the 2006 census, approximately 30 per cent of Australians either didn’t state their religion or stated that INVESTIGATE they had no religion. Religion as a social experience is Talk to friends, and at least one adult, about what they believe. considered, however, by many as a vital phenomenon of What has infl uenced their religion or lack of it? What are their atheist life. Many atheists agree that much of our culture, interests in life? How does knowing and experiencing their beliefs person who does politics, history and sense of self are deeply affected by about religion help you to understand them better? How does not believe that any gods exist religious attitudes. Moreover, in Australia’s multicultural knowing them help you to understand religion better? society, it is important to understand the religious and cultural attitudes of people from all around the world. One’s religion is whatever he is most interested in. The Studies of Religion course offers a way of studying these attitudes and thus understanding people more jm barrie 1910 profoundly. TABLE 1.1 2006 CENSUS FIGURES ON RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION Cat. No. 2068.0 – 2006 Census tables. 2006 Census of population and housing (Australia). Religious affi liation (a) (broad groups) by gender. Count of persons, based on place of usual residence MALES FEMALES PERSONS Buddhism 196,220 222,537 418,757 Christianity 6,018,672 6,667,162 12,685,834 Hinduism 79,855 68,272 148,127 Islam 177,756 162,634 340,390 Judaism 42,902 45,924 88,826 Other religions 52,131 56,889 109,020 No religion 1,976,043 1,730,509 3,706,552 Census supplementary codes (b): New Age, so described 682 1,339 2,021 Not defi ned 73,943 34,708 108,651 Religious belief, nfd 9,335 11,198 20,533 Theism 1,546 1,073 2,619 Not stated 1,170,163 1,053,795 2,223,958 Total 9,799,248 10,056,040 19,855,288

(a) Religious affi liation is coded to the Australian Standard Classifi cation of Religious Groups, Second Edition. (b) Supplementary codes are not part of the classifi cation structure. These codes are used to process responses that cannot be coded to a category within the classifi cation because the response contains inadequate information. © Commonwealth of Australia 2007

Studies of Religion is not a simple subject. It does you study religion. This will be a very important not ask you to write only about what you believe or do challenge to how you develop as a student of religions. not believe. It does not ask you to simply record what The aim of this book is to make your experience of other people believe. It does ask you to study the facts Studies of Religion as interesting as possible. The and people’s experiences of religion and consider them Glossary and end-of-chapter summaries provide you in relation to your own experiences. During this course with information on each study area and indicate their you will study at least two religious traditions so that you importance for the assessment. Some obscure and gain an insight into what religion means for a broad fascinating facts and information can add to the range of people, rather than just understanding one enjoyment of studying this subject. Some activities and theology religion in isolation. Studies of Religion is not about features will encourage you to explore aspects of religion the study of the nature of God and theology. That is not to say that you should completely that go beyond the syllabus. religious doctrine ignore the relationship between who you are and how 14 cambridge studies of religion Tips for Studies of Religion students

interview, visit Interview! and experience You know many people, such as your parents, grandparents and other family members, leaders of your – but be prepared religious group (if you are religious), neighbours and and respectful! community leaders, even your local Member of Parliament! Interview them and ask what they remember Throughout the book there is a range of resources that about their religious rituals and beliefs. They are primary primary source will help with your study. Reading, however, is only half sources and their accounts are important because they a document or other the story. In this course you have just as much material that comes were living in Australia when many of the events you will directly from a person opportunity to experience the people, places and be studying took place. or place of interest communities that you are studying. When you interview people, you are collecting important information about how Australian religions and the religious life of the world have developed. Make sure you prepare well. Write out lists of questions you think are important. Take a tape recorder with you, or at least a notepad, and record as much as you can. Questions might include: • Do you belong to a particular religion? • If you are not religious, is there a particular reason for this? • How do you practise your religion? • How have attitudes to religion in Australia changed during your lifetime? • Do you know people who belong to another religion? • Are people in Australia more or less religious today? Why do you think this is the case? Remember: hearing about religion from a The Theosophy Society’s library is at 484 Kent St, Sydney. practitioner can be quite different from reading a book about that religion. Think about why this might be so. DID YOU KNOW? Some writers try to give you an ideal view of Hinduism, Islam or any other religion. That is because they are Theosophists are a religious group dedicated to investigating the trying to systematise a faith, simplify it and make its spiritualities of the world. Their resources are available to students. concepts easy to understand. Believers, though, are Try to use as many different sources of information as you can so linked to their religion, sometimes very closely, through that you gain a broader education in this subject. community and ritual, rather than just religious texts. Believers might even be part of groups inside a religion that have their own additional beliefs. If their opinions about their religion do not match up with what’s in the textbook, that does not make either the book or the believer wrong. It is the differences between the two, however, that will make your study more interesting. So always be thinking about any differences you might fi nd.

CONSIDER It can be argued that people who believe in a religious tradition cannot be impartial when discussing it. Can we learn anything useful from them? What do you think? Can people talk impartially about their own beliefs? chapter 1 the nature of religion 15

Visit! INVESTIGATE Visit a church, , synagogue or Hindu or Buddhist Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and fi nd the link temple. There are many religious communities. You to the ABC website. There is a ‘Religion’ heading on the site. Other may be able to visit temples, , churches and sections and programs may also be relevant, for example, synagogues and speak to many religious people. When ‘Indigenous’ or ‘Education’. What sorts of programs and information you ask someone about their faith, it is like asking ‘How are available? Does the site support just one religious tradition or are you? People are usually happy to speak about their many? What bias can you detect, if any? Is the information useful own experiences and their faith. Remember, however, to for your study? treat all people with respect and try to research some of the customs and traditions of particular religions before visiting them or their place of worship. That way, you The internet will be better informed and have less chance of offending Many religious communities in Australia have become through ignorance. experienced at posting information about their group on It can be diffi cult to walk into someone else’s temple, the internet. Some addresses have been included here mosque or church. Remember, though, some of these are because they are written from an Australian perspective constructed by their communities to be public buildings or have information unavailable elsewhere. Resist the and many welcome visitors. Moreover, many of the major temptation to copy out text (plagiarise) from the internet. plagiarise religious communities have visitor programs, so phone copy someone's ideas This is no way to develop your scholarly talents and is or writing without and ask if you can come along or check their websites. unethical and illegal. It is also the case that a lot of material acknowledgement Schools are often encouraged to visit religious places and on the internet is biased. Whenever you come across work with religious leaders and groups. Always remember information, always consider possible biases. This is a that care is required and you need to be conscious of very important issue when studying religion. Websites sensitivities and procedures. Check with the appropriate run by the ABC or its counterparts, the BBC (Britain) people in order to meet the conditions of a visit to a and CBC (Canada), can provide reliable information, as religious place and when dealing with specifi c religious do some reputable newspapers and certain entries in individuals and groups. sources such as Wikipedia (be careful when using The media Wikipedia as its information can be added or altered by anyone, and this can lead to defi nite bias). There is much When you research religious issues in the media, you detail on the web that is racist, extreme or based on might fi nd that religion is an issue that journalists do not opinion, speculation and rumour. Critical comparison of often like talking about. National and city-based website information is a necessity. newspapers such as the Sydney Morning Herald often have staff dedicated to religious issues. Find out who CONSIDER these journalists are and follow their work. ABC Television also broadcasts a weekly program called Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and compare the Compass that deals with religious issues. A good source two sites on the Church of Scientology. They say very different for up-to-the-minute religious commentary can be found things. How can we know which is accurate? Can you fi nd two on the ABC’s Radio National: The Religion Report, The websites that show a similar contrast for another religious group? Spirit of Things, The Ark and Encounter. The ABC website contains transcripts of many of its most recent programs. This website is a very rich source of material. Use it! 16 cambridge studies of religion

Bias exercise 1.1 Always consider the idea that, as sincere as religious people may be, they do have an interest in explaining 1 Propose several ways students their religion in the best possible light. As a student, you can learn about religion. must retain as much objectivity as you can. Even if you 2 Why should students be careful when are a Christian, you have to accept that many people do researching religion via the internet? not believe that Jesus returned from the dead. This is an issue of faith, not historical truth. The only documents 3 After researching a religious organisation via that tell us Jesus did rise from his tomb were written by the internet, identify some (if any) bias. Christians and form the core of the Gospels. Like a Gospels detective, you should think about why a person is saying the story of Jesus’ life activity 1.1 and teachings, especially what they say. Is it because they have been infl uenced as in the fi rst four books by others? Is it because of the group they are 1 Talk to a minister of religion or similar person of the New Testament connected with? from any religious tradition and discuss their tradition, noting the infl uences it has had on their life and their community. notes media 2 Go to the Cambridge Studies of Religion from class programs website and access the Nan Tien Temple link. Describe how the Buddhist community seeks to speak about their teachings. books interviews YOU 3 Go to a public library and look at the section on religion (200 in the Dewey catalogue system). Do you see a wide variety of books? Are there articles books that are of interest to you or would be helpful in your Studies of Religion course? internet newspaper articles

Compare, evaluate and use as many sources as you can.

The study of religion is challenging and can be a mind-expanding exercise that helps us to understand the greatest wonders and the greatest challenges of the human race. Humans also have strong motivations to alter and twist events to fi t what they wish to believe. It is your duty as a student to always keep this in mind. chapter 1 the nature of religion 17 The nature of religion and beliefs

how the word From the Romans, who were pagans and believed in more than one god, we have developed the idea that ‘religion’ developed religion must incorporate belief in divine beings and these beings inspire in us love and devotion, awe and Timeline reverence, and infl uence us to act in the right way. Religion, as we understand it, also tells us what that circa 0 BCE Romans are using the word ‘religion’. right way is. 300–500 CE The Roman Empire becomes Christian As we see from the Oxford English Dictionary and ‘religion’ refers mainly to Christianity. (second edition), many of the classical associations of the word ‘religion’ have been used in English, but some have 700s CE Islamic forces invade Spain; ‘religion’ can refer since become obsolete. There are at least seven to several monotheistic traditions. connotations of this word: 1500 CE Europe breaks into pro-Pope (Catholic) and 1 A state of life bound by monastic vows; the condition anti-Pope (Protestant) forces; the word ‘religion’ is of one who is a member of a religious order, especially increasingly used to distinguish these groups. the Roman Catholic Church. 2 A particular monastic or religious order or rule, a 1700s CE Reason-minded thinkers such as Voltaire and religious house (rare). Goethe become interested in world religions including 3 Action or conduct indicating a belief in, reverence for Islam, Hinduism and Chinese religions. and desire to please a divine ruling power; the exercise 1800s CE The word ‘religion’ means something or practice of rites or observances implying this (rare). concerning a supreme god. 4 A particular system of faith and worship. 5 Recognition on the part of humanity of some unseen 1900s CE Scholars accept that ‘religion’ can refer to a higher power as having control of their destiny, and whole range of religious systems and does not necessarily being entitled to obedience, reverence and worship need a supreme god. (and so on). 2000 CE The debate continues, with some people 6 Devotion to some principle; strict fi delity or believing that ‘religion’ is a term only partially useful in faithfulness; conscientiousness; pious affectation or labelling various world communities. attachment (obsolete). 7 The religious sanction or obligation of an oath (obsolete). the nature of religion As far as scholarly defi nitions of religion are concerned, many nineteenth-century and early Many societies have religion but the word ‘religion’ is not twentieth-century defi nitions involved some reference to a word used by all societies. Unfortunately we don’t know a single god. From a Western point of view this might be for certain where the word came from. Some people justifi ed, but attitudes in the rest of the world can be far suggest it derives from the Latin verb ‘to tie’, with more complex. In ‘religion’ can be found implied in re-ligare meaning ‘to tie back’. Religion is thereby defi ned the term sanatana dharma or ‘eternal law’. This implies, as a system that ties people back to a god or gods, or but does not necessarily require, belief in the supernatural, Taoism tradition, or an oath made before a god, or a religious as some atheistic schools of Indian philosophy major Chinese religion/ group, or a society in general. The following paragraph demonstrate. Similarly, in China the idea of Tao can philosophy, founded imply ‘the way things should be’ but does not necessarily about 600 BCE; also describes Latin scholar Carl Meissner’s view of how the known as Daoism Romans used the word. suggest that the supernatural is essential to an Religio (original meaning probably ‘that which binds understanding of how Tao operates. In the religious Confucianism the religious or down’ c.f. religo, leges, lictor etc.) denotes, subjectively, tradition of Taoism, this term can be applied quite philosophical system religious feeling, devotion, fear of God, religious scruple, mystically. In Confucianism, Tao is used in a very based on the teaching conscientiousness. Objectively it means the object of pragmatic manner to suggest the correct way of living. of the Chinese Confucius (551–479 BCE) religious fear, a sacred thing or place, and also something Many traditional also fi nd the which is contrary to God’s will, such as a crime, sin or idea of the sacred, religious or mystical hard to separate curse; lastly, in an active sense, it means a religious from the rest of their lives. obligation or an oath. 18 cambridge studies of religion

FURTHERMORE religion as What is a ‘religion’ in Australia? On the legal front, Australian Federal a world view law makes an interesting case for what is religious. After a famous ‘World view’ is also known by its German philosophical philosophy High Court decision between the Commonwealth and the Church of term Weltanschauung, which translates as ‘the way a the study of the general Scientology in 1984, a new legal defi nition of religion was created. principles of knowledge society sees the world’. That is, the society into which you Perhaps the best way of defi ning religion in certain instances is to are born determines how you may see the world in a examine how groups speak of themselves as religious entities. particular way. The way you see it is based on a set of cultural assumptions. You may understand ‘god’ to mean an all-powerful fi gure who created the universe. You may assume that time operates as a line and is not circular. You may believe you have the right to freedom of speech and that all sorts of religions are free to exist in your society. These assumptions form part of your world view. In some other parts of the world these ideas are not accepted as cultural norms. Religions promote their own world views. In Hinduism and Buddhism, time operates as a cycle, that is, ages repeat themselves. This idea is harder to accept in the West where time is believed to begin at a starting West, the point (for Christians, the one in the Book of Genesis in Western civilisation includes Western Europe the Hebrew Bible) and travel in a straight line to its fi nish (e.g. the United Kingdom, (such as the Book of Revelation in the Christian Gospel). France, Germany), It can therefore be seen that religions shape the world the United States of America and Australia views through which we see reality. exercise 1.2

1 Defi ne ‘religion’. 2 Explain why the Latin term re-ligare is a good word to describe ‘religion’. 3 Discuss your understanding of the term ‘world view’. activity 1.2

1 There is an old saying: Never discuss, sex, religion or politics in general conversation. Construct a 50-word letter to the editor of a Film actor, John Travolta is a well-known Scientologist. newspaper on why religion should be discussed. 2 Hold a small poll with family and friends. What is the majority religious affi liation? Analyse briefl y why this may be so. 3 Construct a small PowerPoint presentation with dot points on your initial interpretations of what is good and what is bad about religion. Upon completion of the Studies of Religion course, perhaps you can go back to this presentation and see if any of your views have changed. chapter 1 the nature of religion 19

the supernatural: the characteristics the transcendent of religion

dimension These days many Aboriginal people are Christians but, when Christians fi rst arrived in Australia, many of them monotheism In Judaism, Christianity and Islam, God is said to failed to recognise Aboriginal spirituality as a religion. the worship of only transcend (rise above) the world, that is, God is one god They thought the best way to help Indigenous Australians predominantly beyond the world. This is an idea common was to make them Christian, to force them to forget about transcendence to monotheism. Transcendence is different from an existence above their Dreaming stories. There were, and to an extent immanence, which refers to the spirit pervading the or apart from the there remain, very different attitudes to religion in material world world, particularly in the immediate realm of people’s Australia. Aboriginal people, when they fi rst heard of lives and experiences. A deity can be both immanent (in immanence Jesus, thought it was the white person’s Dreaming story. the idea that gods the phenomena of the material world) and transcendent They didn’t understand why they had to believe it as well. or spiritual forces (beyond the world), and this division can be used to pervade the universe White people couldn’t understand why the Aboriginal distinguish various forms of belief. For example, and are present in people did not have a supreme god. every aspect of life, Pantheism suggests that the divine is in created order. Ninian Smart, one of the leading scholars of religion, as compared with the Some religions, such as Japanese Shinto, believe that idea of transcendence has provided us with a useful defi nition of religion. there is spirit in many parts of the environment. This Religion, Smart suggests, comprises many or all of the deity idea of all-pervasive spirit is often called animism, which following seven points. a god or goddess is often understood as a link between spirits and the Pantheism physical world. Remember that transcendence refers to Smart’s seven characteristics of religion the idea that God the ‘out there’ aspects of spirituality, while immanence is in everything 1 A practical and ritual dimension, including worship, refers to the ‘inner’ aspects of spirituality. In general prayers animism terms, the monotheistic religious traditions, such as 2 An experiential and emotional dimension, that is, an primitive or tribal Judaism, Christianity and Islam, focus on the idea of religion; the belief emotive content behind ritual and prayers that spirits inhabit transcendence, while Indian religions such as Hinduism 3 A narrative or mythic dimension, for instance, stories all objects and have and Buddhism focus more on immanence. infl uence on people that pertain to a particular tradition such as Judaism’s and natural events Immanence use of the Flood story or the Christian Garden of Eden story, or a Dreaming Story evangelical This transcendent dimension can also be spoken of as originally, ‘from the 4 A doctrinal and philosophical dimension: a system of something internal. As your study proceeds, you may Gospels’; from the 18th values or laws century CE it refers to listen to believers’ accounts of their faiths and how they 5 An ethical and legal dimension: the idea that rules a Protestant movement speak of their religious experiences. You will fi nd many that believes one’s have to be applied to uphold both the values and Christians, for example, particularly those who are soul can be saved only understandings that a religion may offer to the world by having faith in the evangelicals or Pentecostals, who will talk of the 6 A social and institutional dimension, which includes atoning death of Jesus ‘inner light of Jesus’ or of Jesus entering their hearts. the actual organisations that constitute the religion Pentecostals ‘How do you know this has happened to other people?’ 7 A material dimension: buildings, works of art and followers of the variant we asked a Christian minister. He replied, ‘You know of Christianity that so on. that Jesus is with them because you see their life change emphasises the gifts Smart is less interested in what people believe and of the Holy Spirit completely’. Here we have a link between an internal trying to understand the religion and its adherents. He is change believers say has taken place and the need to more interested in how they express their beliefs. Under constantly transform the self. this approach, Smart’s defi nition plays down the idea that This is something you will also fi nd in the lives of a religion needs a supreme god. But we cannot apply a Buddhists, who use meditation to transform their mind, defi nition like this to all religions. Some traditions, such body and perception of the world. In the Buddhist as Chinese Confucianism, have little mythic dimension. example, self-transformation can be both a religious quest to refl ect the true nature of the Buddha and also used more philosophically to make oneself a better, more peaceful and more considerate human. 20 cambridge studies of religion

an example of the exercise 1.3 characteristics of 1 Life is often spoken of as including both the sacred (to do with religion) and the secular religion: judaism (those areas distinct from religion). Describe The Studies of Religion syllabus condenses Smart’s seven the relationship between the sacred and characteristics into four sets of characteristics of religion: the secular. Does religion regard the sacred and the secular as distinct areas of life? • beliefs and believers • sacred texts and writings 2 Defi ne ‘transcendence’ and ‘immanence’ • ethics and explain how they are different. • rituals and ceremonies. 3 Outline some of the characteristics of religion. Beliefs and believers As you will read in the chapters on Judaism later in activity 1.3 this book, this religion has helped keep a community 1 Identify a religious tradition that emphasises unified for thousands of years. Believers who were transcendence. Identify a religious tradition spread out in countries from North Africa to Europe that emphasises immanence. Design a and the Middle East (a Diaspora) relied on their beliefs Diaspora to unify them. Their ‘system of symbols’ as Geertz the Jewish community two-column chart and note the similarities outside Israel and differences between the two. described it – texts, synagogues, laws and ethics – kept the Jewish people united even when there was no 2 Construct a table and, choosing one Jewish state or homeland. particular religious tradition, list and Ask yourself: if Australians were suddenly thrown defi ne, using examples, the characteristics out of Australia and our nation had to disperse to many of religion as they apply to that particular different countries, how easily would our symbols of tradition. (Note – do not choose Judaism Australianness keep us together? It would not be at all as examples follow in the text below.) easy, but then Australia is simply a nation. It does not 3 Look though a television guide and combine a nation and a religious system as Judaism did at identify how many shows on religion will its beginning. In the time of the dispersion (or Diaspora) be available in one week. Distinguish the of the Jewish people, Jewish identity was maintained by variety of shows and religious traditions. Jewish beliefs and community. The beliefs of Judaism include the belief in one god, the Covenant and the law that makes them the people of God. Sacred texts and writings The most important Jewish scripture is called the Tenach or Tanak; it is also known as the Jewish Bible or Hebrew Bible. Because Christianity started as part of the Jewish religion, many parts of the Jewish Bible can be found at the front of the Christian Bible. Christians call these texts the Old Testament. It contains exciting stories and beautiful poetry. It is also fi lled with books of law and tells the story of the creation of the world. Other stories tell of decisions made by the kings, heroes and heroines of Judaism. They show how God was either happy or not happy with what they did and said. The laws show Jewish people how they should live and behave. The fi rst fi ve books of the Hebrew Bible are called the Torah and are The Ten Commandments believed to have been compiled by the prophet Moses. chapter 1 the nature of religion 21

A prophet is a person who is considered to be a Rituals and ceremonies messenger of God, that is, a person who says they are inspired by God or heaven. The Hebrew Bible is a Alongside the religious book the Tanak, Jewish rituals collection of sacred scriptures, but it serves many purposes are inextricably linked to the togetherness of the Jewish beyond the messages prophets have received from God. It community. One important ritual (for orthodox Jewish inspires those who read it, and literature refers to it. It people) is the weekly meal called the Seder which marks Shabbat illustrates the nature of God, and records what God said the start of the rest day called Shabbat. Both a family an important ritual meal and a religious event, the Seder serves many observance for Jews. through the prophets. Long ago, when the Jewish people It represents the day on fi rst had a nation, all their major rituals were held at a functions. It is held on a Friday evening, marking the which God rested after single temple where, it was believed, God resided. When beginning of the Sabbath. It centres a most important he created the world, Jewish ritual in the home. It places a focus on both that is, the seventh day the Jewish people were forced to leave their homeland of creation as recorded in and their temple was destroyed, the Hebrew Bible scripture and the joy of good food. It strengthens family Genesis. Shabbat literally became the most signifi cant symbol of Jewish identity. ties by bringing all the family together to share their means ‘cease’ and religion and each other’s company. refers primarily to the Jewish worship today centres around the reading of the seventh day of the week scriptures. The Hebrew Bible is read each year from Religions can be broken down into different cover to cover and Jewish people understand where they components for discussion such as liturgy, text, stories are in time through their scripture. or myths, philosophy, ethics, laws, art, architecture etc. There are always two avenues to approaching a textual Ethics – secular and religious law religion: the textual and the experiential. Anyone relating to a text can read the Tanak or other religious or academic texts. The Book of Leviticus, which is one of the fi rst fi ve books experiential We can read about the history of a religion, and we can of the Hebrew Bible, contains laws. These laws not only relating to experience even read its scriptures, but it is also vitally important tell Jewish people how to behave ethically, but how to live to see it in action. within their fundamental covenant relationship with God. There are laws about what to eat, how to plant crops, what to wear, how to bathe and so on. They provide a complete world view. Ethical commandments about how to behave include warnings on not being greedy or desiring what other people own. They should respect their parents and communities and so on. Leviticus suggests that, if each Jewish person follows these laws and ethical rules, they will be happy and prosperous, and ultimately God will be happy and grant good things to all Jewish people. In Australia we have laws administered by the government and applicable to all religious groups in our society. Our government represents the world view of a Western secular or non-religious democratic state. In many religious systems, including Judaism, Islam and A Shabbat meal Indigenous beliefs, the main law is a religious law. In some states in Australia judges may allow traditional laws and punishments to work alongside government laws for the Indigenous population. Jewish and Islamic people Shari’a law who live in countries like Australia must live under local legal code of Islam secular laws, although Jewish law or Shari’a (Islamic law) based on the teaching of the Qur’an and other can still infl uence their lives in ethical ways. Islamic sources 22 cambridge studies of religion

the contribution exercise 1.4 of religion 1 Analyse how Jewish identity has been maintained over the years. Religion can make a profound contribution to how we understand ourselves as human beings. It can also 2 Explain why the Hebrew Bible is contribute to culture, the arts and our views of the world. important for Jewish people. Religions discuss the basic questions of life and may 3 Discuss an important Jewish ritual. address the issue of a supreme being, or an ultimate cause and reason for life. Religious beliefs can help us answer such questions activity 1.4 as ‘Who am I?’ ‘Why do evil and suffering exist?’ ‘Is 1 Look back at the table of the characteristics of there life after death?’ Answers to these questions religion you created previously. Add examples can offer comfort, a sense of belonging, meaning and for each characteristic from this section on community, and can contribute to the mental health Judaism. What similarities or differences of a society. Religion can also confront, challenge and between the two religious traditions can you stimulate change in a society, especially in the face of a see? You might also like to add examples from social or political injustice. the religious traditions you will be studying Religions can also encourage extreme violence in the Preliminary and HSC course. when their believers become convinced that their world view is being challanged. 2 Construct a flowchart outlining how these characteristics interact to Is there a supreme being? Does God exist? create a dynamic, living religion. Many thinkers have tried to argue that God or gods and 3 Propose and organise an excursion, spirits do exist. A nineteenth-century theologian named either with fellow classmates or alone, Paley gave this argument: if you found a watch on the to see a religious tradition in action. road, you would look at it and assume that someone must have made it. The world is far more complicated than a watch, so it must have been made by some kind of sentient being. Evolutionary theory, fi rst developed by Charles Darwin in 1859, argues, however, that the world developed by natural processes. There are some religious people today who feel that Darwin’s scientifi c theory is wrong. They are called Creationists because they believe that the Book of Genesis is literally true and the world was created by God in six days only a few thousand years ago. Many Westerners think that Genesis is a beautiful metaphor and that Darwin was right. This doesn’t mean these people are not religious. agnostic They may see their god differently than the Creationists, person who believes and feel that the biblical stories were recorded for a that it is impossible different purpose than to provide an exact explanation to know whether God, gods or spirits exist for the state of the world’s origins. The existence of a supreme being is ultimately a atheist matter of faith, intuition and emotion, and is something person who can fi nd no rational explanation believers say they ‘know’ in their hearts. Agnostics for the existence of have no firm belief either way. Atheists do not believe God, gods and spirits in gods or spirits. chapter 1 the nature of religion 23

In India, China, Japan and South-East Asia the cosmos Dynamic living religions is believed to have always existed. There are some stories about creator gods, but these gods create worlds out of things One of the tasks of the great world religions we will be that already exist in different forms, and they are minor examining is how they deal with death – both our own gods. Buddhists revere Buddha not as the creator of the death and the deaths of those we love. Religious belief can universe but as a very wise teacher who became enlightened offer a community great comfort in a cosmos that seems to an inner wisdom. worship their gods because vast and uncaring. The comfort and security of a religion they help create, destroy and re-create the universe, helping is nevertheless subject to time and change. Religion the souls of believers become better along the way. represents tradition and constancy, but if it is too constant, too rigid, it may become irrelevant to some people. This is Why do evil, pain and suffering exist? what makes the study of religion so exciting: examining how a religion can offer stability and certainty and how it Buddhists reply, ‘Because you desire to be in the world reacts to the challenge of an ever-changing world. too much’. Buddhism is a system that helps you to see that your desires, emotions and reactions to things happening around you do not need to exist. omnipotent all powerful In Judaism, Christianity and Islam, pain and exercise 1.5 suffering are explained through humankind’s free will. They could also be explained by the presence of the devil 1 Construct one question that or Satan. Satan torments people in the hope that they will religions may seek to answer. turn away from goodness. He is a force who works against 2 Recall, based on your knowledge God, monotheists say; however, different monotheists at this time, whether all religions take Satan more or less literally. This satanic argument believe in the concept of ‘God’. for the existence of evil is problematic because God is supposed to be omnipotent, and should therefore have 3 Predict whether all religions suggest the power to destroy Satan. This is counterpoised by the there is life after death. doctrine principle of free will – meaning that humans ultimately a body of teachings that form the basis of choose for themselves the directions of their own lives, activity 1.5 a belief system and this can lead them into pain. Is there life after death? 1 Choose one of the big questions of life such as, Why are we here? Investigate the answer Just as some people are eager to prove the existence of given by one of the religious traditions. God, so too they try to prove there is life after death. Most Does the answer given by that religious of the major religions seem to agree on this point. In tradition satisfy you? Why or why not? Hinduism there is a doctrine of reincarnation that a soul exits the body after death and returns into a new body 2 John Milton’s Paradise Lost, published in just before it is reborn. The good or bad that a person does 1667 CE, is considered a classic discussion in their life leads to an easier or more diffi cult new life. of evil. Investigate it on the internet and The Chinese believe that when a parent dies it is the duty discuss whether it contributes to your of the son or daughter to venerate the dead by placing understanding of good and evil. food and other offerings on the family altar. When 3 Construct an outline for a talk on the Buddhism arrived in China, the doctrine of rebirth following subject – ‘Religion has made became very important. Rather than cancelling out a great contribution to the lives of cosmos ancestor worship, the doctrine of ancestor worship and the universe viewed as individuals as well as the community.’ an ordered system reincarnation fused into a complicated idea of what happens to the soul after death. 24 cambridge studies of religion Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spiritualities – the Dreaming

The second part of the Nature of Religion syllabus refers origins of the students to an Australian example of a belief system that encompasses many of the aspects of religion discussed universe above. As an essentially animistic religion, Aboriginal Indigenous Australians do have stories about how certain spirituality refl ects the essential characteristics of parts of the land came to be the way they are. Many religions. Having said that, Aboriginal spiritualities are stories tell of ancestors who are lying in a state of sleep. not simple but complex areas of belief and practices that The stories tell about them waking and doing things, but only those who are initiated into their complexities can there is no general theory regarding where everything fully understand. Nevertheless, the Dreaming is an (including the ‘universe’ – a Western scientifi c and appropriate subject to study to try and obtain a deeper theological idea) came from. The universe already existed understanding of the nature of religion. in some form in most Dreaming stories. Indigenous Australians do not have a universal story that explains the nature of the creation of everything. the dreaming In fact, this is the fi rst interesting challenge: the issue of time. Scientists have discovered that Australian The Indigenous Australian world view is a distinctive Indigenous civilisation extends back as far as 70 000 years religious system. It is a religion strongly linked to the land or more, but Indigenous Australians did not have a formal and the land remains alive with religious signifi cance. calendar. The Arrernte people of central Australia could The Dreaming is not chronologically distinct from now name thirty changes in the course of 24 hours which – it is a different order of events from our ‘now’. The basic included: outline of all the Dreaming stories is that something • the Milky Way stretches out across the centre of the sky Dreaming, the exists – the land, a site, some rocks, a waterhole; a story is the belief system • bandicoots return to their burrows of the Australian then invoked that explains how an ancestor transformed • the shadows are variegated Aboriginal peoples this land. In the time of the Dreaming, the environment • the sky is afl ame with red and yellow. was shaped and humanised by mythic beings, many of whom took animal or human form. These beings are Recognising these patterns throughout the day and eternal, although they may have travelled beyond the across the year helped establish when rituals would take lands of the people who still sing about them. These place. Each day repeats these patterns in differing forms, stories are essential to Indigenous cultures because they and they are not cyclical, but more rhythmic or parallel. explain why things are the way they are. They explain It is for this reason that speaking of a Dreamtime is why the landscape looks as it does, why certain animals incorrect, and reference to a Dreaming is more cannot be eaten and others can, how people should appropriate. The Dreaming is not a concept of time, but a behave and what rituals should occur. Dreaming stories class of events. The term ‘Dreaming’ is variously contain all the information needed to live in a place, translated into Indigenous languages and is used to refer prosper and understand the story of the land. to two things – events which are embodied in the stories told about various parts of the landscape, and actual INVESTIGATE features of that landscape. During one ceremony, elders were singing a great creator-snake through the landscape; Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and follow the night fell and the elders stopped. An observer, the links for the Dreaming. Note that, when reading or hearing Dreaming academic Tony Swain, asked what happened to the snake; stories, there are several layers of meaning in each story. Often there the reply was simply, ‘We leave him there until tomorrow is the creation of a physical feature, rather than a moral/tribal/ when we sing him on again’. cultural aspect. There are also deeper meanings that are only The cosmology of Indigenous Australian religion accessible to Indigenous peoples, or initiated members or elders. does not appear as some great theory, but rather as a code of rules, assumptions and manners that are illustrated throughout a series of stories relating to a particular cultural group. chapter 1 the nature of religion 25

The creation of the Darling River – a Dreaming story told by Aunty Beryl Carmichael

This is the creation story of Ngiyaampaa country, as well as the land belonging to Eaglehawk and Crow. Long, long time ago, in the beginning, when there was no people, no trees, no plants whatever on this land, Guthi-guthi, the spirit of our ancestral being, he lived up in the sky. So he came down and he wanted to create the special land for people and animals and birds to live in. So Guthi-guthi came down and he went on creating the land for the people. After he'd set the borders in place and the sacred sights, the birthing places of all the Dreamings, where all our Dreamings were to come out of, Guthi-guthi put one foot on Gunderbooka Mountain and another one at Mount Grenfell. And he looked out over the land and he could see that the land was bare. There was no water in sight, there was nothing growing. So Guthi-guthi knew that, trapped in a mountain – Mount Minara – the water serpent, Weowie, he was trapped in the mountain. So Guthi-guthi called out to him, ‘Weowie, Weowie’, but because Weowie was trapped right in the middle of the mountain, he couldn't hear him. Guthi-guthi went back up into the sky and he called out once more, ‘Weowie’, but once again Weowie didn't respond. So Guthi-guthi came down with a roar like thunder and banged on the mountain and the mountain split open. Weowie the water serpent came out. And where the water serpent travelled he made waterholes and streams and depressions in the land. So once all that was fi nished, of course, Weowie went back into the mountain to live and that's where Weowie lives now, in Mount Minara. But then after that, they wanted another lot of water to come down from the north, throughout our country. Old Pundu the Cod, it was his duty to drag and create the river known as the Darling River today. So Cod came out with Mudlark, his little mate, and they set off from the north and they created the big river. Flows right down, water fl ows right throughout our country, right into the sea now. And of course, this country was also created; the fi rst two tribes put in our country were Eaglehawk and Crow. And from these two tribes came many tribal people, many tribes, and we call them sub-groups today. So my people, the Ngiyaampaa people, and the Barkandji further down are all sub-groups of Eaglehawk and Crow. So what I'm telling you – the stories that were handed The Darling River down to me all come from within this country. 26 cambridge studies of religion

The story told by Aunty Beryl shows that the In this way, the Dreaming creates a reality that Darling River, as a sacred site, comes with its own sacred ensures people can inhabit the land and be at one with story which can be explained in the following way: the ancestors. Acknowledging these rights and responsibilities ensures that you will be well and that you Stories of the Dreaming can rely on the Darling River to provide for your needs. At the start of this tale something exists – the landscape This creation story is also brought to life through and the ancestor spirits are already there. Next, something ritual. At the site of the river, in particular, this story becomes active – an inactive ancestor comes to life, and becomes the centre of the action. The story of creation then brings others into the story. Finally, because of that may be sung right through. While it is being sung, the awakening and movement, a new awareness is brought to actions of the singers or dancers may have particular symbology the people in the ritual so they can understand the land signifi cance. Through this symbology they re-enact the the study of symbols and their relation to it. story. They follow the action of the story as it moves The main plot of the story is about the creation of around the site. Woven into it are a whole range of laws the land, in particular, the creation of the Darling River and ideas. To remember the story is to remember how to in western New South Wales. The creation involved live life as tradition has decreed. several ancestor spirits. Guthi-guthi is the creator spirit Symbolism and art who releases Weowie, the water serpent, who fi rst creates the water features of the landscape. Old Pundu the Cod The art of story telling in Ngiyaampaa country is backed and Mudlark are also involved in this creative process, up by other arts. Body painting in Indigenous ritual making the Darling River. refl ects the symbols of the ancestors. Similarly, the story The story also tells of the creation of the two groups, of creation can be drawn on the sand or painted on various Eaglehawk and Crow, which include the Ngiyaampaa surfaces. As if looking down from above the site, the and Barkandji people. From this story, an ongoing link ancestors and other elements can be brought alive in a between these two groups can be drawn and there are map. These maps, when done in colours on canvas or implications regarding their relationships. There is an bark or in a particular style, can sometimes be sold to art underlying layer of meaning in this story that relates to collectors for large sums of money. the relationships between these groups and also to their totems. So there are other dimensions – practical and totem ethical ones – to the story, for example, do not eat certain object such as an animal, exercise 1.6 plant or particular species of fi sh or do not marry people who are taboo or landmark through forbidden. This story has implications relating to the use 1 Outline what the Dreaming is. which an australian of the river and, in particular, to the fi sh that can indigenous person is 2 Identify some of the features of Dreaming stories. linked to the ancestral be eaten. being responsible for Other stories leave hints regarding such things as 3 Defi ne what ‘layers of meaning’ may include. his or her existence. where food is to be found and how it is to be prepared, what areas are forbidden to men or to women, and other activity 1.6 aspects of life, including practical aspects of daily life as well as ethical, moral and tribal issues. As well as telling 1 Investigate another Dreaming story of creation and the development of groups, these and present it to the class. Dreaming stories function as the law, an ethical 2 Investigate another Dreaming story, perhaps reinforcement system, and the rituals themselves are a from your area, and discuss whether it could way of marking the rhythmic progression of events, be diffi cult for Westerners to understand the including the growth of each generation of children into concepts contained in the Dreaming stories. adulthood. 3 Construct a table with these four headings – FURTHERMORE Origins of the universe, Sacred sites, Stories of the Dreaming, and Symbolism and art. The strength of the links to subclans or subsections of the cultural Outline how the Dreaming relates to each. groups is seen played out in the making of documentary of Rolf de Heer’s fi lm Ten Canoes (2006). The director becomes increasingly frustrated because only people in certain clans can play the role of particular ancestors. The documentary shows how complex this Indigenous classifi cation of tribal members can be. chapter 1 the nature of religion 27

The diversity of the Dreaming the connection of The Darling River creation story would make little sense the dreaming, the if it was told at some other site, because at the Darling River are the river, the rocks, the waterholes and the trees land and identity that make the story real. We can also say that the site There are other connections between people and land. does not make sense without the story either. So the story The tribe that inhabited a particular area was responsible becomes a passport to this part of the land. The whole of for a particular animal which was the totem of the tribe. Australia is divided into particular ‘countries’ for cultural Thus the kangaroo people, those that came from a tribe groups. Each group has its own domain or ‘country’. To that held the kangaroo as its central symbol, were pass through someone’s country, you should know the responsible for ceremonies that symbolically increased Dreaming story attached to it. and decreased the population of kangaroos as they were needed for eating. But the kangaroo people never ate their importance of the totem. They ate other foods which were the totems of other tribes. This helped the development of a system of dreaming for the life tribal interdependence, and there seems to be very little of aboriginal peoples evidence of large-scale inter-tribal warfare, as each tribe considered its food supply to be dependent on the totems The mind map below illustrates how Dreaming stories of other tribes, who controlled the supply of that food present an entire world view for Aboriginal people from source through their rituals. ethics, to ways of hunting for food, the creation of art, how These sorts of increase ceremonies are conducted to make things, and how to do magic such as ‘love magic’. continuously. They generally involve specifi c individuals, sometimes only one person, performing many different rites to ensure the maintenance of several different sites. ethical It needs to be emphasised that those who conduct such behaviour how to make increase rituals are rarely allowed to partake in the results things of their ritual. So they are in fact performing these ceremonies for other groups. Another way we can stress the Indigenous connection advice on food passport to to the land is by looking at connections between the land gathering and the land and people. Indigenous people often say that they are born preparation DREAMING from the land, and not at particular sites. STORY Another example of an Indigenous traditional ritual is how, when a kangaroo is hunted and its body brought lives of the for cooking, a series of specifi c steps take place. Cuts are ancestors explanations of made on the animal to allow its blood to drain, the belly is why the land looks like it does cut open to remove the viscera, and the front left paw is broken. The details of this process have to be carried out information correctly, just as the dietary proscriptions in the Jewish about performing Book of Leviticus are carried out by devout Jews. When it how to operate rituals love magic comes to increase ceremonies, or singing ancestors through the landscape, these things are done because of tradition. It is these traditions that hold society together. It is, we might argue, the way societies bring into being a INVESTIGATE map for understanding and making their own views of reality work. Find a picture of the Aboriginal fl ag. Look at the colours and what they symbolise. One explanation is that the black represents the Aboriginal peoples, the yellow circle represents the sun and the red represents the earth. If this is accurate, how does this relate to the Dreaming and the land? Research via the internet what the meanings of the colours are and see if the explanation given above is correct. 28 cambridge studies of religion

exercise 1.7 end of chapter

1 Investigate whether the Dreaming summary is the same across Australia. • Religion can be a vital aspect of life 2 Interpret what the Dreaming teaches. • Students need to interview, visit and 3 Explain the Aboriginal concept of the land. experience religion, with care • Be aware of the presentation of religion activity 1.7 in the media and on the internet, and the bias that is usually evident 1 Discuss the following topic – ‘There is not one Dreaming, there are many’. • Religion can be defi ned in various ways 2 Investigate some Indigenous art and • Religion is a way of seeing the world, write a report on a particular work that a world view you feel demonstrates the Dreaming. • Religion contains a transcendent 3 Construct a table and list three headings: the and an immanent dimension Dreaming, the Land, and Aboriginal identity. • There are several characteristics of religion Investigate two different Dreaming stories that help us understand religion and summarise these elements in your table. • These characteristics include beliefs, experience, sacred stories, ethics, social and material dimensions • These characteristics can be identifi ed when applied to a religious tradition such as Judaism • Religions contribute to the lives of individuals and society in addressing the important questions of life and infl uencing society • The Dreaming is the central concept in Aboriginal spiritualities • The Dreaming is commonly expressed through stories • Aspects of the Dreaming include the origins of a particular region/country, sacred sites, stories, and symbolism and art • The concept of the Dreaming is common, but the stories, characters and expression are diverse across Australia • The Dreaming presents an entire world view for Aboriginal peoples • There is an inextricable connection between the Dreaming, land and identity chapter 1 the nature of religion 29 End of chapter questions multiple choice questions (10)

1 Why is religion important to understand? 7 What does every Dreaming story contain? a It helps people understand multicultural Australia. a different layers of meaning. b It helps understand people and their attitudes. b instructions on where to fi nd food. c It affects culture, politics and history. c maps of the tribal territory. d All of the above. d instructions on how to interact with non-Indigenous people.

2 When studying religion, students should: 8 The cosmology of Aboriginal life appears as: a accept everything written in books about religion. a some great theory. b recognise that people’s experience of their b a series of stories. religion might be different to the textbooks. c a code of rules, assumptions and manners. c become a member of every religion. d a written text available to a selected few. d only look at religions in their local area. 9 The Dreaming is: 3 Religion is a word: a the same all over Australia, a common expression. a that everyone understands. b more important in the city than the country. b that no one understands. c available to all Australians, Aboriginal c fi rst used by the Romans. and non-Aboriginal peoples. d that comes from ancient Sanskrit texts. d diverse, relevant to a particular ‘country’ or domain.

4 The characteristics of religion include: 10 How are Aboriginal attitudes to the land a earth, wind, fi re and water. different to those of non-Aboriginal people? b beliefs, sacred texts, ethics, rituals and ceremonies. a Aboriginal peoples do not care about the land. c song, dance, music and spoken word. b Aboriginal tribal groups are responsible for the d none of the above. care and stewardship of the land they inhabit. c Aboriginal peoples sold portions of the land to 5 Which of the following might be considered non-Aboriginal people for large profi ts. the basic questions of life? d Non-Aboriginal people only want a Is there a supreme being? or Who am I? the land for garbage dumps. b What time should people worship God? c Should I marry and have children? d Should I teach others what I have learnt?

6 The central concept of Aboriginal spiritualities is: a the role of members of the tribal unit. b the totem. c the food gathering process. d the Dreaming. 30 cambridge studies of religion

short answer questions (6) response to stimulus question 1 What is the best way to study a religion: as someone who believes and so knows the religion In Douglas Adams’ famous book series, The Hitchhiker’s from the inside, or as someone who can look Guide to the Galaxy, white mice try to discover the meaning in from outside? Explain your answer. of life. They build a huge computer and come up with the answer ‘42’. They fi nd this answer unsatisfying. 2 Explain the difference between the concepts of transcendence and immanence and how What are some of the answers that satisfy you about why they relate to the study of religion. you are here in the world and why the universe exists? Would you describe all of these answers as religious? 3 Describe some possible problems with Ninian What are some of the answers to life that you fi nd Smart’s seven characteristics of religion, using disappointing? What questions do you fi nd unanswered? examples from a religious tradition you know.

4 Describe a story from the Dreaming and outline how it relates to the origins of the world and one other aspect of life.

5 Describe how the Dreaming dictates how the individual, the family and the community should act.

6 Outline how the land is important to Aboriginal people. extended response questions (3)

1 Propose your own ideal religion and describe what elements from Ninian Smart’s list you think would be the most important.

2 What are the main features of the Dreaming stories that show how important these stories are for Aboriginal people?

3 If you were, or are, an Aboriginal person, in what ways would parts, or aspects, of the land help you understand who you are? A galactic hitchhiker chapter 2

Religion in Australia pre-1945 32 cambridge studies of religion

He prays for our souls on Sunday, and takes it out of bodies during the rest of the week. (a convict quote about rev. samuel marsden in the fatal shore, robert hughes) chapter summary

This chapter discusses:

• The arrival and establishment of • The contribution of one Christianity and other religious religious tradition, Christianity, traditions in Australia to each of the following: » Christianity, including » Rural and outback communities signifi cant people and events – the Presbyterian Church » Hinduism and the Australian Inland » Judaism Mission and brief comments » Brief comments on Buddhism on the Coolgardie Mosque and Islam » Education – the Catholic church and the Sisters of St Joseph • Issues relating to the development » Public morality – alcohol of Christianity in Australia pre-1945 and ‘wowserism’ » Sectarianism – Catholic/ Protestant antagonism » Social welfare – organisations and the churches’ attempts to relieve needs chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 33 Arrival of Christianity

Church of England The arrival of Christianity in Australia is linked to the establish the new colony had one Church of England the offi cial established colonisation of Australia by the British. As the dominant minister aboard, Reverend Richard Johnson (1753– church in England religious tradition in Great Britain, Christianity was 1827). The Church of England had broken away from exported to Australia and became the dominant religion the Catholic Church during the reign of King Henry in the new colony. VIII (1509–1547) and had become the State Church of Modern Australia began in 1788 with the England. Richard Johnson was responsible for religious penal establishment of a penal colony in New South Wales. practices in the young colony. He worked with convicts, relating to punishment The early Sydney colony was part of a broad strategy by guards and sailors and developed a good relationship European nations, particularly France and Britain, to with the Indigenous people. The First Fleet, however, export criminals and political dissenters. The state of was multi-denominational. There were between six Georgia in the United States also developed as a penal and thirteen Jews on board. Of the Christians, a range colony of Britain. New South Wales expanded through of differences divided them. Although the Church of the settlement of people the British government did not England was the government approved (or Established) want. Up to 1810, 12 000 convicts were sent to Australia Church in England, Wales and Ireland, the from England and Ireland. This was less than 10 per Presbyterian Church was established in Scotland. cent of those who would come as transportation Throughout the British Isles there were unofficial non-conformists continued until 1868. Protestant movements including Methodists, Quakers, those who do not conform Australia was established as an outpost of the , Unitarians and Congregationalists. These to the state religion; in the case of England, British Empire with the arrival of the First Fleet in groups are known as non-conformists because they the Church of England 1788. The ships that sailed into Port Jackson to do not conform to the Church of England.

Society of Pentecostal Baptist Friends

Congregational Methodist Independent Charismatic U.R.C. 1972 Presbyterian Salvation Army Church of 1900 England 1650 1865 Brethren 1608 Roman Catholic 1820 1784 Exclusive Brethren 1559 1581 Lutheran 1534 Orthodox 1519

The Great Schism 1054

This tree shows the dates and breakaway points of Christian denominations. The groups that broke away from Catholicism and the Church of England before 1788 came to be represented in the new colony of New South Wales. 34 cambridge studies of religion

In addition to the Jewish and Christian groups, about a third of the convicts were Roman Catholic. There were problems evolving out of Non-conformist Christians being compelled to attend Church of England services, but real hatred existed at this time between Protestants and Catholics. This was not only due to religious differences, but also because England had invaded and ruled Ireland since the sixteenth century. In fact Catholicism was only made legal in Britain in 1829 with the Catholic Emancipation Act. For the fi rst years of colonisation, the Church of England was the dominant denomination, and it was closely linked with the British government. For this reason there was a lot of antagonism to the Church in Australia. The convicts, many of whom had little interest in religion, thought that the chaplains forced on them on Sundays as well as serving as magistrates during the week. Catholic and Jewish convicts were given no opportunity to express their faiths. Non- conformists were ignored. Religion was closely associated The Irish riots of 1798 were inspired, in part with the soldiers and the government for convicts in the by the French Revolution a decade earlier early years of the colony. Indeed, Richard Johnson returned to England after 12 heartbreaking years of confl ict and confrontation with riots in castle hill the various governors of the colony, as well as with the convicts. He had, during his years in Sydney, built a Beneath the quiet streets of Castle Hill, a suburb in church that was later burned down by convicts, and he Sydney’s north-west, lies buried a brutal encounter also developed one of the fi rst successful farms. He between Catholics and Protestants that took place in the returned to England in 1800, experiencing ill health, and new colony. William Johnston, an Irishman who had was described by his successor, the Reverend Samuel been deported for his part in anti-British riots in Ireland, Marsden, as ‘exhausted with toil, vexations and privations’ gathered support for an attack on the colony’s (from a letter by Marsden to the Bishop of London). administrators in 1804. Using the catchcry of ‘liberty’, Johnston gathered over three hundred disaffected Irish INVESTIGATE Catholics and began marching on Parramatta. One of the convicts involved in the movement became scared and Research and discover what links there might be between the betrayed the group to the governor. The leaders of this French revolution and the colonisation of Australia and, in rebellion were caught and executed. Other members of particular, the opposition to British rule by the Irish. the rebellion were punished by enforced resettlement in Newcastle. They were obliged to attend Church of England religious services. Forcing Catholics to attend Church of England rituals was common in the early life of the colony. Together with nationalistic tensions, religion became a way of relegating Irish Catholics to a ghetto- like existence. Tensions between Irish Catholics and British Protestants continued to divide Australian society for the next 150 years (see Sectarianism on pages 41 and following). chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 35

the catholics notable protestant obtain priests ministers The fi rst Australian Catholic mass was celebrated in the Samuel Marsden new colony in 1803 but the priest who carried out the Richard Johnson was replaced as Church of England mass, Father John Dixon, a convict, was later alleged to minister to the colony in 1810 by his assistant Samuel have been part of the Castle Hill riots. He was banned by Marsden (1764–1838). Marsden was based in Parramatta the governor from further priestly duties. It was not until where he owned much land. He detested Catholics and the end of the governorship of Lachlan Macquarie (1810– was known as the ‘fl ogging parson’ because, as well as 1821) that Catholics from 1820 were able to attend mass being a religious leader, he was also a magistrate who conducted by a priest. It was also during this time that subjected convicts to harsh punishments. (See the quote churches such as St Mary’s Cathedral in Sydney were at the beginning of the chapter.) He believed that begun. These buildings began, initially, with land grants Aboriginal people were not human enough to understand by the governor. Christianity. Similarly, he thought Catholics barely Father Joseph Therry (1790–1864) was a much- worthy of the title ‘human’ either. He stated: loved Catholic priest. He petitioned the colony’s government for support for Catholic schools and other [Catholic convicts were] the most wild, ignorant and savage race that were ever favoured with the light of institutions. Although he was removed in 1824, by civilization; men that have been familiar with every 1836 a series of Church Acts distributed funds to the horrid crime from their infancy. Their minds being four main denominations in Australia. The Church destitute of every principle of Religion and Morality renders then capable of perpetrating the most nefarious Acts were important pieces of legislation that sought to Acts in cold blood. They are extremely superstitious, assist genuine religious efforts in the colony. This artful and treacherous which renders it impossible for government money was used to build churches and the watchful and active government to discover their real intensions. schools and pay priests and ministers. It had the effect quoted in robert hughes, THE FATAL SHORE, of ensuring that the Church of England was not the london, collins, 1987, p. 30 state church in Australia. Marsden believed that Catholics were not fit to be a part of the colony and needed to be suppressed at all times or else they would rise up and kill the British. He was eager to encourage free Protestant settlers to come to Sydney. The more enlightened Governor Macquarie challenged these ideas, promoting ex- convicts to government service and legitimising Catholicism, but Marsden and others were shocked. Marsden was key to the eventual dismissal of Macquarie from the role of governor. John Dunmore Lang John Dunmore Lang (1799–1878), a Presbyterian religious leader, had a great infl uence on both the religious and political life of the colony. He was the fi rst Presbyterian minister in Sydney and from the early 1820s set about establishing schools and colleges for local families. On his trips back to Britain he encouraged free settlers to come to the colony and even obtained funding from the British government to make this a possibility. Lang moved into politics and worked in the New South Wales parliament, and was at times a heavy Lachlan Macquarie critic of the governor. He was an early promoter of an was governor of New South Wales Australian republic and did much to nurture the from 1810–1821 development of the colony throughout his long life. 36 cambridge studies of religion

Sister Mary INVESTIGATE MacKillop Investigate the life of Johnson, Marsden, Lang or another early Australian religious leader. How did they contribute to the establishment of Christianity in Australia? women in early australia

The contribution of women, whose labours also supported the colony and helped its religious institutions grow, must be acknowledged. It was not until much later that the role of many outstanding women came to the attention of the writers of colonial history. Caroline Chisholm Caroline Chisholm (1808–1877) was a force for change within Australia. Growing up as an adherent of the adherent Church of England, she was already devoted to social person who supports or gives allegiance to welfare issues. She married a Catholic and converted to a religious tradition his denomination. She championed the movement of free FURTHERMORE settlers into Australia as a small-farming class during the 1840s. She was an advocate for voting rights for all Dr Anne Summers wrote a book about the colonisation of women in members of society at a time when voting was restricted Australia entitled Damned whores and God’s police (Penguin, to those who owned property. She is most remembered 1975). Discuss some of the reasons this title was chosen and for her devotion to the assisted immigration of women to whether it is an appropriate title. encourage the growth of the penal colony into a legitimate society. She saw female immigrants as ‘God’s police’ who would bring new stability and order to Australia. exercise 2.1 Mary MacKillop 1 Briefl y describe the arrival of Christianity in Australia. Mary MacKillop (1842–1909) was born in Fitzroy, . Together with Father Julian Tenison Woods, in 2 Outline the diffi culties Christianity 1866 she founded an Australian teaching order, the had in becoming established. Sisters of St Joseph. They founded this order to help in 3 Identify one signifi cant person in the the establishment of Catholic teaching facilities establishment of Christianity. throughout South Australia. By the time of her death, nearly a thousand women had become Sisters of St Joseph in different places throughout Australia. Her infl uence on activity 2.1 education is particularly notable. 1 Construct a table with two columns that Mary MacKillop is currently famous because the illustrates current attitudes to religion in procedure is underway to make her Australia’s fi rst . Australia and how they may be related She should also be remembered as one of many to the early days of settlement. outstanding religious leaders who worked to establish Christianity in Australia and strove to supply social and 2 Research how divisions in the Christian educational resources for members of their churches, and Church were refl ected in the new colony. society more generally. 3 Prepare a brief oral presentation about Mary MacKillop and the reasons she is in the process of being made a saint. chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 37 Arrival and establishment of other religious traditions

As well as Christianity, other major religious traditions hinduism in australia were evident before 1945. Some, such as Judaism, came on the First Fleet. Others arrived soon after, and Before the establishment of the Commonwealth of Aboriginal spiritualities were of course present before Australia in 1901, various colonial governments in European colonisation. When looking at non-Christian Australia, industry groups and farmers all encouraged religious traditions in Australia before 1945, there are the importation of indentured labour from Asia, India indentured labour work under a fi xed-term two important periods. The fi rst lasted until 1901, and in particular. Indentured workers were under contract to contract with repressive the second period began after that date. The most work at a set price for a number of years. They were not conditions, often signifi cant event of the times was the Federation of entitled to stay in Australia after their contracts expired. involving bringing a person to a country for Australia in 1901. In this way cheap labour could be used to take care of a certain period of time livestock. Before the 1840s, convicts had done this and to do a certain job INVESTIGATE other menial jobs. The demand for labour was fuelled by the slowing of the transport of convicts from the United Investigate the Immigration Restriction Act 1901. What can you Kingdom in the 1830s. discover about its enforcement in Australia before 1945? How did Once explorers had forged across the Blue it affect the expression of religion in Australia? coolie Mountains and into western New South Wales, vast an unskilled labourer, tracts of rural land for sheep and cattle were opened up usually Asian Federation – several Australian colonies joined into a nation in 1901 and there was a demand for shepherds and other labourers in the area. The call for coolie labour by free settlers became so strong that separate colonial commissions on immigration were held in 1837, 1838 and 1841. In 1842 a coolie association was established by pastoralists. This group was resisted by many colonials, mainly freed convicts, who felt that cheap labour would worsen wage conditions for all and increase unemployment. The passion for indentured labour was also opposed by the Colonial Offi ce in London. Many Christians who worked in this offi ce were passing through a period of evangelical zeal. They believed that slavery, or anything that resembled slavery such as indentured labour, was wrong. Despite the lack of government assistance, immigration from the Indian subcontinent did take place in relatively small numbers. Indians worked initially as shepherds, itinerant workers such as tinkers and salesmen, or servants for the wealthier colonialists. By 1854, a fourth commission brought Asian immigration to an end in New South Wales. In Queensland, however, from the 1860s onwards, plantation-style operations for sugar cane and bananas led to the assisted immigration of Hindus from India and Sri Lanka, Punjabi Sikhs, Polynesians and Italians. The subcontinental labour was indentured. When the period of tenure was complete, various state laws made residency and employment in other areas extremely diffi cult. 38 cambridge studies of religion

Racism and Federation judaism in australia The very fi rst law introduced by the new Federal parliament in June 1901 was the Immigration Restriction Act. It became law on 23 December 1901. Under this law a language test was used to hinder non-white immigration. The alleged purpose of the dictation test was to ensure that anyone wanting to enter Australia had a reasonable level of education. However, not all applicants were asked to do the test, and some did it in their own language. It was given only if an immigration offi cer believed a potential migrant was ‘undesirable’. Invariably, this would be a person who was coloured or of Asian background. The dictation test did not have to be given in English. If an Asian person had been educated in English, they could be given the test in German or Spanish. Due to pre-Commonwealth immigration, in 1911 there were 4106 ‘Hindoos’ in Australia. ‘Hindoo’ was a census classifi cation that included Muslim Afghans, Punjabi Sikhs and Indian Hindus. Sikh families in Woolgoolga, a town in northern New South Wales where the fi rst Australian gurdwarra was opened in 1968, gurdwarra recount that their ancestors came to Australia before 1901 Sikh place of worship or temple and, given the prevailing systems of racial control, maintained strong contact with the subcontinent: ...men would marry and beget children to their wives in India between sojourns in Australia... With few exceptions, the wives and daughters remained in India; Esther Abraham only recently have women emigrated in numbers. (de lepervanche, 1984: 60) Early Jewish convicts were often uneducated in Judaism, At that time, however, Indians were British subjects and the beginning of a Jewish community was not until and sometimes appealed to Britain with complaints of the late 1820s, when free settlers began migrating. Ashkenazi their unfair treatment in Australia. It was only through Overwhelmingly, these settlers were Ashkenazi, Jews originally from appeals from other parts of the Empire concerning the middle-class and from England. A small number of northern Europe equal treatment of British subjects in Australia that many Sephardim contributed to the community in South Sephardim non-white residents, including South Asian Australians, Australia. These Jewish colonial pioneers were Jews originally from were given the vote in 1925, twenty-four years after it had concerned about social integration. They did not around the Middle East and North Africa been enshrined in the constitution. By 1947, only 2189 completely assimilate, lose their Jewish identity or people identifi ed themselves as ‘Indian’, an indication of become absorbed by the dominant Chr istian community. the effectiveness of the White Australia policy. They considered themselves ‘Englishmen of the Mosaic For the most part, Hinduism in Australia before persuasion’ and were not distinct from the surrounding 1945 was expressed through worshipping at home altars, community in their religious practices. They saw rather than in community temples. Judaism as a denomination, a term that was more familiar to the Christian thinking of the colony. To avoid confl ict the early Jewish settlers promoted the view that Judaism was primarily a matter of private conscience, as indeed was all religious expression. They were determined to stop Christianity becoming identifi ed as the state religion, and promoted a secular approach to life in the new colony. chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 39

The Great Synagogue in Sydney

Forming a community (Beth Din). His visit lasted fi ve months and he helped to unify the small Sydney Jewish community, corrected its In an attempt to avoid the negative connotations of the religious practices and gave the impetus for the term ‘Jew’, the Jewish population of the colonial days establishment of the fi rst formal congregation in used the terms ‘Hebrews’ or ‘Israelites’ and called their November 1831, held in rented premises. congregations ‘Hebrew congregations’. As a way of From the 1820s, handfuls of committed Jewish seeking acceptance in a largely Christian community, pioneers, most of them small businessmen and former organisations such as the Hebrew Philanthropic Society, convicts, established the foundations of congregational founded in Sydney about 1832, the Hebrew Mutual life, consecrated cemeteries and built synagogues in the Benefi t Society founded about 1848, the Hebrew Ladies’ main urban centres of Australia. In 1828, merchant Maternity and Benevolent Society, and the Australian Phillip Cohen held regular synagogue services at his Israelite, Australasian Hebrew and the Hebrew Standard Sydney home, and he oversaw the establishment of the were all established. Sydney Hebrew Congregation in 1832. The fi rst Jewish Jewish communal life was not easy to maintain, synagogue in Australia was opened in Bridge Street, and the founding of the Jewish burial society in Sydney Sydney, fi ve years later and a permanent building was in 1817 was a result of the desire of Jewish convicts and consecrated in York Street. The Sydney Hebrew emancipists (those who had completed their sentences Congregation has worshipped at the Great Synagogue in and were now free citizens) to be buried according to Elizabeth Street since 1877. Jewish practice. There were already formal prayer Australian synagogues are more than places of services as, under Jewish law, all that is needed is ten worship and are also responsible for the regulation of adult Jewish males. The fi rst Torah scrolls, crucial for education, dietary laws and charity, and the supervision the Torah reading that was to occur three times each of burial grounds. Synagogues are the focal point of all week, were brought to Australia in 1830 by Rabbi Aaron aspects of Jewish life in Australia. Levy, a judge (Dayan) of the London Rabbinical Court 40 cambridge studies of religion

Throughout the nineteenth century, valiant Islam may have fi rst come to Australia through the efforts were also made to foster a frontier Judaism. sixteenth-century visits of Maccassan fi shermen from Goldrush communities and country towns established Indonesia. Burial places in north-western Australia date congregations in Broken Hill, Forbes, Goulburn, from this time. The building of the overland telegraph Maitland, Tamworth and Toowoomba. These dwindled line saw an infl ux of ‘ghans’, camel drivers identifi ed as as soon as the ore petered out. A few individuals struck Afghans, although many came from a number of other lucky, while others eked out existences as traders or west Asian regions. They were Muslims and lived in pedlars. Most drifted back to the cities, or else married ‘ghan towns’, often outside the major settlements. They outside their religion and assimilated fully into rural built a number of mosques, some of which are still in use society. The goldrush pattern was repeated in Western today. The Broken Hill mosque is one of the oldest Australia in the 1890s, where Jewish congregations at mosques still in use in Australia. Many of these Muslims Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie flourished for a short period. returned to their own countries at the end of the Sandhurst (Bendigo) and Ballarat in Victoria were nineteenth century, to rejoin their families. large enough to maintain functioning congregations for longer periods, although both were in decline by the turn of the century. exercise 2.2 Urban drift is a constant factor in Australian Jewish 1 Compare the arrival of Judaism with that history. Indeed, it has applied to most minority ethnic of one of the other non-Christian religious and cultural groups in rural Australia. Obvious examples traditions and discuss the differences. include the small nineteenth-century German communities of Grafton and Albury. While the 2 Outline some of the racist attitudes that may have patriarchy patriarchal infl uence of the Lutheran Church, the been experienced by a religious tradition other pertaining to fathers – a society run by men development of a German-language press and the than Christianity upon its arrival to Australia. formation of German social organisations prolonged 3 Discuss the signifi cance of the ‘Hindoo’ ethnic allegiance, the lure of the wider community classifi cation in the early census. undermined increasingly superfi cial links with tradition. Essentially, the maintenance of ‘Jewishness’ has always depended on group support and active involvement in the activity 2.2 educational, social, cultural and religious structures of an identifi able community. The outside pressures on rural 1 Religion and history in Australia are Jews invariably proved too great to allow old ties to persist intertwined. Organise a class debate beyond a couple of generations. But Jewish identity has on the White Australia policy and the persisted, particularly in the cities, and strong Jewish effects that it had on various religions. communities exist today. 2 Organise a visit to a synagogue and buddhism and islam present your observations to the class. 3 Construct a PowerPoint presentation of a Chinese religions arrived in Australia perhaps as early as mosque of your choice near where you live. the 1500s, when the southern oceans were explored by Chinese sailors. There was a strong Chinese presence during the goldrush days of the mid-nineteenth century, and many experienced overt racism. The Chinese population was largely made up of followers of Chinese folk religions and there were also many Buddhists. By 1891, the Chinese made up 1.2 per cent of the Australian population, although many previous residents had already returned to China. Sri Lankan Buddhists were employed as pearl divers and on Queensland sugar fi elds. By the beginning of the twentieth century they had built a temple and planted two bodhi trees on Thursday Island. Again, as a result of the White Australia policy many returned to their homelands. chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 41 Issues related to the development of Christianity pre-1945

described as belief in its own sense of rightness by a There were several issues that emerged during the early particular sub-group of a society. Before 1945, European settlement of Australia surrounding the development of Australia found itself divided along very clear lines. The Christianity. Two of these issues, sectarianism and following table, describing Australian sectarianism before social welfare, were evident from the beginning and World War II, illustrates how this division pervaded lasted until at least 1945. society at every level, although of course there were sectarianism exceptions to these divisions. Sectarianism was most obviously expressed in sectarianism For most of European settlement, Australia was strongly Catholic/Protestant confl ict, but also existed within excessive devotion Protestantism, particularly between Church of England to a particular sect divided between Catholics and Protestants. This division or religious faith was a form of sectarianism. Sectarianism can be adherents and non-conformists.

TABLE 2.1 SECTARIANISM IN AUSTRALIA BEFORE WORLD WAR II

PROTESTANTS CATHOLICS

History Looked to Britain for identity. Mainly convicts – criminals, economic Connected to the military, free settlers, and political prisoners. Links to Irish the middle and upper classes independence, predominantly working class

Nicknames Squatters Rockchoppers Proddos Tikes

Politics in Australia Conservative, Liberal Party Working class, Labor Party

Attitudes to Australia Should be part of the British Empire and a Should be an independent nation constitutional monarchy. Britain is our ‘real’ home. free from international control.

Lived North Shore, expensive parts of the Inner city ghettoes such as Balmain and Redfern eastern suburbs of Sydney

Sport Favoured rugby union Favoured rugby league

Employment The Federal government, farming, private enterprise The state government – especially the railways

Education Private Protestant colleges, public Catholic-built primary schools and schools, universities high schools, rarely university

Subversive groups The Masonic Orders of Australia were Supported movements dedicated to the used as anti-Catholic secret societies. overthrow of British rule in Ireland Connected to the New Guard, a paramilitary group that trained in the 1930s, especially to protect Australia from Catholics 42 cambridge studies of religion

Daniel Mannix and the During World War I, Australian Catholics were issue of conscription suspected of disloyalty, and more so after the Easter Rising in Dublin, Ireland against the British in 1916. Daniel Mannix (1864–1963) was born in Ireland. He was Father Charles Jerger, a priest of German background, ordained as a priest in 1890 and sent to Australia in 1912 was interned in 1918 for discussing conscription in public, to act as an assistant to the Archbishop of Melbourne, and deported in 1920. Historically, dislike of Catholics whom he succeeded in 1917. He represented the high was based on a dislike of foreigners. It was claimed that point of sectarianism in Australia, cementing Irish Irish Catholics were the fi rst ‘ghetto’ ethnic community. Catholic unity. While he was a known supporter of Irish Anti-Catholic feeling was quite subtle, but occasionally independence, he was also known for his strong rose to the surface. disapproval of violence, including that perpetrated by Today, the idea that an archbishop could join a public fellow Catholics on behalf of Ireland and/or Catholicism. debate with such success may be implausible, but in In 1914, when Australia entered World War I, Australia during the years of sectarian division, Mannix remained ambivalent about the war. Many Catholicism, anti-British sentiment and nationalism were Protestant ministers were urging their congregations to all parts of a general social outlook. Archbishop Mannix join the war effort at all costs. The war was devastating represented a powerful subgroup of the Australian nation. for Britain, and Britain placed great pressure on Australia Many other Australians, especially the Methodists, to send more troops. Prime Minister William Hughes also opposed conscription. (1862–1952) held a national referendum in 1916 to see whether the Australian people agreed with conscription. The death of sectarianism conscription Hughes narrowly lost this vote, and it was Mannix who a legal act by a In 1945, Australia had a population of about eight million government to force its was his main opponent. people. The Japanese attacks on Sydney Harbour and citizens to enlist in the defence forces, mainly Darwin during World War II led politicians and Daniel Mannix, a highly intelligent priest, became the with the objective of voice for a generation of Irish-Catholic Australians bureaucrats to think that such a small population could sending them to war not effectively defend such a large continent. From 1945 onwards, a program of immigration was instigated by the Chifl ey Labor government and continued under the conservative Liberal government of Robert Menzies. The infl ux of new migrants to Australia following World War II, together with a growing awareness of diversity, particularly from people who had served overseas, and the changing attitudes of Australia to religion in general, all led to the demise of sectarianism as a major division in Australian society.

INVESTIGATE Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and follow the link to the Australian War Memorial website. Look up ‘The Anti’s Creed’. Examine it and explain how it refl ects sectarian attitudes during World War I. chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 43

social welfare Salvation Army

Many religious communities were eager to build their Former Methodist minister William Booth established own institutions for social welfare. These were the Salvation Army in London, in order to make religion desperately needed in a large country with governments more accessible to people living in the slums. While his struggling to keep up. Today welfare is often provided work began in 1865, the name ‘the Salvation Army’ was by the state. This was not the case in the early part of not taken up until 1878. The spiritual focus of the the twentieth century and before. Support for people Salvation Army was amalgamated with a focus on social who could not work or were disabled or disadvantaged welfare and charity work designed to help the struggling came from community sources. These sources were lower classes and homeless. The fi rst Salvation mainly religious. Army meeting to be held in Australia took place on Christianity, as with many other religions, regards 5 September 1880. charity and a sense of social conscience as central to its Other Christian groups and denominations also activities. Christians can be open-hearted when it comes became involved in the provision of social welfare, but to offering support, but the question of belonging to a were more regional or state-based. Many of them became particular church emerged as a problem in the Great national organisations towards the end of the twentieth Depression of the 1930s. century. These other groups included the Sydney Home Anglicare Mission Society, which became part of Anglicare, national network of Benevolent Society of New South Wales Mission Australia and the Wesley Central Mission, and care and social justice agencies of the Anglican The Benevolent Society was established by Edward the Church of England Brotherhood of St Laurence Church in Australia Smith Hall in 1813 under the name ‘The NSW Society (Melbourne). for Promoting Christian Knowledge and Benevolence’, changing its name in 1817. One of the earliest social welfare groups in operation in Australia, it is best known exercise 2.3 for building Australia’s fi rst maternity hospital, but was also very involved in lobbying for a range of progressive 1 Defi ne sectarianism. social reforms. Its focus is on women and children, 2 Describe the role of Daniel Mannix although it also assists the elderly and the poor. in the sectarian debate. St Vincent de Paul Society 3 Summarise what motivated the churches The St Vincent de Paul Society is an international society to be involved in social welfare services. founded in France in 1833 by Frederick Ozanam, originally designed to assist the poor and less fortunate activity 2.3 who had suffered during the turbulent times France had endured. The St Vincent de Paul Society is identifi ed 1 Discuss in small groups why social with Roman Catholicism. The Australian branch of the welfare services have continued charity was established 21 years after its French through the history of Australia. establishment. By 1895, 26 bases had been set up 2 Debate the following topic: ‘Sectarianism has in Sydney. always been part of Australian history.’ 3 Investigate a religious social welfare agency and write a comprehensive report of its history and work. 44 cambridge studies of religion The contribution of one religious tradition

During the development of the Australian nation, there Mission (AIM). In this position he managed to serve not were several areas where religious groups were involved only the spiritual needs of the population but also, in meeting the needs of the Australian people. At this increasingly, their medical and other needs. time Christianity was the dominant religious tradition, AIM patrol padres, including Flynn, travelled but other groups, particularly the Jewish community, through the outback on horses and camels and by car. were also involved in ministry to the people. The areas With the assistance of Alf Traeger, a pedal wireless was that most required support were rural and outback developed to enable people to communicate with each communities, education, and concerns in the community other and with medical services. The Australian Inland about public morality. Mission also provided educational facilities, boarding hostels, aged care services and other services. rural and outback With the assistance of Clifford Peel, an Australian who had served in the Air Force in World War I, Flynn communities began the aerial medical service which later became the Royal Flying Doctor Service. The fi rst fl ight left Cloncurry With religious groups, mainly Christian, sending in 1928, but it was not until 1934 that the Australian and community support members into the Aerial Medical Service was formed, with bases heartland of Australia, it is not surprising that religious established nationwide and the backing of both clergymen leaders helped develop social services for the outback. For and politicians. By the time of his death in 1951, Australia example, German Lutherans were encouraged by their was covered by what Flynn called ‘a mantle of safety’. It home churches to travel to places such as outback was innovative and valuable work that continues as the Australia to spread Christianity. A mission such as Frontier Services of the Uniting Church of Australia. Hermannsburg was both a centre for Christian activity Other Christian churches were also involved in and a community. The education of Aboriginal children developing ministry in outback Australia, such as the and the provision of healthcare were of primary Church of England (the high-church Bush Brotherhoods, importance. Sometimes missionaries helped and the evangelical Bush Church Aid) and the Catholic sheltered Aboriginal people who were being poorly Sisters of Mercy. treated by other white people. Some white settlers were

responsible for contributing to a deterioration of the A 1929 portrait of Aboriginal way of life and Aboriginal culture. Some Reverend John Flynn organisations documented Aboriginal history and culture and so preserved it. Thus religious missions were able to provide the means of contact and institutions that enabled a sense of community to be maintained. Christians were particularly concerned about the isolation and needs of people in the outback. Presbyterians, the Australian Inland Mission and the Royal Flying Doctor Service The Very Reverend John Flynn (1880–1951) of the Presbyterian Church made an outstanding contribution to the life of rural Australians. He was born in Moliagul, north of Melbourne in Victoria and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1911. He was commissioned by the Presbyterian Church in 1912 to write a report on the needs of outback Australia. He wrote a report to his superiors about the problems of offering ministry services to those living in such a remote and expansive area. The report indicated that there were areas of need, including isolation, poor medical care, poor communication and the need for spiritual guidance and ministry. Flynn was then made the fi rst superintendent of the Australian Inland chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 45

The outback Islamic community and the Coolgardie Mosque In 1898 there were 300 members of the Muslim They married in the Coolgardie Mosque and she lived community in Coolgardie. Some attended Friday prayer in the Ghantown with him, much to the disdain of her each week. Public records show that at one stage there fellow prostitutes. were two mosques in Coolgardie, with fi ve other buildings Bullock drivers and horse teamsters competed also used for public worship. The one ‘minister’ and with the camel drivers. Racial divisions became three ‘lay readers’ might be taken for an imam and other evident; the cameleers were Afghan, the bullockies lesser prayer leaders. The camel industry in Coolgardie were European. Cases of assault and murder against was very large and most cameleers were Muslims. The Afghans were dismissed by racist courts. In the 1890s, predominance of so-called ‘Afghans’ can be seen in the in Queensland’s west, there was a major campaign of number of Muslim names of camel owners. By 1899 racist vilifi cation against the camel drivers. Local there was a sudden drop in the numbers, a refl ection of newspapers declared Afghans to be ‘more detestable the opening of the neighbouring gold fi eld at Kalgoorlie. than the Chinese’ and attacked them for refusing to Many of the Afghans in the outback married. drink alcohol and for opening their own stores and Sometimes that meant they had a wife back in India butcher shops. or Afghanistan as well as in Australia. Nameth The rising union movement in Queensland Khan, a camel driver with a wife and two daughters also had a strong racist rhetoric. Chinese people and in Peshawar, married an Aboriginal woman in the Afghans were seen as cheap labour, undermining registry offi ce in Alice Springs. Both he and his the standard of living of the whites. Unionists did Aboriginal wife died of the Spanish infl uenza in 1919. not fight for equal wages for all. They saw economic His Australian daughter kept in contact with his exploitation as linked to racial inferiority. Afghans, family in India, visiting the Punjab in the 1960s. Many unaware of the greater social issues for they were of the women the Afghans married were marginalised socially ostracised by the Europeans, continued to Aborigines whose tribal social system was carry wool to railheads for Queensland pastoralists disintegrating under the impact of white settlement. during the Shearers’ Strike. That strike nearly took Some were European women: widows with children, the country into civil war, and was a watershed in deserted wives and occasionally women attracted by the history of Australia. In 1891 the Toowoomba the wealth of established camel owners. For example, Infantry had to escort Afghans and their camels Bejah Dervish married a deserted wife with eight within Queensland and to the NSW border, as children. Their son went on the 1939 crossing of the they were in danger from enraged and militant Simpson Desert. In 1907 Gool Mahomet of Coolgardie unionists. Clearly the racism of the unionists was a married a French prostitute from a Kalgoorlie brothel. contribution to the issue.

education In some Catholic families parents encourage religious and general education in their children. It was Attempts to develop a state education system began in not unusual that Australian Catholics were eager to 1833. Private schools, mainly run by the Protestant clergy, support with money and labour the building of Catholic educated the upper classes of colonial society. Catholics schools. From 1833 to 1862 some government money became increasingly eager to give their children the was provided for the running of church schools, under opportunities that education afforded. The school system the Church Acts. After this date, successive governments of New South Wales developed into three competing in New South Wales and at a national level refused to systems: private Protestant schools, colonial fund such schools, but Catholics continued to give up governmentschools and schools built by the Catholic laity. their wages and their time to keep the schools running and build more. The family Within the Catholic Church there is a long tradition of The development of schools linking education to the clergy. Some of Europe’s most Father Therry, one of the fi rst Catholic priests in Australia, famous schools have been run by members of the Church worked during the 1820s to obtain Catholic religious hierarchy. Orders of monks and priests, such as the instruction in government institutions such as orphanages, pedagogical relating to the science Jesuits, have become famous for their intellectual and but he was prevented by active Protestants who wanted to of teaching pedagogical abilities. make Australia a non-Catholic state. To combat this, he 46 cambridge studies of religion

succeeded in establishing two Catholic schools, one in the Church of England, supported the right to have Parramatta in 1821 and another in Sydney in 1822. Therry religious schools. But in the fi rst instance things went continued to work for offi cial standing for Catholic badly. Secularists pushing for state schools were very institutions and government funding, and he challenged successful. Laws for free and secular education were the government for paying money to support Church of passed by the states. This left no state money for religious England schools and churches. In these campaigns he was schools, which were left to fend for themselves. relatively successful. During the 1830s funding was offered This defeat galvanised Catholics around to the four main denominations of New South Wales, Australia. Education within the Catholic community including the Catholics. This funding dried up in 1863. became a vital issue. Australian bishops went regularly to Europe and America seeking Catholic teachers. Lay CONSIDER Catholics were told to build a school in every parish and, although there was no government funding, Are many old arguments against Catholic schools now being used Catholics everywhere struggled to fund their local against Muslim schools? Before World War II, Catholic schools were schools. As taxpayers, Catholics felt cheated that some seen by non-Catholics as un-Australian – places where fervent of the money they paid to the government was not priests could indoctrinate generations of young Australians. returned in funding to church schools. Discuss whether you think that these attitudes are similar to those Catholic education offi ces were established to expressed today. oversee the general administration of schools and orders of brothers, nuns and lay teachers dedicated themselves During the 1860s and 1870s, government to teaching. Because of their efforts, today the Catholic commissions, public campaigns and meetings were held education system is the most extensive non-government to decide what would become of education in the education system in Australia. The Church is one of colonies. The government proposed to develop a fully Australia’s biggest employers. It was not until after World secular or non-religious system of education, and War II that some government funding for Catholic schools Catholics found that other religious groups, especially was reinstated.

A school in the late nineteenth century chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 47

One of the most significant contributions to The wowsers Catholic education in Australia was the development of educational facilities by Sister Mary MacKillop. ‘Wowser’ is a negative term used to describe those who She co-founded, with Father Julian Tenison Woods, attempt to impose their sense of morality on others in the the Sisters of St Joseph, who were devoted to caring community. Originally used to describe anyone obnoxious for and teaching disadvantaged children in South or disruptive in society, including feminists and political Australia in the mid-nineteenth century. By 1870, agitators, the term was particularly used to describe those there were twenty schools, orphanages and children’s who tried to enforce restrictions on alcohol consumption. It refuges run by the Sisters of St Joseph throughout is not known for sure where the term comes from. One Australia. There were troubled years when Sister popular suggestion is that it is an acrostic for the phrase ‘we Mary was excommunicated by the Bishop of , only want social evils remedied’. John Norton, editor of The clashes with the Bishop of Queensland, a falling out Truth newspaper, claimed he invented the term in 1899. with Father Woods and accusations of financial and Another suggestion is that it comes from the old English moral lapses. Much of this was because of the term ‘to wow’ which means ‘to mew as a cat, howl or bark as tremendous growth and popularity of the schools. a dog, wail, whine, grumble, complain’. The Macquarie Mary MacKillop won papal support for her dictionary defi nes it as ‘a prudish teetotaller; a killjoy’. independence from interference by the Australian Groups who promoted this anti-alcohol policy bishops. The Sisters of St Joseph continued in the included the Salvation Army and the Australian branch of development of their schools and have influenced the the Women’s Christian Temperance Movement. lives of many Australians. Mary MacKillop’s greatness Temperance unions worked for a whole range of ethical was recognised in her beatification in 1995, a final issues. They believed that banning alcohol would keep step before she is made a saint. men from the pubs and so they would spend more time During these years, prior to 1945, many other with their families. The temperance unions were very Christian denominations also developed schools, many much connected to women’s movements, for it was felt that of which continue as signifi cant independent schools the absence of alcohol in society would lessen domestic today. To provide education for rural and outback violence. Temperance movements, however, were also communities, a number of these schools included concerned with imposing a very censorious set of attitudes boarding houses for students. on society, to the extent of stifl ing its creative and cultural dimensions. Temperance unions and other groups such as friendly societies began as non-profi t organisations that public morality provided insurance against illness. Opposition to alcohol was part of a more general good-health message. In today’s world, some of the major ethical issues promoted by religion focus on bioethical concerns such Wowsers – shutting down Australia? as abortion, stem-cell research and so on. At the start of In their campaigns, temperance unions were very the twentieth century, these issues were not of great successful in the limiting of the sale of alcohol. Until concern, since biotechnology did not exist, and abortion, World War II, pubs were required to close at 6pm. This while practised, was not discussed. led to a phenomenon known commonly as the ‘six o’clock alcoholism Before 1945, many considered alcoholism to be rush’ or ‘six o’clock swill’. Working-class men leaving addiction to alcohol one of the most serious problems facing society. Today their jobs for the evening would rush to the nearest public there are numerous programs to help alcoholics and house, where they would drink large amounts of alcohol alcoholism is even treated as a medical disease. Before before the pub closed at six o’clock. The class dimensions 1945 many religious groups focused on the ethics of of this legislation can be clearly seen, since middle-class alcohol use. Many non-Catholic groups felt that men and women who went to restaurants in the evenings alcohol should be banned outright. Members of these could be served alcohol as long as they also ordered food. wowser groups, known by the derisory term wowsers, seemed Working-class Australians, many of them Catholics, Australian term to be working against the very nature of Australian referring to a puritanical were unable to drink after six o’clock because of the society. From the very early days of the Sydney penal fanatic or spoilsport pressure temperance unions exerted on the government. colony, alcohol was important and was even used as Temperance movements also pressured governments to currency. The wowsers felt that a whole range of limit the opening hours of entertainment venues such as ethical issues could be addressed if consumption of cinemas, theatres and shops. In cities around Australia, it alcohol could be prevented. was often the case that on Sundays and in the evenings no entertainment was available for the lower classes. 48 cambridge studies of religion

The wowser campaigns were markedly Protestant, not only in their moral authoritarianism but even more in their overt anti-Catholicism. One of the reasons for this was that the people running the campaigns were themselves strongly anti-Catholic. For example, WM Dill Macky, who was Grand Chaplain of the fi ercely Protestant Loyal Orange Lodge between 1899 and 1904, founded the Australian Protestant Defence Association (APDA) in June 1901 to achieve Protestant ‘union in political action’. A manifesto spoke of ‘the secret tactics and open aggressiveness of Roman Catholicism as an element of danger to the civil and religious liberties of the people of this state’. By the end of 1903, there were 135 APDA branches in New South Wales, claiming a membership of over 22 000! The other areas of life that engaged those concerned with public morality were gambling, public bathing, breaking the Sabbath by Sunday trading, censorship and ‘unconventional’ sexual expression. It can be argued that these, mainly Protestant, Christians were so concerned with specifi c individual actions that they ignored greater social ills. One issue that particularly concerned the Christian churches was Sunday trading. Many Christians were Sabbatarians, that is, they supported the idea of keeping the Sabbath holy, a day for Norman Lindsay, The Blue Shawl, worship and rest. They interpreted the Sabbath as Portrait of Miss Morgan Sunday and were concerned that this day be kept free of ordinary activities. Again, the intention was good – it exercise 2.4 was to be a day when people were not forced to work, and had the time to go to church and be with their 1 Discuss the infl uence of one religious tradition families. Unfortunately, it became an opportunity to in rural and outback communities. impose restrictions on the enjoyment of others. Thus 2 Outline the contribution of one shops were not allowed to open on Sundays, hotels were religious tradition to education. not allowed to trade, sport was not allowed to be played and so on. Again, wowsers were seen as wanting to spoil 3 Examine the concerns of one religious people’s enjoyment of life. Anti-wowser fi gures such as tradition in the area of public morality. the artist/writer Norman Lindsey (1879–1969) took great delight in provoking Australians. This painting activity 2.4 was particularly controversial. 1 Investigate the infl uence of John Flynn on early twentieth-century Australia. 2 Write a paragraph on the education debate in early Australia, and the role of one religious tradition. 3 Debate the topic – ‘Wowsers saved Australia from its worst excesses.’ chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 49 Conclusion

Prior to 1945, Australia was a nation coming to terms with different, mainly Christian, religious infl uences. As end of chapter a dumping ground for Britain’s unwanted citizens, the summary colony, not surprisingly, had a diffi cult start to its religious life. Yet Christianity was established as the dominant • Christianity arrived in Australia religious tradition during those fi rst 160 years. with the convicts in 1788 Christianity was not alone: the major religious traditions of the world all gained a toehold in those years. • Convicts resented the Church of England Christianity had a signifi cant presence in the • Irish Catholics sought freedom from the sectarian confl ict of those years, although this was not as Church of England and British rule serious as the denominational confl icts of European history. The churches were involved in providing for the • Catholic priests and non-conformist ministers needs of those seeking social welfare, meeting signifi cant were allowed into Australia in time needs later met by the state. • Samuel Marsden and John Dunmore As time passed and the spread of people through Lang were notable religious pioneers the continent developed, Christianity became concerned • Caroline Chisholm and Mary MacKillop about people in rural and outback areas, so groups such as were strong early female leaders the Australian Inland Mission developed to address those needs. Christianity, especially the Catholic Church, was • Other religious traditions were also keenly interested in education. Issues of public early arrivals in Australia morality were also, not surprisingly, of concern to the • Racism soon became a way of limiting Christian Church, and it seemed that in some ways other religious traditions in Australia Australia could not shake its convict origins. • Sectarianism, the confl ict within Christianity, was part of Australian life from the earliest days • During World War I, sectarianism was related to the issue of conscription • Churches were involved in providing social welfare • Signifi cant welfare organisations established in the early colony still provide welfare today • The Presbyterian Church was a signifi cant contributor to rural and outback communities through the Australian Inland Mission • The Coolgardie Mosque is an example of outback work in Islam • Education was provided early in the colony by the Catholic Church which sought to educate its own people • Mary MacKillop’s Sisters of St Joseph are a good example of Catholic education for the disadvantaged • Public morality was a particular concern of Protestants, who sought to remedy the social evils of Australian society • Public morality was encouraged to maintain order and family life in Australia 50 cambridge studies of religion End of chapter questions

multiple choice questions (10)

1 What was the state religion of England 7 The order of nuns begun by Mary MacKillop at the time of the First Fleet? and Father Julian Tenison Woods was: a Catholic a Sisters of St Joseph b Church of Scotland b Sisters of Mercy c Church of England c Australian Board of Missions d Methodist d Australian Inland Mission

2 What was the name of the fi rst chaplain in the colony? 8 Which church was critical of the Church Act of 1836? a Arthur Phillip a Uniting Church b Caroline Chisholm b Catholic Church c Richard Johnson c Unitarian Church d Father Therry d Church of England

3 Which religious tradition, together with 9 What did Sabbatarians oppose? Christianity, arrived on the First Fleet? a Gambling on Saturdays a Judaism b Shop trading on Sundays b Hinduism c Celebrating the Sabbath on Sundays c Islam d Saturday sport d Buddhism 10 Which term applied to Christians who tried to 4 Which of the following was one non-conformist impose their opinions in issues of public morality? church represented in the early colony? a Wowsers a Russian Orthodox b Temperance b Church of England c Catholics c Congregational Church d Methodists d Scientology

5 Which organisation is a Christian welfare agency that was evident in early Australia? a Red Crescent b Amnesty International c RSPCA d St Vincent de Paul

6 The name of the organisation of the Presbyterian Church begun by John Flynn was: a Frontier Services b Australian Board of Missions c Sisters of St Joseph d Australian Inland Mission chapter 2 religion in australia pre-1945 51

short answer questions (6) response to stimulus question 1 Outline how the Church of England became the dominant religion of the colony. (Rev Richard) Johnson had begun to despair: a hopelessness, a sense of failure, now informed his language whenever he discussed the progress of his sacred mission – a sense of the impossibility of his 2 Describe the arrival and establishment of one religious task, and an even livelier one of the depravity of his charges. tradition other than Christianity prior to 1945. from cathcart, m., 1993, MANNING CLARKE’S HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA, melbourne, melbourne university press, p. 7.

3 Describe the contribution of Christianity to Discuss the work of the early chaplains and clergy in social welfare in Australia prior to 1945. Australia, noting how that work was refl ected in the 4 Summarise the contribution of one religious development of Christianity in Australia prior to 1945. tradition to rural and outback communities.

5 Investigate the contribution by one religious tradition to education in Australia in the nineteenth-century.

6 Describe wowserism and discuss its infl uence on public morality in Australia. extended response questions (3)

1 Explain the dominance of Christianity in nineteenth-century Australia.

2 Discuss the issue of conscription during World War I, with reference to the sectarian nature of Australian society.

3 Discuss the issue of public morality in Australia with reference to one religious tradition. chapter 3

Religion in Australia post-1945 54 cambridge studies of religion

I think it's remarkable that recent histories of Australia seem to have forgotten the role of religion within the life of Australia. In fact for a lot of people it just never occurs to them that religion is one of the most formative infl uences on the whole shape of Australian society and culture. reverend david millikan, abc tv program religion report.

chapter summary

This chapter discusses:

• Contemporary Aboriginal spirituality • Changing patterns of religious adherence as revealed in census data • Aboriginal spirituality determined by the Dreaming • The current religious landscape » Kinship » Christianity as the major » Ceremonial life religious tradition » Obligations to the land and peoples » Immigration » Denominational switching • Dispossession » New Age religions » Separation from the land » Secularism » Separation from kinship groups » The Stolen Generations • The ecumenical movement » National Council of Churches • The land rights movement » NSW Ecumenical Council » Native title, Mabo and Wik » Interfaith dialogue in • The Dreaming and land rights multi-faith Australia

• Religious expression in Australia • Aboriginal spirituality and religious – 1945 to the present. traditions in the process of Reconciliation chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 55

Timeline 1970 More than 200 000 people participate in the largest demonstrations in Australian history, against the Vietnam 1945 End of World War II; Chifl ey government sets War. Australian churches reveal a variety of attitudes to up a Department of Immigration; Australia becomes a the protests; Pope Paul VI fi rst Pope to visit Australia founding member of the United Nations 1971 Neville Bonner becomes fi rst Aboriginal senator 1946 Minister for Immigration Arthur Calwell introduces the major post-war immigration scheme; 1972 Aboriginal Tent Embassy; Women’s Electoral Lobby over 800 Aboriginal stockmen go on strike over pay and set up; fi rst Labor government since 1949 is elected under conditions. It is revealed that they were getting minimal the leadership of Gough Whitlam wages for very diffi cult work. 1974 Woodward Royal Commission on Land Rights; the 1947 Australia agrees to take displaced people from Europe minimum wage the same now for women as men 1948 Nationality and Citizenship Act. Rather than 1975 Symbolic return of land to the Gurindji people; Family Australians being identifi ed as subjects of Britain, the Law Act introduces no-fault divorce; constitutional crisis Act establishes Australian citizenship occurs when Malcolm Fraser’s opposition blocks supply, bringing the nation to a standstill until Governor-General 1949 Plans for the Snowy Mountain Scheme announced John Kerr dismisses Prime Minister Gough Whitlam. 1950 Assimilation Act Fraser wins elections and becomes Prime Minister; Racial Discrimination Act established; South Australia becomes 1953 Welfare Ordinance makes the first state in Australia to legalise homosexuality Aboriginal peoples wards of the government between consenting adults in private 1955 Hotels in New South Wales no longer have to close 1976 Aboriginal Land Rights Act at 6 pm, ending the ‘six o’clock swill’ 1977 Anti-Discrimination Act; Sex Discrimination Act; 1956 Over one million new immigrants have arrived in the Uniting Church is formed on 22 June Australia since the war. They are mainly from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean and bring greater 1978 First Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras takes place in numbers of Catholic and Orthodox Christians. Sydney – people are arrested 1958 Migration Act removes the dictation test 1985 The government grants the freehold title of a large area of land in central Australia, including prominent 1959 Aboriginal people eligible for Commonwealth landmarks Uluru and Kata Tjuta, to the Mutitjulu government benefi ts people, who in turn give the government a 99-year 1962 Commonwealth Electoral Act allows Indigenous lease Australians the right to vote in all states except 1986 Pope John Paul II visits Australia for the fi rst time Queensland; Australia enters the Vietnam War as Pope; Affi rmative Action Act; Mary Gaudron fi rst 1965 Indigenous Australians gain right to vote in state woman appointed to the High Court of Queensland; the Second Vatican Council brings a 1988 Australia celebrates its bicentenary with large modernisation of Australian Catholic churches; the celebrations and major funding for capital works projects. Freedom Rides for Aboriginal equality begin The new Parliament House opens with a multi-faith 1966 The Wave Hill protests; the White Australia Policy service. Some Aboriginal peoples declare it a year of is discarded mourning 1967 Yes vote in referendum questions regarding 1992 The High Court delivers the Mabo Decision, which Aboriginal issues; Aboriginal peoples are now counted rules that Indigenous native title does exist. This effectively as citizens extinguishes the concept of terra nullius 1969 Arbitration Commission announces principle of 1993 The Native Title Act is passed and becomes law equal pay for equal work 1995 The Northern Territory legalises voluntary 1970s Conflicts in Lebanon, Sri Lanka and Vietnam euthanasia, but it is overruled by the Federal cause surges of immigration from these troubled government when Liberal MP Kevin Andrews zones to Australia, increasing Muslim, Hindu and proposes the Euthanasia Laws Bill 1996; Buddhist numbers Pope John Paul II visits for a second time 56 cambridge studies of religion

1996 The High Court hands down the Wik Decision, introduction which holds that Indigenous native title can survive the granting of pastoral leases; Liberal John Howard Religious expression in Australia since 1945 has been becomes Prime Minister, defeating Paul Keating after a very different to that of the fi rst 150 years of the colony. record 13 years of Labor government Australia became a Commonwealth in 1901 and endured World War I (1914–1918) which forged an Australian 1997 Native Title (Amendment) Act; Bringing them home identity. The following years of the Great Depression report on the Stolen Generations is published (1930s) and World War II (1939–1945) helped develop a 1998 The fi rst Sorry Day new independence from the rest of the world, and at the same time a sense of becoming a world citizen. In the 1999 Both houses of the Federal Parliament pass a motion years following the end of World War II, Australia found signifying both recognition of and regret at past treatment its focus on the responsibilities of global citizenship. This of Indigenous Australians. The Australian government included a re-examination of the relationships with the itself is yet to apologise; a referendum on changing to a original inhabitants of the land, the Australian Aboriginal republic is unsuccessful and Torres Strait Islander peoples. 2000 Cathy Freeman wins gold at the Sydney Olympics There was a new awareness that Indigenous Australians were not without spirituality, nor did they have 2001 John Howard is re-elected after the Tampa affair and a simple approach to the world. Aboriginal spirituality is an children-overboard affair occur as part of a crackdown on extremely complex world view that includes the illegal immigration Dreaming, complex relationships within kinship groups 2002 On 12 October 2002 bombs explode in a Bali and extensive obligations to the land. Many Aboriginal nightclub and bar, killing 202 people, including 88 people had become Christians, but retained some of their Australians; the Dalai Lama visits Australia ideas from their Aboriginal spirituality. With increased migration in the years since 1945, 2003 Australian military deployed to participate in the migrants have brought new understandings of religious War traditions. Immediate post–World War II migration 2004 The Redfern riots occur between police and the brought the Catholicism of southern Europe, quite Aboriginal community around Redfern station over the different to that of the Irish, as well as the Orthodoxy of death of a young Aboriginal boy eastern Europe and the Islam of the Middle East. Asian migration brought a further infl ux of Islam, as well as the 2005 Sydney beachside suburb of Cronulla sees racially other Asian religions, Buddhism and Hinduism. In the charged riots early twenty-fi rst century, the religious landscape of 2007 The Dalai Lama visits Australia Australia is vastly different from that of the mid-twentieth 2008 Prime Minister Kevin Rudd makes a formal century, as the religious expression of Australians Apology in Parliament to the Aboriginal people, continue to develop in an increasingly globalised world. particularly the Stolen Generations; Pope Benedict XVI visits Australia for World Youth Day chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 57 The diversity of contemporary Aboriginal spiritualities

the dreaming Kinship and aboriginal Traditional Aboriginal culture is centred on notions of kinship spiritualities kinship. All forms of social interaction, including the family relationships marriage, group meetings, sports, trade and so on are that exist between people and the rights and Dreaming stories continue to have an enormous infl uence determined by complicated kinship laws. The laws obligations associated on Aboriginal Australians today. This is despite the fact determine how a person relates to others and how they with those relationships that a large number of Aboriginal people have been belong to the community. converted to Western religious traditions. Indeed, the Perhaps the fi rst signifi cant element in the division number of Aboriginal Christians is higher than many of Aboriginal groups is their languages. Before colonisation other groups in Australia. A signifi cant change has also there were hundreds of separate Aboriginal languages taken place within Christian congregations in particular. that determined specifi c groups. Most Aboriginal people Where once Catholics and other conservative Christian knew a number of languages, but they always defi ned groups believed that Aboriginal spirituality was the work themselves through the original language of their tribe. of the Devil, Christian priests and congregations have Within the tribe there were clans based on family become more inclusive of Aboriginal religious attitudes. groupings and within these clans there were further In times past, many Christians rejected Aboriginal divisions into skin groups, or moieties. There are spirituality and refused to allow it to be related to obligations within these social networks to care for others syncretism Christianity for fear of becoming syncretist. Recently in times of need. the process of new Christianity has become more open to Aboriginal religious systems Ceremonial life developing out of the spirituality. This openness and the infl uence of one combination of two or religious tradition on the other can be seen positively as The word corroboree indicates an Aboriginal ceremony more prevailing religions contextualisation rather than syncretism. and is a Western term derived by settlers from one of the contextualisation Aboriginal spirituality is connected very closely to Aboriginal words for their rituals, ‘carriberrie’. These the context of the the land, and the Dreaming stories refl ect this (see ceremonies often centre on retellings of Dreaming stories expression; for example, through singing, dancing, music and mime. Often the expressing a religious Chapter One for an explanation of Aboriginal spirituality tradition in a way that and the Dreaming). There are regular ceremonies which body of an actor is decorated to represent the spirit he or can be easily identifi ed enact stories sacred to specifi c areas; each region and she is portraying. Other ceremonies of note include rituals with its cultural context landscape has its own stories which are almost where a member of the tribe is initiated into adulthood corroboree meaningless if removed from the geographical context. and thus full membership of the tribe. These ceremonies an Aboriginal This is why the dispossession of the Aboriginal people usually involve the testing of strength, the revelation of ceremony, usually in the form of a dance from their land had such a profound effect on their special knowledge, the removal of the child from the religions and cultures. The basic plot of all the Dreaming mother, seclusion, the giving of a new name or sacred stories is that something exists – the land, a site, some object, and a time of survival in the wild. rocks, a waterhole – and a story is then invoked that Other signifi cant ceremonies include burial explains how an ancestor transformed this land. The ceremonies, which can be very elaborate. Death in story is not simply told, but in many cases performed. Aboriginal spirituality is the time when the spirit leaves These stories are essential to Indigenous culture, for the body and returns to the spirit ancestors. There are they explain why things are as they are. Dreaming particular rituals associated with death so that the spirit stories contain all the information needed to live in a is encouraged on its journey. Sometimes the body is place and prosper. Before anyone walks onto someone cremated, buried or exposed, and in some areas else’s land, they need to know the story of that land. elaborately decorated poles are erected. Often there are strict taboos associated with death rituals. This is INVESTIGATE refl ected in the warnings often given on television shows that tell viewers one of the Indigenous persons in the Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website for a good site programs has died, or that the name of a dead person will that describes Aboriginal beliefs and culture. be mentioned. 58 cambridge studies of religion

implications of aboriginal dispossession Dispossession As European settlement spread across Australia, many Indigenous people were forced off their lands. They were dispossessed. Whites believed that they would eventually die out, or that they must be assimilated into the white Australian population to survive. In the popular thinking of the time, Indigenous Australians were racially inferior to Europeans. It was, therefore, not necessary to take into account any Aboriginal attitudes to the land. Colonial Australians had begun this process of dispossession through the cultivation of the ‘empty’ land theory: terra nullius. The introduction of livestock and the ill use of the original environment aided in the destruction of the Aboriginal world. A process of partnering whites with Aborigines produced what were called ‘half-caste’ children. It was policy of many state governments to remove these children into state orphanages or foster care. Christian missionaries also sought to evangelise the Indigenous Australians and did so very effectively. While the missions contributed greatly to the breakdown of Aboriginal language and culture, they

Participants in an Aboriginal corroboree also paradoxically contributed to their survival by providing a place where people could meet. Obligations to the land and people Missionaries also worked to document and preserve elements of traditional culture. Some missionaries Given the conceptions of Aboriginal kinship and also took on a strong advocacy role in speaking up for ceremonial life, it can be seen that there are heavy the rights of Aboriginal peoples. They even provided obligations for each individual to the land and their protection from some of the excesses of the white fellows. Laws of kinship encourage the growth and community. The missions and the policy of protection maintenance of a complex network of dependence and did lead to dispossession and affect the expression of support that extends beyond family groups. These Aboriginal spirituality; two of the greatest factors were interpersonal connections are refocused through the separation from the land and from kinship groups. ceremonial lives of Aboriginal nations. The togetherness of the group is emphasised by the actions at these Separation from the land ceremonies, and the actions themselves are determined Land, as suggested above, is vitally important to by Dreaming stories. These Dreaming stories also Aboriginal peoples. Most Westerners have a completely connect each Aboriginal group to the land which they different understanding of ‘land’ to Aborigines. inhabit and are thus the custodians of that land. The land Westerners seek to own land. In general terms, to they are responsible for is called their ‘country’; it is their Indigenous Australians, the land owns the people. That ritual estate. The protection and custodianship of that is, the people have responsibility to care for the land land becomes an integral part of the life of each individual through management, rituals and other actions that and the culture of the tribe as a whole. preserve and maintain the land. chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 59

By 1945, a number of major factors had resulted in The Stolen Generations – the removal of a majority of Aboriginal people from their separation from family lands. This was especially the case when that land had an economic value for white settlers. The legal doctrine of The Stolen Generations is a term used to describe the many children of Aboriginal and ‘mixed’ blood terra nullius terra nullius held that Australia was technically an literally ‘land belonging ‘empty land’ when the British arrived to establish their who were removed from their Aboriginal families to be to no one’; the doctrine cared for on missions, in institutions such as the that Australia was colonies, and so their occupation and ownership of the Cootamundra Aboriginal Girls’ Training Home, or uninhabited by people land were therefore legal. Governments began to reclaim before European reserve land and establish control over the people already fostered with white families. The stated aim of settlement living on reserves. Taking Aboriginal people from their removing children from their Aboriginal families was to protect them from the perceived abuses of the Stolen Generations land, however, had a deeply traumatic effect. the term applied to the Separation from the land meant that cultural practices Aboriginal communities, to ensure they were given a Aboriginal children in good education, and to help them assimilate into Australia taken from and ceremonies associated with the land could not be carried Western society. their families and raised out. It also meant that Aboriginal people were unable to to be assimilated into draw effectively on the spiritual power of the Dreaming and While some have argued that some Aboriginal the white community the ancestor spirits. They were also restricted in their access children, especially those who had European blood, were to sacred sites and much tribal lore and law was lost. being neglected or abused by their Aboriginal families, it is diffi cult to prove the extent to which this occurred. In Separation from kinship groups any case, given the high numbers of children removed from their families, it is diffi cult to believe that all were Dispossession broke up Aboriginal nations and disturbed exposed to harmful family environments. the religious and cultural beliefs and practices around Perhaps one of the greatest ongoing effects of the which their lives had been centred. Languages were often Stolen Generations is the loss of Aboriginal culture. As lost or severely restricted in their use. Ceremonies related it was predominantly an oral culture, the removal of a to kinship were not enacted and so were lost. The place generation from the lineage of cultural transmission and role of tribal elders was undermined, and much means that far fewer children received their cultural cultural information regarding kinship obligations and heritage in its complete form. Instead, they were taboos was also lost. Aboriginal people lost their sense of integrated to various extents into European culture. identity and belonging, not only to the land, but also to Today, there are many Aboriginal people who have each other. This psychological effect was not perceived lost touch with the specifi c knowledge and culture of by most Europeans, who did not understand the deep their tribes. They feel the loss of this heritage deeply. cultural attachment Aboriginal people had to their land, and the support networks of their kinship groups.

Girls at the Cootamundra Aboriginal Girls’ Training Home: the home was in operation between 1912 and 1969 60 cambridge studies of religion

The Bringing them home enquiry was begun in The report from the Bringing them home enquiry 1995. The fi nal report was based on the stories of made numerous recommendations. One of these was Aboriginal children who had been forcibly separated for an offi cial apology by the Federal Government to the from their families and had lost their language, culture, Stolen Generations. identity, links with the land and thus their spirituality, Throughout the late 1990s the conservative and in many cases they never saw their family members Howard government chose not to deliver this apology. again. Controversially, the report concluded that Howard believed that, however wrong their actions genocide genocide had taken place. were, people who took Aboriginal children from their planned extermination of a national or racial group While this removal was primarily a government homes had the right intentions. initiative, Christian churches have acknowledged that When the Howard government was defeated, they were complicit in the Stolen Generations and have one of the fi rst acts by the Rudd Labor government was sought ways of repairing the great damage done. to apologise. On the morning of 13 Febuary 2008 the nation stopped as Prime Minister Rudd delivered these FURTHERMORE words: Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and scan the I move: Bringing them home report to fi nd a testimony from an Aboriginal That today we honour the Indigenous peoples person who was taken from his or her family. What does this of this land, the oldest continuing cultures in testimony reveal about the implications of removing Aboriginal human history. children from their families? We refl ect on their past mistreatment. We refl ect in particular on the mistreatment of those who were Stolen Generations – this exercise 3.1 blemished chapter in our nation’s history. The time has now come for the nation to turn 1 Describe how kinship is important a new page in Australia’s history by righting the to Aboriginal spirituality. wrongs of the past and so moving forward with confi dence to the future. 2 Explain some of the factors of ceremonial We apologise for the laws and policies of life that relate to the Dreaming. successive parliaments and governments that have 3 Describe the fi ndings of the infl icted profound grief, suffering and loss on these Stolen Generations report. our fellow Australians. We apologise especially for the removal of activity 3.1 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families, their communities and their 1 Draw a mind map linking the key issues country. in this section, for example, the Dreaming, For the pain, suffering and hurt of these land, kinship and ceremonial life. Stolen Generations, their descendants and for their families left behind, we say sorry. 2 Create a visual presentation on one aspect of Aboriginal Dreaming from this section. 3 Prepare a ten-minute talk on the impact land rights movement of the Bringing them home report. The land rights movement is closely connected to rights for Aboriginal people in general. To reclaim land means, for Aboriginal people, to reconnect with their cultures and with their Dreaming stories (if these stories have not already been completely lost). In some circles it has been thought that Indigenous Australians did not strongly oppose the European move to take over land in Australia, but there has long been resistance, such as the efforts of warriors, for example Wyndradyne in the Bathurst area, and the protests sesquicentenary in 1938 at the Australian sesquicentenary. 150-year anniversary chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 61

the 1967 referendum land rights and

The 1967 referendum was a very important step in the native title movement for equality for the Aboriginal people. On Since the 1970s, the issue of Aboriginal land rights has 27 May 1967, the Australian people were asked to vote on been signifi cant in national politics. It is an issue that has two questions in a national referendum. often been misunderstood and has caused sharp 1 Section 127 of the Constitution stated that in working divisions amongst the Australian people. out the population of Australia in a census ‘Aboriginal natives shall not be counted’. Background » Question 1 asked the people to overturn this so When European nations settled lands outside of Europe, that Aboriginal people would now be counted in they usually signed treaties with the original inhabitants. the census. This occurred between the British and the Maoris in 2 Section 51 of the Constitution stated that the federal , and between American settlers and Native government could pass laws about ‘the people of any American (‘Indian’) tribes. The treaties were often one- race other than the Aboriginal race in any state.’ sided, but the principle of prior ownership was accepted. » Question 2 asked the people to overturn this so that If uninhabited land was discovered, it was declared terra the federal government would have the power to nullius – land belonging to no one. Captain Cook declared make laws regarding Aboriginal people. this when he landed in eastern Australia in 1770, and Captain Phillip accepted the idea in 1788. Cook and The referendum had nothing to do with making Phillip believed there were very few Aboriginal people. Aboriginal people citizens or giving them the vote. As These actions meant they felt that no treaty had to be Paul Hasluck announced in Parliament in 1961, signed with the local inhabitants. citizenship had been gained by 1961 and Aboriginal It was not until the 1960s that the issue of Indigenous people received the vote in Federal elections in 1962. land rights raised its head in Australian politics. There was overwhelming support across the country for these changes. The ‘yes’ vote was supported by both • In 1963 the Yirrkala people from the Gove Peninsula the Holt Liberal government and the Labor Party. Both in the Northern Territory sent a petition ‘written on referendum questions were accepted by over 90 per cent bark’ to federal parliament, protesting about being of the Australian people and by every state and territory. driven off their land to make way for bauxite mining It was a signifi cant moral victory. by the Nabalco company. » The bark petition failed, as the Northern Territory Supreme Court confi rmed the notion of terra nullius and argued the Yirrkala people had no special claim over the land. • In 1972 the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was set up on the lawns in front of parliament house. » The Tent Embassy highlighted both the claim for land rights and the awful living conditions of most Aboriginal people. It received international attention. » The Aboriginal fl ag was raised at this time. • In 1974 the Woodward Royal Commission delivered its report into the issue of Aboriginal land rights in federal territory. • In a gesture of support, Prime Minister Whitlam In 1975, the government of Gough Whitlam, known for its travelled to the Northern Territory and handed over radical attitudes, facilitated the return of land to the Gurindji to Vincent Lingiari and the Gurindji people some of people. Here, the Prime Minister symbolically poured earth into the hand of Vincent Lingiari to mark the return of the the land they had been denied in court. land to the custodianship of this Aboriginal nation. » Whitlam symbolically poured soil into Lingiari’s hands. 62 cambridge studies of religion

• In 1976 the Fraser government passed the Aboriginal CONSIDER Land Rights Act. » Aboriginal people could now claim Crown land not ‘They will take your backyard!’ was the cry of many who opposed being used by other people. the native title legislation, particularly in Queensland. This was » An Aboriginal Lands Council was established to patently false, as the High Court clearly excluded privately owned control this land. land from native title. Talk to older Australians, such as your • In 1985, Aboriginal people were handed ownership of parents, and ask what they remember about the debate from the Uluru (Ayers Rock). early 1990s. During the 1980s, state governments moved on the land rights issue. Western Australian and Queensland The importance of the were largely unsympathetic, being more concerned about Dreaming for land rights maintaining the rights of mining companies and The Dreaming is essential for Aboriginal peoples and pastoralists. their expression of their spirituality. Similarly, the land is Native title and the Mabo case essential for the Dreaming. They are inexorably linked. Thus land rights build upon the concepts of the Dreaming Native title is a legal term which recognises the rights of and are essential for its expression. One of the major aims Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to the use of the land rights movement is to allow for the proper and occupation of lands with which they have maintained expression and empowerment of the Dreaming. a continuing, traditional connection. In the 1970s, the Queensland government began to remove the rights of the people of Murray (Mer) Island in INVESTIGATE the Torres Strait. One of the Meriam people, Eddie Mabo, There are many movies that help in the understanding of the issues took the Queensland government to court to try to stop raised in this section. These are some of the most signifi cant and this happening. He lost the case. The case, however, helpful. Ten Canoes (2006) is essentially an enacted Dreaming eventually reached the High Court of Australia in story. It shows how these stories are told over a long period of time. Canberra. The High Court decided in favour of the Rabbit Proof Fence (2002) is a classic explanation of the Stolen Meriam people and recognised the principle of native Generations issue. Yolngu Boy (2001) depicts the effects of title (sadly Eddie Mabo was dead by this time). dispossession on the lives of three young men. The High Court’s 1992 Mabo decision was extremely important: • By accepting the principle of native title, the notion of exercise 3.2 terra nullius was overturned. The court decision stated that native title to land had existed before the 1 Describe the key events in the arrival of European settlers. land rights movement. • In 1993 the Native Title Act was passed. This act 2 Who were the main people involved accepted the notion of native title in law and also in the land rights debate? recognised the rights of owners of freehold property. Nevertheless, pastoralists were still concerned. Many 3 Explain why the issue of land rights is leased (rented) property from the government. Could important to Aboriginal peoples. Aboriginal people claim native title over these lands? The new law caused enormous insecurity. activity 3.2 • This issue was dealt with by the Wik decision of 1996. In this case the High Court argued that native title 1 Look up the names mentioned in the could co-exist with the rights of leaseholders. text and write notes on their relationship The pastoralists and the mining companies who to the land rights movement. leased lands were still concerned that the court was 2 Construct a table defi ning the key terms too much in favour of native title. that relate to the land rights movement. • This issue was dealt with by the 1997 Native Title (Amendment) Act, passed by the Howard government. 3 Prepare a debate on the following topic – This act stated that native title and leasehold rights ‘Westerners do not understand the issues could co-exist but that, in any confl ict of interest, the involved in the land rights movement.’ rights of the leaseholders would come fi rst. chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 63 Religious expression in Australia – 1945 to the present

introduction Other information that can be gleaned from the census includes the fact that, apart from Judaism, the Religious expression in Australia has changed signifi cantly non-Christian religious traditions are growing at a since 1945. Australia has become a microcosm of the much faster rate than is Christianity. Judaism has religious life of the world, and almost every religious remained a steady 0.4 per cent of the population, while tradition, ancient and modern, is represented by the Hinduism is now the fastest growing religious tradition. hundreds of communities that dot the suburbs of Buddhism comes second and Islam third. Still, each of Australia’s largest cities in the twenty-fi rst century. The these four religious traditions covers less than 2 per increasingly universal nature of Australian society has cent of the Australian population each (except for been created out of, and in spite of, an isolationist and Buddhism, now 2.1 per cent). racist history. Australian Federal immigration policy The percentage of those who declare they have played the most central role in restricting immigration no religion has increased by 25.7 per cent and of those from 1901 until the 1960s. The policy itself was a who do not answer the optional religion question by homogenous refl ection of the ideal of a homogenised white Australia. 43.4 per cent. having a common origin This Australia remains, in essence, a Christian As well as the Australian census, information can nation. Public holidays tend to refl ect Western Christian be gained from other research tools. One of the most rituals, Easter and Christmas in particular. Christian significant is the National Church Life Survey (NCLS), prayers are said at the opening of Parliament and which is conducted by a cooperative venture of politicians, when they have a faith to declare, tend to be churches in Australia. The last NCLS was held in Christian. Nevertheless, religious affi liations have 2006 and results are becoming available at the time of changed radically since 1945. writing. The information gathered by the NCLS is Changing patterns of religious adherence: more detailed about patterns of church attendance. Its using the Australian census main drawback is that the survey is conducted during a church service on a particular Sunday, so it does not Questions about religious adherence are optional gather information about those who are not in the questions on the census forms and there has been a church that particular day. variety of responses over the years. Christianity is still The Christian Research Association (CRA) also the largest religious tradition in Australia, despite its conducts statistical and other research relevant to reduction in the percentage of the Australian population. religious groups in Australia. The tables below show the numbers and percentages of people who responded to the religious question on the INVESTIGATE census forms for 1996, 2001 and 2006. Check the NCLS and the CRA links shown on the Cambridge Studies Within Christianity there is a variety of expressions of Religion website. What information do they contain that may be and these have changed signifi cantly over the years. helpful to religious groups in Australia? These tables reveal interesting information, some of which is immediately obvious. Christianity is by far the largest religious tradition in Australia, although its share of the Australian population has dropped from 70.9 per cent in 1996 to 63.9 per cent in 2006. Catholics and Anglicans are the largest Christian denominations and the Uniting Church has experienced the greatest decline during those ten years. While small in numbers, the Pentecostal churches have experienced the largest growth of Christian denominations, an increase of over 25 per cent. 64 cambridge studies of religion

TABLE 3.1 NUMBERS OF ADHERENTS TO RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS 1996 2001 2006 % GROWTH 96–06 Christianity 12, 582, 746 12, 764, 342 12,685,836 0.8% Buddhism 199,812 357,813 418,756 109.6% Islam 200,885 281,578 340,392 69.4% Hinduism 67,279 95,473 148,119 120.2% Judaism 79,805 83,993 88,831 11.3% No religion 2,948,888 2,905,993 3,706,555 25.7% Not stated 1,550,585 1,835,598 2,223,957 43.4% Total 17,752,829 18,769,249 19,855,288

TABLE 3.2 PERCENTAGES OF RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS 1996 2001 2006

Christianity 70.9% 68% 63.9% Buddhism 1.1% 1.9% 2.1% Islam 1.1% 1.5% 1.7% Hinduism 0.4% 0.5% 0.7% Judaism 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% No religion 16.6% 15.5% 18.7% Not stated 8.7% 9.8% 11.2%

TABLE 3.3 PERCENTAGES OF CHRISTIAN TRADITIONS 1996 2001 2006 % GROWTH 96–06 Christianity 70.9% 68.0% 63.9% 0.8% Catholic 27.0% 27.0% 25.8% 6.8% Anglican 22.0% 20.7% 18.7% -4.7% Uniting 7.5% 6.6% 5.7% -14.9% Presbyterian 3.8% N/A 3.0% -11.7% Orthodox 2.8% N/A 2.7% 9.5% Baptist 1.7% 1.7% 1.6% 7.3% Lutheran 1.4% 1.3% 1.3% 0.4% Pentecostal 1.0% 0.7% 1.1% 25.7% chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 65

the present religious landscape Immigration and other religious traditions Hinduism in Australia Christianity as the major religious tradition Hindus fi rst came to Australia from what is now When Australia was colonised by the British, they Indonesia, as traders to northern Australia as early as a brought Christianity, and the Church of England in thousand years ago. After colonisation they came as particular. Since World War II, there have been labourers, such as Fijian workers on the sugarcane fi elds signifi cant changes to Christianity and its composition. in Queensland, and as itinerant traders throughout Catholicism was present on the First Fleet, but it remote Australia. Many also came as servants of those remained second in numbers to the Church of England British people who had lived in India. By 1900 there were (Anglican Church). In the 1986 Australian census, the about a thousand Hindus in Australia. Many left as the denomination Catholic Church became the largest denomination White Australia policy (the Immigration Restriction Act an organised subgroup and has retained that position. The reasons for the 1901) came into force, but some stayed and others arrived. of the Christian church changes to the Australian religious community are Due to pre-Commonwealth immigration, in 1911 there myriad, but some of the main ones include immigration, were 4106 ‘Hindoos’ in Australia. ‘Hindoo’ was a census conversion, the rise of New Age religions, secularism classifi cation that included Muslim Afghans, Punjabi and the rise of atheism. Sikhs and Hindus. By 1947 only 2189 people identifi ed Despite a decline in the percentage of Christians, themselves as ‘Indian’, an indication of the effectiveness Christianity (at 63.9% in 2006) is by far the major religious of the White Australia policy. tradition. Christianity is refl ected in the lifestyles of Although it had been redundant since 1958, many Australians, the legal and political system and the the White Australia Policy ceased to exist completely dominant culture. after the election in 1972 of Gough Whitlam and the Labor Party. Immigration Since the abolition of the White Australia policy, As suggested, immigration was extremely important in there has been a steady stream of Hindus arriving, multiculturalism mainly from India, Sri Lanka and . These are mainly policy that recognises infl uencing Australia’s religious profi le in the years professionals and their families who have wanted to cultural diversity following 1945. Prior to 1945 the Immigration Restriction rather than expecting a Act 1901 (popularly called the ‘White Australia policy’) escape the restrictions of the caste system and the strict country to only refl ect application of their religious tradition or escape from one particular culture ensured that those who came to live in Australia were primarily white Anglo-Saxons. Immediately following ongoing civil war in Sri Lanka. Although escaping their New Age movement World War II, most migrants came from Europe and were culture to an extent, once in Australia, homesickness and promotes and develops the need for a familiar way of life leads many Hindus to individual ‘spirituality’ Christian. Post-war migrants included Italian Catholics rather than found a new and Orthodox Christians from Eastern Europe. religious communities and temples here. religion; the New Age can With the Vietnam War, there was an infl ux of About half of Australia’s Hindus live in Sydney, include astrologers, yoga with over 90 per cent living in capital cities. Temples practitioners, séance refugees from South East Asia, known as ‘boat people’. goers, shamans and a This coincided with a relaxing of the White Australia have been built in all Australian states except , whole range of other particularly in the capital cities. One of the most religious practitioners Policy and the introduction of multiculturalism, which replaced the former government policy of assimilation. impressive is the temple at Helensburgh, south of meditation Refugees from Vietnam, Thailand and Cambodia Sydney. This is a temple dedicated to Vishnu (more the practice of emptying accurately, Lord Venkateshvara, an avatar of Vishnu). the mind to think or brought Buddhism, those from India, Sri Lanka and Fiji refl ect on an aspect of brought Hinduism, while refugees from Lebanon, Turkey, While Hinduism has largely been expressed in God or religious belief Indonesia and Bosnia brought Islam. Australia was terms of the Indian community, there has been some growth of Hinduism among Westerners, mainly as a yoga not only a multicultural society; it was also a any of various systems multi-faith society. result of the International Society of Krishna of discipline in the Consciousness, commonly known as the Hare Krishnas. Hindu philosophical system concerned with The trend towards New Age religions has also achieving the union of introduced a number of Hindu concepts into the the mind and body with language and practice of many people who may not the universal spirit necessarily consider themselves religious. These reincarnation practices include meditation and yoga and concepts the concept of rebirth such as reincarnation. in physical form to the Earth – see samsara 66 cambridge studies of religion

Vishnu Temple – Helensburgh, NSW

The other experience of Hinduism familiar to post-1945 many Australians is through travel to Hindu countries The earliest Buddhists in Australia were the Chinese such as India, Sri Lanka, Fiji and one of the most who were part of the goldrushes of the 1850s. While popular destinations, the island of Bali in Indonesia. many were probably Confucian, they were all classifi ed Hinduism is in general a religious tradition that as Buddhist. Few remained in Australia after the tolerates diversity. In Australia Hinduism is a fairly goldrushes, and many more were discouraged by the homogenous expression because it is so linked to the Immigration Restriction Act 1901. cultural and racial origins of the Indian subcontinent. Australian society did have several prominent Thus the diversity also reflects those differences. sympathisers to Buddhism through the late nineteenth In the 2006 census, the percentage of Hindus and early twentieth centuries. These included a number increased from 0.5 per cent in 2001 to 0.7 per cent of of Christian Buddhist groups (although the Australian the population (up from 0.4 per cent in 1996). This Christian churches were formally opposed to Buddhism) suggests that Hindu immigration is increasing and and the religiously curious such as Prime Minister that the religion is slowly spreading. Although this is Alfred Deakin. Deakin was the second prime minister still not a large percentage of the population, it does of Australia and a follower of the Theosophical Society show how immigration affects the distribution of which encompassed Buddhist teachings. While Deakin religions in Australia. may have supported the concept of ‘pure Buddhism’, he was also an ardent supporter of the Immigration Restriction Act. chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 67

The Gallipoli In the 1970s, Buddhism grew with the influx of Mosque in Auburn Indo-Chinese refugees following the Vietnam War and communist victories in South East Asia. The growth of Buddhism in Australia during the 1960s and 1970s coincided with growing disenchantment with traditional Western organised religion. There was also a growing interest in eastern mysticism, of which Buddhism is an example. The rise of New Age spirituality, which is itself heavily influenced by Buddhism, also contributed. The Nan Tien temple at Berkley, near The period from the 1980s saw renewed efforts in Wollongong, south of Buddhist evangelism, including the building of temples, Sydney, constructed by public seminars and visits by the Dalai Lama who is a Taiwanese Buddhists popular speaker in Australia, often galvanising support for the Free Tibet movement. Because of the arrival of South-East Asian migrants, as well as its appeal to disillusioned Westerners and other ‘seekers of the truth’, Buddhism is one of the fastest growing religious traditions in Australia. While still only 2.1 per cent of the population of Australia in 2006, it has grown from 1.1 per cent in 1996, making it the second largest religious tradition in Australia after Christianity. Of the religious traditions other than Christianity, Buddhism seems to have the most appeal to the Western population of Australia. Much of Buddhism’s growth and diversity refl ect the immigration patterns of the past thirty years. Often Buddhist groups seek to build temples and invite monks that refl ect their particular cultural roots. While Buddhism certainly refl ects the diverse cultural origins of recent settlers in Australia, there are several factors that appeal to Australians in general. With the rise of a globalised society, Australians are more familiar with the teachings of religious traditions other than Christianity. Concern for the environment, the value given to life, vegetarianism and related concepts have appealed to those Australians seeking alternative values and lifestyles. This, coupled with a growing disillusionment with the institutional churches and the growth of New Age religious philosophies, has led to the growing appeal of Buddhism among non-Asian Australians. Practices identifi ed with Buddhism, such as meditation, are commonly practised and the atheistic individualism that underlies Buddhism is also attractive to modern Australians. The Mosque at Broken Hill 68 cambridge studies of religion

Islam in Australia post-1945 exercise 3.3 Islam is the third largest religious tradition in Australia, 1 Describe the role of the census in relation to after Christianity and Buddhism. There are about the changing patterns of religious adherence. 340 000 Muslims in Australia, making up about 1.7 per cent of the population. These Muslims come from all 2 Describe the position of Christianity as over the world, from virtually every continent. About 36 a religious tradition in Australia. per cent were born in Australia and 50 per cent are 3 Explain how immigration has under 24 years of age. Most Muslims in Australia live infl uenced the numbers of one religious in Sydney and Melbourne, with concentrations in tradition other than Christianity. certain suburbs. Mosques have been built in some of these areas, such as the Gallipoli Mosque in Auburn, Sydney, and the Preston Mosque in Melbourne. activity 3.3 Islam is probably the fi rst of the major world religious traditions to have come to Australia. As early 1 Identify one religious tradition other than as the mid-eighteenth century, fi shermen from Christianity in your area. Contact that group Macassar (southern Sulawesi, in modern Indonesia) and interview a member to determine the visited the north and west Australian coasts. When way immigration has infl uenced that group. European settlement began to extend into central 2 Construct a graph of one aspect of the Australia, camels were used to aid that expansion. information contained in the census fi gures. Experienced camel drivers were brought into Australia, Using that information, predict the movement mainly from north-west India and Afghanistan, of the fi gures in the next few years, explaining particularly during the mid-nineteenth century. They why you have drawn those conclusions. were called ‘Afghans’ (shortened to ‘Ghans’). World War II migration brought Muslims as well 3 Write a paragraph on the following topic – as Christians from countries such as Turkey and ‘Soon Christianity will no longer be the Lebanon. Since the abolition of the White Australia dominant religious tradition in Australia.’ policy and the infl ux of refugees from the Middle East from the late 1970s, Muslim numbers have increased again. Migrants have come as refugees from confl icts in Denominational switching Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon and the former Yugoslavia Strictly speaking, ‘denominational switching’ means the (as well as general migration from these countries), and exchange of church members between different Christian also Turkey, Pakistan and Indonesia. In the 1981 census, denominations. An example would be a Protestant Christian Islam was the second largest religious tradition after from the Anglican Church choosing to join a Uniting Church Christianity (displacing Judaism). service because the style of worship and the attitudes of the The majority of Muslims in Australia are Sunni congregation are preferable to that individual. While this Muslims, but there are signifi cant Shi’ite groups as well switching sometimes takes place, adherence to Christianity as smaller groups such as the Druze. In the confl ict in general continues its slow decline. between the USA and parts of the Arab world, Muslims In the 2006 census, it can be seen that identifi cation have often been identifi ed in the popular media as being with the Anglican faith has continued to drop, while the enemies of the West or of Christianity. This factor, Pentecostal identifi cation has increased. Part of the reason and confl icts within the Muslim community, have made for this shift is that some Anglicans are choosing to join it more diffi cult for Islam to be accepted in Australia. Pentecostal services. This can be explained in a number The distinctive dress of Muslim women, such as the of cultural ways. Pentecostal services are very much like hijab or headscarf, has also led to misunderstandings. rock concerts. Charismatic leaders preach and offer CDs is not a single identifi able and books to their congregation as bands evoke strong cohesive community or practice. There is much diversity emotions. Many Christians are attracted to the freshness in Australian Islam. This ranges from traditional to and vitality of the services, with their emphasis on free liberal expressions of Muslim beliefs and practices, to forms of liturgy and contemporary music led by trained the great diversity of the cultural backgrounds that exist musicians and singers. in Australian Islam. chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 69

This issue of denominational switching has raised Secularism serious concerns in many church hierarchies, and considerable thought has been given to how to address A signifi cant number of Australians are not religious, some of the issues involved, to counter the possible demise and that number is growing. In general, this trend has of some denominational structures. grown out of the fact that people no longer have to follow In recent years the term ‘denominational switching’ a specifi c religion to be a citizen of a country, or to hold has also been applied to other religious traditions; for a position of infl uence in (some) societies, as was the example, referring to those who change from Orthodox to case a few hundred years ago. Now that there is no Progressive Judaism. obligation on citizens to be members of an offi cial state religion, larger groups of people are choosing to have no CONSIDER religion at all. The numbers of those unaffi liated to a religion increased in the 2006 census to 18.7 per cent of In 2007, accusations were made that Hillsong Church had ‘hijacked’ the population (a growth since 1996 of 25.7 per cent). the Australian Idol television competition. Certainly many of the It is true that Australia is becoming a less religious fi nalists were associated with Christian groups. Perhaps that is not society, and is replacing traditional religions with other so surprising. Many Christian churches have an emphasis on music world views. Some research however, suggests that and singing. How many pop and rock singers that you know of have many people, including those who have no religious come from church backgrounds, or church choirs? affi liation, do pray or have spiritual experiences (see Chapter Sixteen). exercise 3.4

1 Explain denominational switching. 2 Describe how the rise of the New Age movement has infl uenced religion in Australia. 3 Defi ne secularism. activity 3.4

1 In a graphic form of your choice, illustrate the attractiveness of Pentecostalism in modern Australia. 2 Debate the following topic – ‘The New Age is just the old age reinvented.’ 3 Talk to a religious person and a secular person. The rise of New Age religions Construct a table illustrating their differences. The 1960s saw a strong reaction to the post-war prosperity and general conservative attitudes found in most Western cultures. This coincided with the beginnings of an awareness of the globalised world, ease of travel, new forms of global communication and a lessening of commitment to traditional structures such as churches. Although many of the New Age religions such as paganism, Wicca, the self- improvement movement and the Children of God do not feature in great numbers in the census, they are, nevertheless, part of a wider movement of interest towards non-Western or non-mainstream religions. For a more extensive discussion of the New Age movement, see the comments in Chapter Sixteen in the ‘New religious expression’ section. 70 cambridge studies of religion

religious dialogue in Uniting Church of Australia multi-faith australia One concrete example of ecumenism at work in a formal sense is the formation of the Uniting Church of Australia Since 1945 religious denominations have sought to break (UCA), which took place on 22 June 1977. The UCA has down the barriers that separate them. These came from sought to develop liturgies that refl ect the Australian the sectarianism of previous years and the suspicion with context, encouraged social justice programs, sought to which other religious traditions were regarded in the minister to different cultural communities and supported past. In a multicultural Australia, denominations cannot those discriminated against in Australian society, easily ignore each other. There have been signifi cant including women, who are now in positions of leadership, moves since 1945 to develop dialogue and cooperation Indigenous Australians and the homosexual community. between the diverse groups. This has taken the form of While much of the move towards ecumenism is ecumenism and interfaith dialogue. formalised at offi cial church levels, often it is the work of Ecumenism is on a smaller scale than interfaith signifi cant people such as Reverend Fred McKay, former ecumenism dialogue. It is a Christian term for discussions between Superintendent of the Australian Inland Mission, which movement towards unity different denominations of Christianity to increase within the Christian represents ecumenism for ordinary Australians. church between different understanding and effect social change cooperatively. There are many other groups involved in ecumenical Christian denominations Interfaith dialogue is a conversation established projects, many at a local level and often unacknowledged interfaith dialogue between hierarchies of different religious faiths and at offi cial or national levels. Examples include the the move to greater their members, or initiated by members of the different cooperative teaching of special religious education in cooperation and harmony religious traditions. The main aim of these conversations between different schools, the National Church Life Survey and institutions religious traditions is to develop familiarity and promote understanding such as the Australian College of Theology. and dialogue. Interfaith dialogue Ecumenical movements The years since World War II have seen the Australian National Council of Churches in Australia community reassess its attitudes to many issues, including the place of religious traditions other than Christianity. The NCCA has a number of departments that foster Even Christian churches have reconsidered their long- cooperation between the churches at formal and held view that other religions are errors at best, or the work informal levels. An important task of the NCCA has of the Devil at worst. This has led, especially since the been to reverse the racist and discriminatory legislation 1970s, to a new involvement in interfaith dialogue. that was affecting the social dynamic in Australia. For Much of this dialogue is at an offi cial level, with groups example, the NCCA passed a resolution in 1966 calling such as the NCCA involved in discussions with offi cial for several reforms in the White Australia policy. The bodies representing other religious traditions. The NCCA stance of this Council represented the stance of has established the Australian National Dialogue of Christianity as a whole, setting a precedent for what Christians, Muslims and Jews. Some specifi c groups that was to become a relentless movement against racism also meet include the Council of Christians and Jews, in and towards multiculturalism. several states, which seeks to develop services and education NSW Ecumenical Council seminars as well as encourage dialogue. The Affi nity Intercultural Foundation was established by Muslim youth The NSW Ecumenical Council was established to be the to help develop harmony with fellow Australians. instrument through which the churches seek to be On the Dalai Lama’s recent 2007 visit to Australia, faithful to their ecumenical calling and commitment. the Australian National University in Canberra hosted an The NSW Ecumenical Council began in 1982, although interfaith dialogue symposium. Organisations attended it had its origins in 1946 as part of the development of the such as the Association for Studies of Religion that supports Australian Council of Churches and the NCCA. It the teaching of Studies of Religion in schools, and regularly encourages the pursuit of social justice and operates many organises teachers’ workshops that include speakers from a cooperative charity events. A central tenet of this variety of religious traditions. Indeed, the provision of organisation is the idea of unity between those who Studies of Religion in the NSW Higher School Certifi cate believe in God. This attitude allows the involved churches is, in itself, an example of interfaith dialogue. to focus on the tasks they perceive as their Christian In modern Australia, it is expected that religious duties, rather than competing with one another while traditions will fi nd opportunities to maintain open seeking the same ends. dialogue in a multicultural and multi-faith society. chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 71

Reverend Fred McKay – outback achiever

There can be little doubt that Reverend John Flynn is range of initiatives began – Old Timers’ Homes for aged an important person in the development of the outback care in Alice Springs, hostel accommodation for of Australia. As founder of the Australian Inland students in larger towns, Bush Mothers’ Hostels, the Mission (AIM) and the Royal Flying Doctor Service Far North Children’s Health Scheme, St Philip’s (RFDS), his dream of a ‘mantle of safety’ was largely Residential College for 500 students in Alice Springs implemented and his depiction on the Australian $20 and the John Flynn Memorial Church, also in Alice note is a fitting recognition of his pioneering work. Springs. This is a uniquely Australian church, designed Reverend Fred McKay was Flynn’s successor and and built from materials gathered in the outback. has been given the title of ‘outback achiever’ in In 1956 the United Church in North Australia was recognition of his own work. His vision, efforts and formed, with McKay playing an important role. This attitudes have provided an even greater benefi t to the was the forerunner to what would become the Uniting work of the church in Australia and the development of Church in Australia in 1977. Fred McKay was an initiatives in the outback. During World War II he innovator, a leader and a worthy successor to John Flynn. served as a chaplain in Northern Africa, and was The friend of bushmen and prime ministers alike, he particularly interested in ecumenical work with the had the unique ability to befriend and inspire others. Anglican and Catholic chaplains – a pattern for his Fred McKay died on 31 March 2000 and is future ecumenical efforts. Upon his return to Australia, remembered as one of the great Australian men of the McKay returned to parish work for a time. This gave twentieth century. While often overshadowed by John him a chance to be with his family who, in the years Flynn, it was the leadership of Fred McKay that ahead, would endure long separations from him. ensured that the Australian Inland Mission, now the In 1951 John Flynn died and Fred McKay was Frontier Services of the Uniting Church, continues as appointed his successor as Superintendent of the one of the best examples of the Christian church’s Australian Inland Mission. Under his leadership a ministry to outback Australia. 72 cambridge studies of religion

aboriginal spirituality and exercise 3.5 religious traditions 1 Defi ne ‘ecumenism’ and ‘interfaith dialogue’. moving towards 2 Describe one example of ecumenism. reconciliation 3 Explain one example of interfaith dialogue. Reconciliation refers to the acknowledgement by various activity 3.5 groups in Australia of the great injustices done to Indigenous Australians and the dispossession that 1 Write a paragraph about either ecumenism occurred in the past, and their willingness and or interfaith dialogue, and evaluate in commitment to rectify these wrongs, where possible, to that paragraph its importance to a multi- improve the position of Aboriginal peoples in the future. faith Australian society in the future. Reconciliation Australia is the body established to 2 Find a Dreaming story that could provide a continuing national focus for Reconciliation relate to the teachings of one other following the end of the Council for Aboriginal religious tradition. Rewrite the story Reconciliation in December 2000. It aims to promote and making those links more obvious. build better relationships between Indigenous and non- Indigenous Australians for the benefi t of all Australians. 3 Explore recent Reconciliation efforts Its board of directors comprises Indigenous and non- and write a paragraph explaining how Indigenous people who are respected leaders in their religious traditions have, or have not, fi elds and share a determination to do whatever it takes to affirmed Aboriginal spirituality. build Reconciliation in Australia. Their vision is an Australia that provides equal life chances for all, recognising and respecting the special place, culture and contribution of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as the First Australians. Their ambition as a non- profi t, independent organisation is to eliminate the glaring gap in life expectancy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous children. Reconciliation has become an important expression of spirituality in Australia, especially as religious traditions recognise the mistakes of the past. In 1996, the leaders of the Catholic and Anglican churches, as well as other Christian and Aboriginal leaders, met with the Australian government to call for Reconciliation. That call was largely ignored offi cially, but Christians and other religious leaders have forged ahead, providing examples of leadership to the nation’s leaders. There have been significant changes in the relationships between Aboriginal people and many aspects of Australian society. This was best expressed when thousands of people walked across the Sydney Harbour Bridge on 28 May 2000 to call for Reconciliation. Other walks for Reconciliation took place across the nation. The religious profi le of Australia has changed signifi cantly since 1945, refl ecting the diversity of the Australian community and beliefs. It is signifi cant that the oldest inhabitants of this land are also part of this changing life and faith, and that recognition is given to the implications of the Dreaming. chapter 3 religion in australia post-1945 73

end of chapter summary

Contemporary Aboriginal spirituality Religious expression in Australia – 1945 to the present • The Dreaming is central to Aboriginal spirituality • Census data reveals much information • Kinship, ceremonial life and obligations about trends in religious adherence to the land and people must be expressed as part of Aboriginal spirituality • Christianity is declining as a percentage of the population while other religious • Land is one of the most important traditions are increasing issues to Indigenous Australians • There is a large rise in the numbers • Dispossession was the active policy who have no religious adherence of the colonisers of Australia • Christianity is still, by far, the major • Dispossession has affected Aboriginal life through religious tradition in Australia separation from the land and from kinship groups • Immigration has had a great impact on • The Stolen Generations has had a lasting religious expression in Australia since 1945 impact on Aboriginal peoples • Specific comments are made on • The fight for land and land rights has been evident Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam in Australia since the early days of colonisation • Pentecostal churches have increased through • Decisions such as Mabo and Wik, together the growing trend to denominational switching with the Native Title Act, have sought to redress the wrongs of the past • The New Age movement has had a big impact on the religious expression of Australians and is • The Dreaming is inexorably linked to the land now firmly entrenched in Australian culture • The increase in the ‘No religion’ category of the census reveals a growing move towards secularism in Australia and a decline in commitment to Christianity in particular • Ecumenism is a growing significant movement in Australian Christianity • Fred McKay was an important Australian ecumenist • Interfaith dialogue is also now a feature of Australian religious life • All religious traditions seek to move towards Reconciliation in their relationships with Indigenous Australians 74 cambridge studies of religion HSC examination-style questions

The questions in the HSC for this section will be made up of questions worth 15 marks. The Specimen paper suggests 10 multiple-choice questions (including response to a stimulus) and one 5-mark short-answer question. That format is followed here.

multiple choice questions (10 marks)

1 What is kinship? 8 Which of the following accounts for the changes in a Identifi cation with a totem the percentage of those who indicate ‘No religion’? b Ownership of land a Immigration c Rights, obligations and relationships within a group b Denominational switching d The ceremony that marks the transition c Rise of the New Age religions from boyhood to manhood d Secularism

2 Separation from the land has contributed to: TABLE 3.4 PERCENTAGES OF RELIGIOUS GROUPS IN THE AUSTRALIAN CENSUS a Aboriginal peoples moving to the coast 1996 2001 2006 GROWTH IN RAW NUMBER b A breakdown in ceremonial life OF MEMBERS NOT % OF c Identifi cation with a totem POPULATION BELONGING d The Dreaming TO EACH GROUP Christianity 70.9% 68.0% 63.9% 0.8% 3 The concept of terra nullius was abolished by: Catholic 27.0% 27.0% 25.8% 6.8% a The Mabo decision Anglican 22.0% 20.7% 18.7% -4.7% b The Wik decision Uniting 7.5% 6.6% 5.7% -14.9% c The Howard Ten-Point Plan d Missions Pentecostal 1.0% 0.7% 1.1% 25.7% Buddhism 1.1% 1.9% 2.1% 109.6% 4 What issue was identifi ed as most signifi cant in the Hindu 0.4% 0.5% 0.7% 120.2% Stolen Generations report Bringing them home? Islam 1.1% 1.5% 1.7% 69.4% a Dispossession Judaism 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 11.3% b Tribal law No religion 16.6% 15.5% 18.7% 25.7% c The White Australia policy d Ceremonies 9 Which churches united to create the 5 What was the outcome of the Wik decision? Uniting Church of Australia? a Pastoral leases extinguish native title a Anglican and Catholic b Native title no longer exists b Methodist, Congregational and Presbyterian c Pastoral leases and native title co-exist c Baptist, Methodist and Churches of Christ d Mining cannot happen on pastoral leases d Pentecostal, Assemblies of God, Four Square Church

6 Australia’s multicultural and multi- 10 Which is an example of interfaith dialogue? faith society is the result of: a National Council of Churches a Australia’s convict past b Council for Christians and Jews b Immigration following World War I c Uniting Church of Australia c Religious conversion d The New Age movement d Abolition of the White Australia policy

Refer to Table 3.4 when answering Questions 7 and 8. short answer question 7 The percentage of Hindus in Australia has risen (5 marks) dramatically between 1996 and 2006. Which of the following best accounts for this change? 1 Summarise the importance of interfaith a Immigration dialogue in multi-faith Australia. b Denominational switching c Rise of the New Age religions d Secularism chapter 4

Buddhism: The basic facts 76 cambridge studies of religion

We are what we think. All that we are arises with our thoughts; with our thoughts we make the world. sakyamuni buddha, the dhammapada sutra chapter summary Timeline circa 486 BCE Birth of Siddhartha Gautama as This chapter discusses: Prince Sakyamuni circa 530 BCE Siddhartha Gautama achieves enlightenment • The origins of Buddhism, with and dedicates the following 40-odd years to teaching reference to the India of its day before his death

• The life of Siddhartha circa 395 BCE Council of Vaisali Gautama, the Buddha circa 273 BCE Rise of King Ashoka in northern India; he promotes Buddhism • The Buddhist community, the sangha circa 100 CE Various schools of Buddhism have developed, • The early Buddhist councils including the split of Mahayana Buddhism in India circa 100 CE Spread of Buddhism into south-east Asia • The three schools of Buddhism: and China Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana circa 200 CE Nagarjuna and the development of • Principal teachings of Buddhism Madhyamika Philosophy 372 CE Buddhism enters Korea from China • The Three Jewels 413 CE Death of Kumarajiva who translated Mahayana • The Four Noble Truths, including texts into Chinese the Noble Eightfold Path 622 CE Death of Prince Shotoku, patron of Buddhism in Japan • The marks of existence: anicca, dukkha and anatta circa 750 CE Buddhism develops in Tibet 800s CE Buddhism dies out in India • Karma, samsara and nirvana 1281 CE Death of Nichiren, Japanese Buddhist leader • Sacred texts and writings 1200s CE Buddhism continues to develop in China » The Tripitaka and merges occasionally with Taoism and Confucianism » The Lotus of the Good Law 1603 CE Buddhism comes under state control in Japan » The Tibetan Book of the Dead 1617 CE Dalai Lamas come to rule Tibet • Core ethical teachings 1875 CE Theosophical Society begins to spread Buddhist » The Five Precepts ideas in the West » The Vinaya 1950s CE Communist governments win power in East Asia, controlling Buddhist developments • Personal devotion; puja in the home. chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 77

introduction INVESTIGATE Buddhism does not insist on a belief in God. Buddhism For students who want to learn a little more about Buddhism, atheist person who can fi nd can be an atheistic religion. Buddhism is also one of the various sites relating to it are available on the Cambridge Studies no rational explanation fastest growing religions in Australia. It has successfully of Religion website. for the existence of navigated the cultural and racial distinctions evident in God, gods and spirits other religious traditions. Buddhism claims to be a way of middle way life that avoids the extremes of denial and indulgence and the middle way of Buddhism avoids the proposes a middle way, as taught by its founder, extremes of indulgence Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha. This and asceticism; it is the middle way is outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path, ideal life for a Buddhist often represented as a wheel with eight spokes. It is Buddha sometimes called the Dharma Wheel. ‘enlightened one’, usually applied to Sometimes a lotus fl ower is used to symbolise Siddhartha Gautama Buddhism. A lotus fl ower has its roots in the mud, its leaves on the water and a beautiful fl ower standing tall. Noble Eightfold Path the Fourth Noble Truth, The Buddha sitting on the Lotus Throne, surrounded The eight-spoked wheel and the lotus fl ower – symbols for Buddhism the middle way, the way by snakes representing the human passions. of life for Buddhists

Dharma Wheel eight-spoked wheel representing the Noble Eightfold Path, the way of life for Buddhists 78 cambridge studies of religion Historical and cultural context

buddhism – as In Buddhism, the Hindu idea of reincarnation reincarnation persists in the concept of samsara. The Buddha was a the concept of infl uenced by rebirth in physical man named Siddhartha Gautama, or Prince Sakyamuni, form to the earth who lived around 563–483 BCE. He showed how this hinduism samsara system of repeatedly coming back into existence could be the cycle of rebirth Buddhism began as a branch that sprouted from the main broken. He proposed a way of ceasing to be reborn by or reincarnation trunk of Hinduism around 2500 years ago. Understanding turning off our desires for rebirth. This extinguishment nirvana Hinduism will help you to understand Buddhism. Like of desire leads to the ultimate goal of Buddhism: the state of no Hindus, Buddhists believe that there may be periods nirvana. suffering, desire or when the cosmos ceases and a new order is created in its sense of self resulting During the Upanishadic period in India (see the from enlightenment, place, but something always exists. In Hinduism, the soul chapters on Hinduism) many people wanted to speak the extinction of (atman) moves through cycles of life. This system is called about the gods, religion and philosophy. This was most desire (dukkha) reincarnation. strongly the case about 2500 years ago. Most eager to talk Buddhism accepts many of the assumptions of the were the members of the Kshatriya varna. This varna Indian world view, but it rejects the idea that people are (caste) included kings, nobles and army leaders. They Kshatriya one of the four castes, duty-bound to stay in the positions that they were born were not, however, the top caste. The priestly varna of traditionally, the ruling to. Buddhism offers a chance for universal religious and/ Brahmins was higher in status and treated all religious or military class or psychological development. matters as exclusively theirs. In those times of religious varna change, a number of new developments in Hinduism the concept commonly became apparent. known as ‘caste’; the four varna form the basis of Hindu society

Brahmin one of the four castes, the priestly class reincarnation cycle The soul of a Buddha can live Hindus and Buddhists also think that after we die, 1000s of lives! our soul becomes attached to another body and another mind. Therefore, we live again and again through many different lifetimes. The life we are living now is just one of thousands of lives we have already lived. This is called 'reincarnation'. This means to 'be reborn'. If good as a human, If we have been good in one life, we are born into a the soul can keep new life that is better than our last life. If we have been being reborn into better bad, we are born into a worse life. and better lives. If it is good, the Because Prince Siddhartha wanted to become a soul passes into a holy person, he had to acquire the deepest knowledge human body. regarding these Hindu ideas.

If the human THE SOUL is bad, it can be reborn as an animal.

The soul lives in an animal's body.

Reincarnation: Buddhists believe that our soul is reborn after life chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 79 The Buddha

the buddha’s life the boy would be either a great king or a great religious leader. His father, the King, had no intention of letting his and enlightenment son become a religious leader. It is said that he kept the young prince locked in the palace with all his needs taken He was, by birth, a member of the Kshatriya caste. care of. The prince grew, married young and produced a What is clear from his teachings is that he was a very son. Once he had met his obligation to produce an heir to signifi cant philosopher. He tried to explain why we the throne, he left the palace. Siddhartha then saw four perceive life the way we do. things that posed the chief problem of his life. He saw a The stories of his life are written down in texts such poor man, a sick man, a dead man and a holy man. To the as The Mahavastu (The Great Event) and The Buddhacarita prince, only the holy man seemed truly happy. (The Acts of the Buddha). These books, regrettably, were These four encounters were the basis of his written hundreds of years after the Buddha lived. By this philosophy. Its central concern is the idea that all life time his life had been strongly mythologised by his contains suffering. Poverty, sickness and death challenge followers. In these books, the Buddha is challenged by all of us. demons and protected by gods as he seeks the truth. These It is then said that the prince threw himself into myths seem at odds with his pragmatic philosophy. Because religious life. He followed the teachings of many holy of these texts, the Buddha remains both a religious leader men. Many of these sages taught the prince to deny all and an extremely clever thinker. His mythologised life is the desires of his body. It is said that the prince lived on based around several episodes that show how he struggled one grain of rice per day. Ultimately, however, the prince to fi nd an answer to life. Benares (Varanasi), was dissatisfi ed with the diffi culty and pointlessness of Texts written well after the Buddha lived tell us a the holiest city in such activities. He proposed a middle way between India, set on the banks story of Siddhartha Gautama. He was a prince from a royal ordinary life and religious devotion; a system that could of the River Ganges. family who lived in the extreme north of India, close to It was near here that be used by everyone. He began eating properly. By doing what is now Nepal. The myths say that at his birth wise the Buddha preached this, he disappointed all of his followers. his fi rst sermon and holy men appeared at the palace and predicted that 80 cambridge studies of religion

It was at the mid-point of his life, aged 40, that the At the time of the Buddha, India was undergoing a prince came to Bodh Gaya. In a deer park he sat beneath transition. The predominantly rural nations that made up a bodhi tree and vowed not to move until he had India were transforming into growing urban centres. This investigated existence to his ultimate satisfaction. During placed a new emphasis on the individual, as men and one night, now the most important day for Buddhists, the women became separated from the village and family life prince went through an extraordinary experience in that had given them their traditional identity. Powerful which he gained memory of the thousands of lives he had monarchs began to take over villages that had been run in lived before. The whole of existence was shown to him a democratic fashion. These small democratic groups were through this experience. Demons taunted him but, called sanghas – a word that became very important to sangha ignoring them, the prince became ‘the awakened one’ or Buddhists later on. The Buddha, then, was not only a the community of Buddhists, including the ‘the enlightened one’ – the Buddha. He can be referred to religious leader or a simple philosopher, but also a force monastic community as just the Buddha, Siddhartha Buddha or Sakyamuni against the new growth of the monarchies. and the broader Buddha. Buddhists refer to anyone who has achieved India was not going through only political changes at Buddhist community enlightenment as a buddha. this time. People began to seriously consider what By achieving enlightenment, the Buddha was able constituted an individual. A number of philosophies to explain a basic plan that would allow humanity to deal developed in India to explore this issue. These philosophies with life – or, more to the point, the illusion of life. were carried around India by shramanas, wandering shramanas teachers and philosophers. Some of these shramanas were wandering teachers, monks or philosophers INVESTIGATE strongly religious; others were radically atheist. The Some films that will give you a story of the Buddha include Little following table shows the different schools of thought. Buddha (1993) which is a present-day story in which the life of Putting the Buddha in the centre of this debate the Buddha features. Siddhartha (1972) is a film based on a indicates that he was not simply a religious leader. He novel by the German author Herman Hesse; it shows the life of struggled to fi nd a middle way between these philosophical a man, similar to the Buddha, seeking enlightenment. More schools. He did this by explaining what made up a human recent films also highlight Buddhist themes. Other famous being. He came to understand the interactions between Buddhists, such as the Tibetan leader the Dalai Lama, are the aspects of life that make human beings the way they are. subject of several films. See, for example, Kundun (1997) and The Buddha reasoned that life was infected by Seven Years in Tibet (1997). decay and death. Birth is what conditions being alive. The cause of birth is ‘becoming’ or coming into existence. It is a grasping for existence that causes becoming. The Some Buddhists, particularly those in the West, Buddha understood that this grasping comes from our might deny the non-metaphorical impact of demons, craving for life. This craving is linked to the nature of our soothsayers and magic, yet they do stress that the Buddha physical bodies, and our physical bodies are conditioned was attempting to engage with religious issues. Moreover, by thinking. Thus, in reversing all this, control of the dukkha many Buddhists believe that the Buddha’s words contain mind and thinking can control the craving for life, and the basic element of a message of salvation for all time. A few scholars, the human condition, thus control decay and death. This led to the development however, seek to emphasise that Siddhartha Gautama translated as ‘suffering’ of his concept of dukkha, often translated as ‘suffering’, or ‘desire’ or ‘anguish’ was primarily a philosopher. expressed in the Four Noble Truths.

TABLE 4.1 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT DURING THE BUDDHA’S LIFETIME

SCHOOL AJIVAKAS THE MATERIALISTS THE SCEPTICS (LOKAYATAS) Main theme Denied the notion of karma Denied anything but the Rejected Vedas and Brahmins, material nature of the world upheld friendship and peace of mind Stated that: Action had no real effect on At death humans disintegrated Heaven may or may not exist – future life into the earth no proof either way Because: A life was determined by There is no proof that anything The sceptics were known for uncontrollable cosmic principles exists beyond the material world avoiding debate completely chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 81

the buddha as a model for buddhist life exercise 4.1 1 Explain why both the eight-spoked The Buddha can inspire Buddhists and non-Buddhists wheel, and the lotus fl ower, are alike. His inspirational nature can be understood as that appropriate symbols for Buddhism. of both a philosopher and a religious leader. The Buddha is a model of one who achieved 2 Describe the context in which enlightenment and so shows that it is possible. His Buddhism developed teachings are a guide to others. 3 Explain why the Buddha is considered a model for Buddhist life. TABLE 4.2 THE QUALITIES OF THE BUDDHA

QUALITIES AS RELIGIOUS LEADER/AS activity 4.1 PHILOSOPHER 1 Construct a timeline of the life of the Buddha, Forbearance During his night of revelation, the noting signifi cant events in his life. Buddha fought off a number of spirits attempting to stop him from realising 2 Debate the following topic – ‘Buddhism his teachings. Siddhartha impressed is an atheistic religion.’ many with his dedication to unveiling 3 Interview a Buddhist monk, nun or the false nature of reality and the self. layperson and discover how and why Truth over The prince left his father’s palace although the Buddha is significant to them. luxury he was provided with everything he could want. Seeking the truth was more important. Buddhism demonstrates how, if the world is illusory, no one can fi nd happiness in possessions.

Wisdom and Seeing the poor man, the sick man and insight the dead man, the Buddha dedicated himself to explaining why life was bound by suffering. In the process of becoming enlightened, the Buddha developed a sophisticated philosophy that describes the nature of reality and the self. He inspires others to teach and develop his system. Tolerance The Buddha claimed that his system is and a tool to help, not a dogma that has to inclusiveness be believed. He said that, if Buddhism does not work for you, then use another system. This idea of Buddhism as a tool rather than an exclusive group is radical in comparison with most religions. 82 cambridge studies of religion Formation of the sangha

At the end of his life, the Buddha had gathered many In this way the idea of monastic life developed in disciples around him. These people formed the sangha or Buddhism. Until this point in India, religious people had the original community of monks and nuns. Buddhist texts either wandered the streets or, if they were Brahmin explain that, after his night of enlightenment, the Buddha priests, had lived at temples or royal courts. The monastery sat under his tree for several weeks, experiencing the bliss or group of Buddhist teachers became the most important that came with enlightenment. Soon, fi ve men who had institution in early Buddhism. The earliest texts and been companions of the Buddha before his enlightenment discussions were not so much about how the Buddha’s joined him. They had left Siddhartha when he began teachings should be interpreted but about how monks and eating normally again. The Buddha preached to them of nuns should live. These are called the Vinaya texts (see the Four Noble Truths. Ajnata Kaundinya was the fi rst of below). There are a few hundred rules for monks, including these fi ve men to become a disciple of the Buddha. not using money, not drinking alcohol and not having sex. The sangha’s most important task was to recite the There are dozens more for nuns. What was clear was that words of the Buddha and agree on what the members of the Buddha had said his system was open to all souls. the sangha remembered he had said. For part of the year, Although women were seen as having a lower status than they wandered around India telling people about the men, the Buddha had eventually invited women to use his Buddha’s philosophy. During the rainy season, they teachings on an equal footing with men. returned to communal areas such as parks and to monasteries that had been built for them.

Buddhist monks gather in Rangoon, Burma, to commemorate the sixth council of Buddhist monks held in 1955 chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 83

mahapajapati requests The second council was held at Vaishali perhaps seventy years later, and another great recitation of texts a female sangha took place. The council was memorable as some monks were attacked for receiving money. This point was Mahapajapati was both the Buddha’s aunt and his debated heatedly and eventually those monks who had stepmother, having married his father the King alongside touched money (against the Buddha’s wishes) were judged her elder sister, Mahamaya, the Buddha’s birth mother. as being in the wrong. The splits at this council led, Mahapajapati raised the prince from infancy when his eventually, to the formation of Mahayana Buddhism. mother the Queen died seven days after his birth. A few centuries after the Buddha, the Emperor Mahapajapati was eager for there to be a female order of Asoka, a king who inherited or conquered most of the sangha. It is said that she approached the Buddha northern India, ruled as a new convert to Buddhism. and asked three times if women could join the sangha. He established the third council. It was during and Three times the Buddha refused. after this time, 200 BCE to 100 CE, that Buddhism Later, Mahapajapati approached him again. This flourished in India. It also spread outside the country time she waited nearby with other women, their heads as Asoka sent missionaries to both the East and the shaved and dressed like monks. At this point the Buddha West (see Chapter Five for discussion of Asoka). The agreed that there would be a female sangha. Pali Canon third council also resulted in an affirmation of ‘the For those times, the idea that women could join a the Buddhist sacred approved teaching of the elders’ (Theravada) and the text, otherwise called wandering order of philosopher-monks was a radical addition of the third part of the Pali Canon, the the Triptaka; Pali one. It has been discussed above that the Buddha is the language in Abhidhamma, a discussion of the Buddha’s sermons. provided a system of thought and views that was open to which it is written The fi rst two Buddhist councils were important all – not only the priestly caste of India. Because of Tripitaka because they allowed members of the community to Mahapajapati’s request, Buddhism began to eradicate literally ‘three baskets’, overcome problems that arose after the death of the this is the Buddhist sexual as well as class differences. The move to admit Buddha who was, while he lived, the ultimate source of sacred writings that women, however, was not immediate, and there remains contain the teaching of authority. When he was dead, the members of the sangha in certain sections of Buddhism the view that women the Buddha; sometimes had to agree precisely on what he had said. Once these called the Pali Canon can never be as spiritually developed as men. teachings were authenticated, the texts they formed the early councils became the new authority for the young community.

Soon after the Buddha died, councils of Buddhists were occasionally held so that everyone could agree on the words the Buddha had said, and debate rules on how members of the sangha (nuns and monks) should live and behave. The fi rst council was at Rajagriha immediately after the death of the Buddha. At this meeting, those present settled the contents of the dhamma (the Buddha’s teachings) and codifi ed most of the rules for how a monk or nun should live, in the Vinaya. It is said that one of the Buddha’s closest companions, Ananda, recited from memory all the Buddhist scriptures to that date, and these were accepted by all the monks. It is doubtful whether this council actually took place in the way it is described. The fi rst council was responsible for the formation of the Pali Canon (Tripitaka). 84 cambridge studies of religion The main schools of Buddhism

Buddhism is divided into three main groups or schools, theravada buddhism sometimes called variants. These groups have long been understood according to their regional locations: Theravada Buddhists claim that their form of teaching and monastic behaviour is the oldest of all the Buddhist 1 Theravada Buddhism: in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, traditions. They promote the idea that nirvana, or Cambodia and Laos liberation to the realm of non-desiring, can only be 2 Mahayana Buddhism: in Vietnam, China, Korea and achieved by those who dedicate themselves totally to Japan the Buddha’s message. Through personal experience 3 Vajrayana (a form of Mahayana Buddhism): in Tibet. and analysis, thought and meditation, Theravadins can More recently these schools have spread throughout attain nirvana, but this requires assistance from the the Western world to Europe, the Americas and Australia. wise members of the sangha. The Buddha is revered It is estimated that there are 100 million Theravada because he was the only person able to achieve Buddhists in the world, and up to a billion Mahayana enlightenment on his own. Buddhists. The Theravada tradition (literally, ‘way of An arahat (Sanskrit) or arahant (Pali) is someone arahat the elders’) is considered the original school of Buddhism. who has eliminated their desire for reincarnation, that a person who has achieved enlightenment It claims to be more traditional, more in keeping with is, they have achieved enlightenment. The progress to through listening to the the teachings of the Buddha. Its concentration on becoming an arahat in the Theravada tradition marks teachings of the Buddha monastic life, however, is seen as limiting the Buddha’s it as different from the Mahayana tradition. In this message. Mahayana (literally, ‘great vehicle’) Buddhism latter tradition, the goal is not to work only for personal developed in India as a breakaway movement in the development, but to achieve nirvana for all beings. centuries after the Buddha’s death. It also strongly respects the Buddha’s teachings, but adapts more fl exibly to local infl uences, particularly in China.

Buddhism’s heart lies in South-East Asia (Theravada), Tanhuang Buddhism arrives East Asia (Mahayana) in 4th century CE N and the mountain N. Korea regions around Tibet Uzbekistan S. Korea (Vajrayana). It is only Buddhism takes hold Japan in recent times that in Tibet 7th century Buddhism is being Afghanistan re-introduced into its Buddhism introduced in homeland of India Buddhism influential from Buddhism arrives Tibet China 1st century CE 1st to 8th centuries Nepal in 6th century CE Pakistan India China

Shakyamuni lives in the Taiwan region of Magadha during 6–5th centuries BCE Thailand Pacific Ocean Bay Laos Buddhism in decline of Vietnam from 7th century CE, Bengal South China disappears c. 1200 Sea Cambodia

Malaysia Buddhism arrives about 2nd century BCE

Indian Ocean

Indonesia 0 1000 2000 km chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 85

In Theravada Buddhism there is a strong emphasis Mahayana is connected very closely with the on monks, so much so that many nunneries in the bodhisattva path. When the Buddha achieved Theravada world have closed down. This issue is not enlightenment, he taught for a further 40 years before he helped by the fact that the Buddha seems to have been died. Once he had died, however, he achieved nirvana. ambivalent about the status of women. In some passages of Thus, each individual could achieve enlightenment but scripture he clearly encourages nuns, while in others he the path was centred on self-discovery. Early Mahayanists suggests that Buddhism will suffer by accepting women wondered about the rest of humanity; how could becoming into the sangha. It has been suggested by modern, Western enlightened help the rest of the world? A bodhisattva, Buddhists that these latter comments were later added by therefore, is one who achieves enlightenment but, unlike men uncomfortable with women becoming arahats. the Buddha, takes an oath to reincarnate, or abide in spiritual form, to assist all beings in achieving mahayana buddhism enlightenment. In this way the bodhisattva is delaying their own nirvana for the sake of every other soul. Mahayana began in India. It developed as a breakaway Mahayana Buddhists promote the Buddha not movement within the early Buddhist community. This simply as a teacher but as an all-knowing transcendent group changed monastic rules, adapted texts and rejected being. We might say that Mahayana Buddhism is driven some changes that had been made in the fi rst council of more by the personalities of bodhisattvas and other Buddhists. Mahayana then developed into two general religious and mystical beings, but Mahayana is also joined groups. One of these is the Madhyamika school of to a strong system of philosophy. Mahayanists developed Buddhism. This school keeps to a middle way between the idea that most phenomena on Earth are ‘empty’ of self and non-self – thus resolving a controversy that substance. This doctrine suggests that what seems real is, erupted early in Buddhist history. The other main group as the Buddha said, illusory and exists only to cause is the Yogacara. This school suggests that rigorous suffering. yoga meditation (yoga) is the most effective method for Many Mahayana schools suggest that nirvana can any of various systems approaching the truth of existence. Before a Buddhist be easily and sometimes suddenly achieved. of discipline in the Enlightenment is available to everyone: monk, nun, Hindu philosophical reaches this stage, Yogacara Buddhists say, they must system concerned with pass through the ten stages along the path to becoming a layperson, farmer and king. achieving the union of bodhisattva – one who has achieved enlightenment but It is argued by Theravada Buddhists that there is the mind and body with much in Mahayana practice that goes beyond the the universal spirit remains dedicated to helping other souls. Mahayana Buddhists in India took their form of teachings of the Buddha. This includes the ideas of bodhisattva Buddhism to Tibet, Vietnam and China, where it began bodhisattvas and sudden enlightenment. Another thing one who has achieved that is exceptional about Mahayana is its popularity: it is enlightenment but to develop from 100 BCE onwards. As it adapted to forgoes nirvana to Chinese culture, Mahayana became more and more by far the most popular school of Buddhism. Most help others achieve popular. By the time of the Sui Dynasty in China (from Mahayana groups agree that women can achieve enlightenment 570s CE) Buddhism had been adopted as a major court enlightenment as easily as men. Some groups even Taoism religion and passed into Korea. From there, it passed into suggest that enlightenment can come suddenly whether major Chinese religion/ Japan, where it became a success. Madhyamika thinking or not one is in a monastery. Mahayana Buddhism is a philosophy, founded more inclusive form of Buddhism than Theravada. about 600 BCE; also had numerous elements in common with Taoism, a known as Daoism religion already established in China. 86 cambridge studies of religion

vajrayana buddhism and magic and is infl uenced by the Bon religion of Tibet. Vajrayana Buddhism also emphasises experience over Vajrayana (literally, ‘thunderbolt’) is a form of emptiness. Generally, Vajrayana Buddhism is considered Buddhism that has developed mainly in Tibet. ‘Vajra’ a more mystical form of Buddhism. is also a bright, indestructible substance, so Vajrayana Vajrayana Buddhism has become well known came to be understood as ‘diamond’ Buddhism. It arose through the person of the Dalai Lama who, since his from Mahayana thinking and concentrates on accessing exile from Tibet, has become a well-known traveller the real core of existence – cutting away the fictions and Buddhist spokesman. that people construct about themselves, their status and their desires. A key to Vajrayana Buddhism is the idea of prajna. This kind of wisdom involves developing CONSIDER prajna the ability to discriminate between the world of reality wisdom ‘Buddhism is just a trendy New Age view that has no place in modern and illusion. It includes the idea of compassion and the Australia’. That is the opinion of some. Is it only trendy? Does it have realisation that the world is ultimately illusory. a place in modern Australia? How does it relate to the immigrant Vajrayana Buddhism is also a version of Mahayana Buddhist communities? Is Buddhism simply an expression of Asian Buddhism that is more spiritualised and mystical. It is culture? Discuss some of these ideas with your classmates. infused with elements of Hinduism, animism, occultism

exercise 4.2 activity 4.2

1 Outline the signifi cance of the fi rst 1 Construct a table illustrating the features two councils of Buddhism. of the three schools of Buddhism. 2 Describe the formation of the 2 Discuss the role of women in Buddhism, with Buddhist sangha. particular reference to the different schools. 3 Explain why Buddhism has proved to 3 Construct a fl owchart of the spread of be attractive to modern Australians. Buddhism, noting signifi cant people and events. chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 87 Principal beliefs

Buddhism is generally perceived to be a religious tradition The Buddha that focuses on the practical aspects of everyday life and ethical behaviour. The central philosophical core of There is great debate between different groups as to how Buddhist teaching is essentially the impact of cause and infl uential the Buddha is. On one side, traditionalists effect. That is, if anguish (suffering) is the effect, the aim claim he is nothing more than an example for us, a soul of Buddhism is to eliminate the cause. who last incarnated 2500 years ago and has since exited the cycle of suffering and the cares of existence. At the the three jewels other extreme, especially in East Asia, the Buddha is recognised as a deity to whom one can pray and ask The Three Jewels are the three elements central to favours. Although Buddhists were initially wary of Buddhism. The Three Jewels are the Buddha, the developing any symbol that represented the Buddha, this dhamma dhamma (the teachings) and the sangha (the community). soon changed. At fi rst his presence was recognised by a the totality of the The Buddha is an example of someone who has achieved set of footprints – reminding Buddhists that he had once Buddha’s teachings enlightenment. The dhamma is the means to achieve walked the earth. Later he was remembered in stupas, or stupa enlightenment. The sangha is the fellow community large burial mounds. Finally, the actual form of the a burial mound or Buddha as a statue was created. Today, graceful, long- monument that journeying to achieve nirvana. usually has a relic To become a Buddhist, a person takes refuge in the eared and otherworldly Buddha statues grace all kinds of contained within Three Jewels, that is, expresses their confi dence in the temples. His image and his life form the centre point of Buddha, the teaching and the community. Usually this is much meditation. done in front of a Buddhist monk. 88 cambridge studies of religion

Dhamma The First Truth: there exists dukkha – suffering The dhamma consists of the words the Buddha spoke. These are recited in ritual, used as a code for living and Suffering is woven into the very fabric of life. If the debated as the basis of all Buddhist philosophy. They soul goes through thousands of years of lives, deaths include the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold and rebirths, then this doctrine puts each life into Path and accounts of teachings that the Buddha passed perspective. onto his disciples. Much of the Buddha’s teaching is The Second Truth: there is the arising included in the sacred writing, the Pali Canon (or dukkha Tripitaka), the Sanskrit canon and some Chinese of – the origin of suffering translations of lost Indian texts. Our senses are continually seeking to be satisfi ed. People have a thirst for life. This thirst mostly leads to Sangha disappointment. Even if people can overcome many of The sangha is the third Jewel of Buddhism. At fi rst, the their sensory desires, they still have intellectual conceits. term referred only to monks and nuns in monasteries. Dogmas and philosophies can narrow perspective on life They were a jewel of Buddhism, for they remembered and provide the illusion that people are singularly unique the words of the Buddha and refl ected his teaching in and satisfi ed. This is ultimately a path to suffering. the lives they led. Laypeople look to the sangha for The Third Truth: there is the cessation of spiritual guidance, help with meditation and advice on dukkha how to live life. Lay Buddhists are responsible for – there is a way out of suffering providing food for monks and nuns in monasteries. The cessation of dukkha is a condition the Buddha called Following the Buddha’s example, monks and nuns nirvana. Essentially nirvana, or the state of not desiring, travel out of their monastery each day with a begging is the exit point from suffering. Nirvana is a state that bowl. People bring vegetarian food to them and place it can be achieved by those still alive, who are called in their bowls as a way of earning good karma. Today arahat. The Buddha was in this state from age 40 until karma the word ‘sangha’ is also used to refer to an entire he died at 80. Nirvana means literally ‘quenching’ or the effects of one’s Buddhist community: laypeople, monks and nuns all ‘extinction’ of desire. For a more comprehensive actions in life, be they good or bad, the natural together. explanation of nirvana, see further on in this chapter. consequences of actions The Fourth Truth: there is the path the four noble leading to the cessation of dukkha truths – the Noble Eightfold Path The Fourth Noble Truth is the way to put Buddhist The Buddha spelt out a simple plan that people could theory into practice. It is the method of fi nding nirvana. follow to achieve enlightenment. It begins with four By walking the Noble Eightfold Path, one becomes a precepts: noble person. The Noble Eightfold Path is the means to 1 All is suffering (dukkha). end suffering. It is the avoidance of the two extremes of 2 The cause of suffering is attachment to (or desire for) desire and asceticism, known as the middle way. life. The middle way includes the following: 3 There is a way out of suffering. 1 Right seeing or understanding: the Noble Eightfold 4 The way out is to follow the Noble Eightfold Path. Path includes making sure that things are seen for what they are, keeping events and objects in the After his night of revelation, the Buddha continued wider perspective of rebirth, and calculating the to teach his doctrine for the next 40 years. He insisted effect of actions on karma. that he was not a god, and tried to make it clear that no 2 Right thought: if someone is hit, they might ‘want’ to one should worship him after he was dead. The Buddha hit back. The Buddha’s teaching asks people to had a clear idea where he was going – he would fi nd consider how important it is to be angry. Usually release from the system of reincarnation in a realm or there is no point to being angry. state where all desire is eliminated: nirvana. 3 Right speaking: people should not lie. chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 89

4 Right action: people should act the right way. The What causes suffering is the fact that all these Buddha hoped that people would not automatically things are illusions. The world, according to Buddhists, is do whatever they ‘want’, but what would lead to empty. At a basic level, this means that those things we higher knowledge about existence. consider ‘real’ are simply a part of one single existence. 5 Right livelihood: everyone should help the world in The cosmos is one, as people are all one. Individuality is a the work they do. social and psychological construct. Thus, dukkha refers 6 Right effort: people should act in the best way that to the suffering of the self, a common human condition, they can, developing the mind in as pure a way as probably best expressed as ‘anguish’. possible. 7 Right mindfulness: the Buddha wanted everyone to Anatta anatta think more clearly about the world, especially in the Anatta can refer to the idea of non-self or the absence of the absence of way they meditate. an individual self. As all life is impermanent in Buddhism, self or soul 8 Right concentration: it was also very important for so too is the idea of self. Buddhists are aware that people the Buddha to sit in silence, to think about his construct a concept of ‘oneself’. It may be that, from meditation teachings. This sitting quietly is called meditation moment to moment, a person continually constructs and the practice of emptying the mind to think or and is very important for Buddhists. reconstructs an impermanent and ever-changing reaction refl ect on an aspect of to their senses. Buddhists teach that the mind is a constant God or religious belief the marks of fl ow of unstable mental states. Thus, for Buddhists, consciousness is like a fl owing river, always changing in existence its fl ow. Another comparison likens the mind to a rotating wheel – only a small part of a wheel is in contact with the Anicca earth at any one time. anicca Anicca is the absence of permanence, or the idea of Ultimately, to accept anatta leads one to accept that impermanence impermanence. Although our lives may be constructed there is nothing that separates the self from every other to suggest there are certainties, Buddhism says there part of existence. That people construct themselves as are none. Not even the self is a certain and unchanging individuals and hold themselves apart from all that exists entity. Even as people perceive the world, it has already is ultimately a false construction. changed. As things come into existence, they are already fading and decaying. karma, samsara, Dukkha nirvana Usually translated as ‘suffering’, dukkha is also linked There are a number of features in Buddhist teaching that closely to the fi ve needs of personality. None of the are drawn from Hinduism, although with some signifi cant aspects of personality are completely satisfactory. The differences in interpretation and meaning. These include self, Buddhists suggest, depends on (1) the material the concepts known as the realms of existence, which are shape of things in the world; (2) feelings or emotions, familiar to those versed in Hinduism. As discussed above, whether pleasant or not; (3) the need to process sensory the concept of impermanence is central to Buddhism and or mental objects such as colours, concepts and this also applies to the realms of existence, which are abstractions of emotions; (4) those actions by which karma, samsara and nirvana. people defi ne themselves; and (5) discriminative consciousness – that is, the ability to discern what an object consists of. It is upon these points, say Buddhists, that people construct the illusion that ‘we are us’ – the ‘me’ depends on these points. 90 cambridge studies of religion

Karma This is natural law, one as unquestioned by Buddhists as it was by Hindus. The law of karma is a law of moral exercise 4.3 causation. That is, actions and attitudes have repercussions. These repercussions can affect people in 1 Is it enough to simply state the their lives right now. Hindus used this doctrine to explain Three Jewels to be a Buddhist? why souls are reborn in positions of higher or lower status, 2 Explain, in your own words, the Four Noble why some people have better fate or luck than others, and Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. why some people are more capable than others. In Buddhism, where the existence of the soul is doubted, 3 Write one sentence for each of the following words, karma nevertheless explains how all beings are illustrating your understanding of these concepts: infl uenced by intentional actions that accumulate anicca, dukkha, anatta, karma, samsara, nirvana. reactions. The karmic energies that are created in one life accumulate and pass into another. activity 4.3 Karma thus encourages good behaviour, because 1 Prepare an outline for a ten-minute one hopes for a better rebirth in one’s next life. It also talk on the signifi cance of nirvana. encourages sympathy with all other forms of life. Buddhist vegetarianism makes sense when it is realised that people 2 Research the key views of Buddhism and write are cutting short the journey of a soul on Earth simply in your own defi nitions of the main terms. order to eat meat, whether an individual personally kills 3 Debate the following – ‘Modern Australians the animal or someone else does. fi nd it diffi cult to accept the views of Buddhism’. Samsara In Hinduism samsara is the doctrine of rebirth. In Buddhist philosophy it works more as a metaphorical system for the endlessness that accompanies an unenlightened life. Nirvana is the only way to break such an unending cycle. The karmic force that is created continues after the body ceases to exist. Nirvana Nirvana is the end point of all evolved souls. Westerners might like to think of this place as being like heaven. Many Mahayana Buddhists also think of it in this manner. Strict philosophical and Theravada Buddhists rely only on what the Buddha told them – that nirvana is the extinguishment of all desire for life. It is essentially a state of nothingness, a release from the cycle of samsara. Although he experienced nirvana on the night of his revelation, the Buddha only ever spoke about it in this negative way. The Buddha gave very little indication of what nirvana is like. Some Buddhists say that this is because a frog could never explain to a tadpole what it is like to breathe air. Other Buddhists suggest that, if Buddhahood is the realisation that the self is actually a construct ultimately empty of meaning, and that enlightenment is coming into the knowledge that everything is part of the same reality, then achieving nirvana is ceasing to exist and becoming one with the world. This leads into a diffi cult debate that suggests if everything is actually the same – united by emptiness – then neither the self, the world nor nirvana can truthfully be spoken of as distinct entities. chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 91 Sacred texts and writings

Initially the teachings of the Buddha were memorised by lotus of the his followers and recited rather than written down. So the fi rst sacred texts of Buddhism were transmitted good law through an oral tradition. The Pali Canon (or Tripitaka) is Mahayana Buddhism accepts several other works as a collection that guides Theravada Buddhism. It was sacred writings such as the Heart Sutra and the Lotus of probably written down during the second century BCE the Good Law. The Lotus of the Good Law is the second in Sri Lanka, following the third Buddhist council. It was of three works known as the Threefold Lotus. The Lotus written in Pali, a language related to Sanskrit, the classical of the Good Law teaches that all people can reach a state language of India (like Latin in Europe). Both Pali and of enlightenment, in contrast to the usual Theravada Sanskrit are used for Buddhist writings. view that only a select few scholars and monks will reach Mahayana Buddhism accepts additional documents it. The emphasis in the Lotus of the Good Law is on written in various languages; these are called the Shastras. devotion and faith, rather than meditation and asceticism. Mahayana Buddhism holds that the Buddha’s teachings The earliest translation of the Lotus of the Good Law did not cease with his death. Vajrayana Buddhism also came from about 300 CE. has its own sacred writings that are additional to the Pali Canon. Various Buddhist texts were also translated from tibetan book Sanskrit into Chinese. When the Sanskrit originals were of the dead lost, the Chinese versions became very important. Vajrayana Buddhism has as its most signifi cant text the tripitaka Tibetan Book of the Dead. It is thought to have been written in the eighth century CE for a Tibetan king in a The Tripitaka is the sacred text for Theravada Buddhism. cryptic language, and hidden until the people were ready sutras It contains a collection of the Buddha’s sermons with to hear its words. The actual title of the book is the Bardo sacred texts containing instructions for monastic discipline. There is also a Thodol (bardo – ‘after death plane’ and thodol – ‘liberation the words of the Buddha section not directly from the Buddha that is a philosophical by hearing’) or the Great liberation upon hearing in the Bardo Thodol discussion of his teachings. The texts containing words intermediate state. The book was read to people as they a text that guides a were dying. It tells of four bardos (phases) which people person through the taught by the Buddha are called sutras. experience of death The Tripitaka is accepted as a sacred writing by travel through after death, and offers advice on how to until rebirth; also all variants of Buddhism and is the only text accepted fi nd the heavenly realm, rather than the lower realm known as the Tibetan where the cycle of birth and death continues. Book of the Dead by Theravada Buddhists. The word ‘tripitaka’ means ‘three baskets’, a reference to the three sections of the The Tibetan Book of the Dead offers considerable bardo Pali Canon: insight into Tibetan Buddhist cosmology and teachings an intermediate plane on the mind, consciousness, death and reincarnation. It of existence or period, • The Vinaya Pitaka or Discipline Collection is which in Buddhism contains these words: translates as the comprised of the monastic rules the Buddha semi-conscious state developed. Let virtue and goodness be perfected in every way. Be not fond of the dull smoke-coloured light from hell. of the time between • The Sutta Pitaka (Sermon Collection) contains the death and rebirth Buddha’s sermons written down. • The Abhidhammapitaka is a philosophical and theological discussion of the Buddha’s sermons. 92 cambridge studies of religion

extracts that demonstrate exercise 4.4 1 Explain the development of Buddhist principal beliefs sacred texts and writings. The following extracts from the sacred texts demonstrate 2 Outline the role of the sacred texts key Buddhist views. and writings in Buddhism. The Buddha postpones nirvana 3 Identify the importance of the three I will not experience fi nal nirvana until I have disciples texts mentioned in the syllabus. who are knowers of the dhamma and who will pass on what they have gained from their teacher, declare it and teach the dhamma of wondrous effect. digha nikaya 16: 3.7 activity 4.4

Bodhisattvas 1 Research the key Buddhist texts and fi nd passages that demonstrate the The bodhisattva is a great being who practises compassion, sympathy and joy, and so attains the stage principal views of Buddhism. of ‘the beloved only child’. Parents are very happy when they see their son at peace. The bodhisattva who has 2 Discuss – ‘Are Buddhist sacred reached this stage sees all beings like a parent sees his texts authoritative?’ only son – seeing him practise goodness, the parent is delighted. 3 Prepare a graphic presentation, for mahaparinirvana sutra 470 example a poster or a PowerPoint

The dhamma presentation, describing the Buddhist sacred texts and their significance. Teach the dhamma which is lovely at the beginning, lovely in the middle, lovely at the end. Explain with the spirit and the letter in the fashion of Brahma. In this way you will be completely fulfi lled and wholly pure. vinaya, mahavagga 1.11.1

Dukkha People compelled by craving crawl like snared rabbits. dhammapada 24:9

Karma An evil deed committed does not immediately bear fruit, just as milk does not curdle at once; but, like a smouldering fi re covered with ashes, it remains with the fool until the moment it ignites and burns him. dhammapada 69:71

Enlightenment Does a holy one say within himself, ‘I have obtained perfect enlightenment?’ … ‘No, world honoured one. If a holy one of perfect enlightenment said to himself ‘Such am I’, he would necessarily partake of the idea of an ego identity, a being separated individually. diamond sutra 9

Nirvana For those in mid-stream, in great peril of the fl ood; for those adventuring on ageing and dying – I proclaim the isle where there is no-thing, where naught is grasped. This is the isle of no-beyond: I call it nirvana – the utter extinction of ageing and dying. suttanipatta 1093–4

Stone head of Buddha, nestled in the embrace of a bodhi tree’s roots in Ayutthaya, Thailand chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 93 Core ethical teachings

The guidelines given in Buddhist writings are simply that • Precept 3 is more directly related to sexual misconduct. – guidelines. Yet it would be wrong to say there are no It includes actions to do with sexual responsibility, such ethics in Buddhism. The basis of Buddhist ethics is as sexual abuse, rape, incest and adultery. The stealing of respect for life: not to harm any living being and to ensure another’s dignity and self-respect is another issue here. the welfare of all. Certainly Buddhism seeks to relate Issues such as gluttony and overindulgence in other areas signifi cantly to other beings and to behave in an ethical of life are also covered. fashion. These can be refl ected in lifestyle practices such • Precept 4 includes lying, slander and deceitful as pacifi sm and vegetarianism. Intention is a primary behaviour and words. Again there is a deeper focus of Buddhist ethics. To intend to do good is more context that includes the need to listen to others and important than the act itself. to speak lovingly. While some emphasis is given to the sacred writings • Precept 5 relates to things such as drugs and alcohol. It as sources of authority, much more emphasis is given to may also include tobacco and some would include junk the community (sangha) for ethical authority. The sangha food and anything else considered toxic to consume, such has teachers who provide practical guidance about ethical as the media. Theravada Buddhism would interpret this behaviour. The role of gurus and teachers is greatly precept strictly to mean no alcohol. Mahayana Buddhism respected in Buddhism. The words of the Buddha and would look to the addictive nature of the intoxicant and the teaching of Buddhist precepts are respected and suggest that some use may be allowed. commitment to the Three Jewels is a requirement for Monks and nuns are guided by another Five Precepts being a Buddhist. that are especially relevant for them. These precepts are not commandments but are expectations of behaviour, and are the fi ve precepts expressed as undertakings. Fundamental Buddhist values, as related to ethical and the vinaya moral teaching, are also contained within the Five Precepts. The Five Precepts are essentially an exposition of the The Vinaya is a guide for monks and nuns in Buddhism. fourth step of the Noble Eightfold Path – right action. In There are several aspects of monastic Buddhism that are Buddhism actions are viewed as related to thought, so it is additional to the general guidance given to the Buddhist diffi cult to single out one aspect. The Five Precepts are community at large. As well as an additional Five Precepts, guides to correct behaviour rather than strict rules. the Vinaya is a guide to monastic life and directs monastic behaviour. In Theravada Buddhism the Vinaya includes The Five Precepts 227 vows. Breaches of these rules have different penalties To abstain from: depending on their severity. For example, murder and sexual activity can lead to expulsion from the sangha, while eating 1 killing living things a meal at the wrong time is simply a matter of confession. 2 taking what is not given 3 engaging in sexual misconduct exercise 4.5 4 speaking falsely 1 Outline the principal ethical teachings of Buddhism. 5 taking drugs or drink that affect the mind. 2 Describe the relationship between the The Five Precepts are concerned with an individual’s Five Precepts and the Vinaya. relationship to others and the world in which they live. 3 Identify the single key concept in Buddhist ethics. Thus the Five Precepts relate to the taking of life, theft, and inappropriate behaviour towards others in both sexual activity 4.5 activity and honesty; also care for oneself by the avoidance of intoxicants and practice of the fi ve positive attitudes. 1 Write a paragraph explaining why • Precept 1 refers to all life, not only human life. Some ethics are so important to Buddhists. Buddhists practise vegetarianism as fulfi lment of this 2 Taking on the role of a believer in Buddhism, precept. Pacifi sm is also a means of expressing this make a speech about the importance fi rst precept. of ethical teachings in your life. • Precept 2 includes, but is not limited to, stealing. It also 3 Interview a practising Buddhist and ask covers issues such as generosity and trustworthiness, how they put into practice their Buddhist and also adultery. ethics in modern Australian life. 94 cambridge studies of religion Personal devotion in the home

Buddhism is in essence a private religious tradition. A number of aids are used to assist in the practice of mandalas The place of personal devotion in Buddhist life depends meditation, such as mandalas and koans. The mind is symbolic representations of the cosmos, often on the views and attitudes of the particular Buddhist. then conformed to the mind of the Buddha and this helps drawn as an aid For example, a traditional Chinese Buddhist may aim in attaining enlightenment. This process is known as to meditation to pay respect to their ancestors, a Tibetan may seek to majjhima nikaya. koan appease the evil spirits, while a Westerner may see Meditation techniques also include vipasayana question-and-answer personal devotion as a time to relax and focus one’s (insight) and samatha (calm). Samatha meditation aims riddles that challenge thinking and lead positive energies. to achieve calmness and concentration, which raises the to enlightenment The practice of meditation, together with prayer, is perception of the person meditating. Calmness allows vipasayana the essential act of Buddhist worship or religious insight to be achieved. Vipasayana meditation aims to meaning ‘insight’, expression. Meditation is related to the Hindu concept of achieve wisdom. Insight allows Buddhists to recognise vipasayana is one yoga, a practice of conducting an inward search to attain what is really happening in their minds, that their of the most ancient meditation techniques liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Meditation, one form thoughts and feelings, and indeed all of life, are an of yoga, is the clearing of the mind and concentration on illusion, and thus develop right understanding of the samatha training the mind to refl ect on the great world soul (for Noble Eightfold Path. a meditation technique that aims to increase the Hindus) or the development of positive energy. Mandalas are used as an aid to meditation voluntary attention span principally in Vajrayana Buddhism. A mandala (which puja puja means ‘circle’ in Sanskrit) is a symbolic representation of worship; rituals may be the Buddhist world view, a way of helping Buddhists to carried out at a public temple or in the home Personal devotion or ritual is called puja, as in Hinduism. achieve understanding of the reality of the world. Puja is seen as a way to engage the heart and all energies Sometimes intricate mandalas are created out of mala to purify ourselves from negativity and develop positive coloured sand or grains that are then blown away or string of prayer energy. It is a means of experiencing the otherness of life, allowed to deteriorate. These mandalas represent the beads, usually made up of 108 beads that is, life free from suffering, and expressing gratitude, transient and impermanent nature of life (anicca), a devotion and acknowledgement of the Buddha and central concept in Buddhism. bodhisattvas. Meditation is the primary means of Bells are often used during meditation experiencing this positive energy and devotion. Puja is intensely personal and to some Buddhists it is not considered worship. Rather, particularly for modern Western Buddhists, it is a way of integrating the dhamma, internalising and actualising it through the practice of meditation. Thus puja becomes a habitual routine that helps in staying on the Buddhist path or journey through life. In practice, this often means making a commitment to the practice of meditation, for instance by setting a particular time or designating a particular space. This is usually a room with an altar and includes cushions, a mala (string of beads) and the use of incense and bells. For many it is a formalised time, with no interruptions allowed, and a commitment is demanded from the adherent. This Buddhist shrine uses a statue of the Buddha as an aid to meditation as well as a bell, incense sticks, candles and fl owers. The shrine is not a place of worship but a place where meditation can focus on the higher things of life and achieving positive energy. chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 95

end of chapter summary

• Buddhism developed as a religious tradition at a • The Three Jewels emphasise the Buddha, time when classical Hinduism was developing. his teachings and the community. • Buddhism is a philosophy and • The Four Noble Truths explain how to avoid practice as much as a religion. dukkha (suffering/anguish) and achieve liberation. • Buddhism developed as a challenge to • The way to live is according to the Noble the Brahmins’ control of Hinduism. Eightfold Path, the middle way. • The Buddha has been identifi ed as the • The Buddhist marks of existence include the Indian prince, Siddhartha Gautama. concepts of anicca (impermanence), dukkha • Many legends have arisen about (suffering) and anatta (absence of self). Siddhartha Gautama. • The ‘realms of existence’ include • Rejecting both indulgence and asceticism, karma, samsara (rebirth) and nirvana Siddhartha Gautama found enlightenment (release from the cycle of rebirth). while meditating under a bodhi tree. • The three schools of Buddhism have several • The Buddha then taught the middle way. sacred texts including the Tripitaka (all), the Lotus of the Good Law (Mahayana) and the • Following the Buddha’s death, the sangha Tibetan Book of the Dead (Vajrayana). (Buddhist community) grew. • Buddhist ethical teachings are expressed • Several councils were held to develop in the Five Precepts and the Vinaya. Buddhism as a religious tradition. • Buddhist personal devotion is • Three main schools or variants formed in Buddhism: expressed in home puja. » Theravada Buddhism » Mahayana Buddhism » Vajrayana Buddhism.

A Tibetan mandala 96 cambridge studies of religion End of chapter questions

multiple choice questions (10)

1 The term ‘the Buddha’ means: 6 The Buddhist view of ‘impermanence’ a The frightening one is defi ned in the concept of: b The enlightened one a Karma c The learning one b Anicca d The noble one c Dukkha d Nirvana 2 Where did Siddhartha Gautama fi nd enlightenment? a In asceticism 7 Nirvana is: b In the Hindu sacred writings a A beautiful place all people aspire to c Under the bodhi tree b A form of exotic Buddhism d In the community of his followers c A state of nothingness, release from the cycle of rebirth d A well known Buddhist teacher 3 The fi rst council of Buddhism made what decision? a Sending missionaries to Europe 8 The most signifi cant text for Vajrayana Buddhism is: b The breaking of Buddhism into two schools a The Bible c The veneration of the Buddha as an incarnation of God b The Lotus of the Good Law d The formulation of the Pali Canon c The Egyptian Book of the Dead d The Tibetan Book of the Dead 4 What is the correct description of the different Buddhist schools? 9 According to the Five Precepts, a Theravada – conservative, Mahayana – Buddhists should abstain from: inclusive, Vajrayana – mystical a Killing living things b Theravada – inspired, Mahayana – b Accepting gold or silver violent, Vajrayana – failing c Driving motor cars c Theravada – mandala, Mahayana – d Getting married Hindu, Vajrayana – bodhisattva d Theravada – secret, Mahayana – 10 The aim of home puja is: enlightened, Vajrayana – lotus a To worship the Buddha b To develop riddles, known as koans 5 To become a Buddhist, one must: c To engage the heart and develop positive energy a Worship the Buddha d To practise elaborate rituals b Take refuge in the Three Jewels c State the Four Noble Truths d Desire suffering chapter 4 buddhism – the basic facts 97

short answer extended response questions (6) questions (3)

1 Outline the signifi cance of the historical and 1 Explain the connection between Siddhartha Gautama’s cultural context on the formation of Buddhism. period of asceticism and his fi nding enlightenment.

2 Outline the unique features of the 2 ‘Buddhism is the most ethical of world religions’. three schools of Buddhism. Discuss with reference to the importance of ethics in the lives of Buddhist adherents. 3 Describe the signifi cance of the Four Noble Truths, with particular reference to the Noble Eightfold Path. 3 Outline puja, as conducted in the home, noting the signifi cance of the actions and aids used. 4 Describe the connection between karma and samsara.

5 Outline several signifi cant teachings of response to Buddhism and explain how they are developed stimulus question (1) from the Buddhist sacred writings.

6 Briefl y explain the principal ethical This tree in Wat Po in Thailand was grown from teachings of Buddhism. a cutting of the original bodhi tree under which the Buddha found enlightenment. Explain why this tree might be important to Buddhists. chapter 5

Buddhism depth study (HSC) 100 cambridge studies of religion

It is forbidden to speak against other religions; the true believer gives honour to whatever in them is worthy of honour. king asoka chapter summary introduction In this chapter, the life of a significant person and This chapter discusses: the rise and development of a significant idea in Buddhism will be examined. In the HSC exam, • King Asoka as a signifi cant person students will be asked to explain how this person/ • Asoka became a peaceful ruler idea contributed to the growth of Buddhism and assess the impact of the idea or person on Buddhism after a violent beginning itself. To do this effectively, students will need to • Asoka supported Buddhism and the sangha know something of the controversies surrounding the person or idea they choose to study. In this book • Asoka’s edicts have been only two examples are provided. The Cambridge discovered and translated Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM contains most of the ideas and people listed in the syllabus, as well • Asoka ensured the spread of Buddhism as the other ethical areas and practices. • Zen/Chan Buddhism is a Students will also need to describe a Buddhist signifi cant school of thought ethical teaching in a particular area: sexual ethics, bioethical issues or environmental ethics. The HSC • Zen seeks to apply Buddhism will also ask students to explain why the issue they to every aspect of life have chosen is important to Buddhism. A significant practice (ritual, worship etc.) within • Zen practices include satori and koan Buddhism will also need to be described, showing • Zen Buddhism came to firstly how it highlights Buddhist beliefs and secondly Japan through China how it makes meaning for Buddhists, both individually and as a community. • Zen has infl uenced the rise of Soto The practice discussed here is Wesak. Other Buddhism and Western Buddhism options include pilgrimage and temple puja.

• Buddhist ethics are concerned about the consequences of actions

• Sexual ethics are more concerned

with love and respect than rules Buddhists prepare for a ceremony in • Buddhists generally take a liberal approach to homosexuality

• Buddhism is generally non- discriminatory in relation to gender roles but has struggled to achieve this

• Tenzin Palmo is presented as a case study

• Signifi cant practices generally refl ect events in the life of the Buddha

• Wesak marks the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment and death

• Wesak celebrations refl ect the culture of devotees

• Wesak helps Buddhists focus on their own journey to enlightenment chapter 5 buddhism depth study (hsc) 101 Signifi cant people and schools of thought

There are many signifi cant people and schools of thought king asoka (ashoka) that have infl uenced Buddhism and brought Buddhist infl uences into the world. Of these, several are discussed Asoka (whose name means ‘without sorrow’) was an in this section, and more will be available on the Indian king, possibly the greatest king in the history of Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM. India. He ruled a vast empire that almost united India. Remember that the syllabus allows for ‘another person or He was the grandson of Candragupta, the fi rst king of the school of thought’ to be studied. This may be the student’s Mauryan dynasty of kings. Asoka ruled between 273–232 or the teacher’s own choice. Also remember that, as well BCE. He built his empire through many wars. These had as discussing the life and the contribution of the person or a devastating effect on the armies and peoples of India. So school of thought, students will need to analyse their sickened was he by the numbers of people who had died impact on Buddhism. in these wars, Asoka converted to Buddhism and tried to rule as an enlightened Buddhist layperson. He used his people government as a vehicle for spreading Buddhism and Buddhist ideals. He had numerous Buddhist writings Nargajuna (second/third century CE) – founder of the carved on walls. He also left a great number of stone ‘middle path’ of Mahayana Buddhism; infl uential early pillars, many of which are still standing today. On these Buddhist philosopher he had rules, or edicts, carved. These rules protected the lives and the religions of his subjects. Asoka not only Vasubandhu (fourth century CE) – Indian Buddhist supported Buddhism, but also the other major religions of scholar monk; founder of the Yogacara school of Buddhism India. His rule was thus a key point in the establishment Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava) (eighth century CE) of the idea of a multi-religious and tolerant state. – brought Tantric Buddhism to Tibet; often considered the ‘second Buddha’; Guru Rinpoche means ‘precious master’ Sister Dhammadinna (twentieth century CE) – American-born Buddhist nun who helped bring Buddhism to Australia in the 1950s Tenzin Palmo (twentieth/twenty-fi rst century CE) – second woman to be ordained in the Tibetan tradition; founded a nunnery in North India – see feature box in text XIV Dalai Lama (twentieth/twenty-fi rst century CE) – name = Tenzin Gyatso; widely travelled representative of Tibetan Buddhism; considered a reincarnation of the bodhisattva of compassion; Noble Peace Prize winner who has visited Australia several times Chen Yen (twentieth/twenty-fi rst century CE) – Taiwanese Buddhist nun who developed an emphasis on compassionate work and education in her homeland

Buddhists venerate a pillar raised by Asoka 102 cambridge studies of religion

Asoka’s life CONSIDER In his youth Asoka was a bloodthirsty man. He was It has been suggested that actions such as the offi cial sanction by raised in the court of King Bindusara, the son of a lowly- Asoka of the Buddhist religion led inevitably to the decline of that ranked wife. He was exiled from the court by his half- religion as a ‘faith community’ and the rise of nominalism. Is there nominal brothers, who were jealous of his skills as a warrior and any truth in that opinion? Discuss this question in relation to the referring to those who statesman. Once when wounded in battle, he was take the name of a actions of Asoka. Have similar things happened to other religious religion but do not tended by Buddhist monks. When he heard that his traditions, for instance, Constantine and Christianity? necessarily practise father, the King, had died, he rushed to the palace and that religion killed all those members of his family who might have taken the throne from him. In 270 BCE he invaded the Asoka’s contribution to the development nearby kingdom of Kalinga and hundreds of thousands and expression of Buddhism of people were killed in the following battles. Asoka’s impact on individuals INVESTIGATE In the inscriptions on his pillars, Asoka wrote a great deal about dhamma. He used this word in both a Buddhist dhamma The -language fi lm Asoka (2001) focuses on the early life of sense and in a more universal way. For him dhamma the totality of the Buddha’s teachings Asoka, rather than his later reforms. Watch the movie, note the meant morality, active social concern, religious tolerance, Buddhist infl uences and determine why King Asoka’s conversion to ecological awareness, observance of ethical precepts and Buddhism was so dramatic. renunciation of war. In this way he declared support for all religions and By this time Asoka’s empire was vast, but guilt from allowed individuals to become free to practise whatever all the blood he had shed began to trouble the great religion they wished. After he became Buddhist, he emperor. He stopped fi ghting and concentrated on being abolished the death penalty. He ordered wells dug and a good man. To do this, he turned to Buddhism. Asoka hospitals built. He tried to use his government not to travelled India, visiting places where the Buddha had impress people, but to help them. Similarly, his edicts been enlightened and had taught. make clear that he (and, he hoped, his descendents) As if he were a monk, Asoka gave up eating meat. would rule with justice and righteousness (dhamma). The He promoted acceptance of all religions and, although he following passage is the fourth point of the 14th Rock was now a Buddhist, he funded other religions as well. Edict. The most important point in this section is the Asoka made it clear that he detested religions that praised emphasis Asoka placed on peace. themselves as the true way and denounced other faiths. In the past, for many hundreds of years, killing or In his need to care for all living things, Asoka not only harming living beings and improper behaviour towards built numerous hospitals for people, but also hospitals for relatives, and improper behaviour towards Brahmans animals, and ordered forests to be replanted. He and ascetics, has increased. But now due to [Asoka’s] dhamma practice, the sound of the [war] drum has been established a Buddhist council at Pataliputra, called the replaced by the sound of the dhamma. third Buddhist council (see Chapter Four). After this These and many other kinds of dhamma practice have council, Asoka decided to send missionaries to the four been encouraged by [Asoka] and he will continue to corners of the world. This included sending Buddhists as promote the practice of dhamma. And the sons, far west as Greece, Ghandar and Kashmir, north into the grandsons and great-grandsons too will continue to promote dhamma practice until the end of time; living Himalayan regions, and south and east to Mysore, Burma, by dhamma and virtue, they will instruct in dhamma. Malaya and Sumatra. He sent his son, Mahendra, and his Truly, this is the highest work, to instruct in dhamma. daughter, Sanghamitra, to Sri Lanka which became an But practising the dhamma cannot be done by one who is devoid of virtue and therefore its promotion and important centre for Buddhism. His 13th Rock Edict growth are commendable. states that he tried to spread Buddhism to the kings of This edict has been written so that it may please my Syria, Egypt and Macedonia. successors to devote themselves to promoting these Asoka’s examples of religious tolerance, care for the things and not allow them to decline. Beloved-of-the- environment, renunciation of war and missionary activities gods, King Piyadasi, has had this written twelve years after his coronation. did a great deal to solidify Buddhism as a major Indian and world religion. As well as establishing many hospitals, he sangha conferred many gifts on the Buddhist sangha. However, the community of this attracted to its ranks non-Buddhist hangers-on and Buddhists, including the monastic community disreputable people looking for an easier life. This resulted and the broader in degeneration and lack of purity in the sangha. Buddhist community chapter 5 buddhism depth study (hsc) 103

Asoka’s impact on Buddhism Asoka’s impact on society Asoka never mentioned in his pillar scripts some of the Firstly, as the map shows, Asoka developed the potential points that people may consider key concepts in for a united India. Following Buddhist principles, he Buddhism. He did not mention nirvana, for example. promoted ideals that made his nation fair and just for This raises the question of how Buddhist Asoka really many. His promotion of religious tolerance was necessary, was. Certainly he made pilgrimage to the sites where the for most of the people he ruled over were not Buddhist. By Buddha taught a popular practice. At Lumbini, where the refusing to impose Buddhism on his Hindu subjects, Buddha was born, he cancelled taxes. In other places he Asoka showed how all Indians could be united under one put up impressive memorials to the Buddha. These system of government. In the latter part of his reign, pilgrimages – and the monuments to mark various sites peace became one of the main policies of his state. His along the way – made Buddhist pilgrimage very important inscriptions contain many references to peace. in India and it remains important to Buddhists today. Additionally, Asoka developed a strong sense of Asoka was also responsible for constructing more justice. His building of hospitals for the sick and also for monasteries Buddhist monasteries and stupas than any other ruler. animals showed that his compassion extended far beyond places where monks Some Buddhists suggested that he built 84 000 of each, the care a ruler would usually show. Asoka protected and nuns live although this is an exaggeration. No doubt there was a endangered species and set up reserves where they could stupa great deal of money spent on Buddhism at this time. It is remain safe. He replanted destroyed forests to ensure a burial mound or monument that suggested that, because of his generosity, many people good environments for animals and people. usually has a relic who were not Buddhists dressed up as monks and nuns to Sadly, many of his reforms were forgotten when his contained within take advantage of the king. This introduced a level of empire fell apart after his death. His Rock Edicts, corruption or nominalism into the Buddhist community. however, remain as reminders of how a fair and just Asoka was very careful in his treatment of the society can be organised. Buddhist community of monks and nuns. He passed a law that anyone who caused a split in the community by Analysing Asoka’s impact starting their own group would be prevented from being Asoka was very advanced in his thought and practice of a monk or nun any longer. He felt it was his royal duty to rulership at this time. His attitudes to peace and his care keep the sangha unifi ed and free from dissent. Because of for people, animals and the environment were very this, later kings who ruled over Buddhists also saw it as progressive. Asoka became the ideal Buddhist king. He their duty to control the sangha. But this government was certainly a historical fi gure, but after his death many interference was not always to the benefi t of Buddhism. myths arose about him. These helped to exaggerate his infl uence. Buddhists have always held him up as a great example of a ruler. Hindu Kush Mountains Until Asoka’s time, Buddhism was a largely fringe N movement in India. It was becoming popular but still Kabul Parthia Himalayan Mountains grew slowly. After Asoka, Buddhism became famous in Tibetan Plateau India as the religion of the court. Asoka established an ideal image of a Buddhist ruler. Kings in the rest of the Buddhist world – in countries such as Burma and Mt Everest Ganges R. Thailand – tried to copy his example. Asoka’s control of Magadha Pataliputra the sangha set a precedent for kings to appoint and banish monks and nuns. This political interference in Buddhist

Arabian Sea affairs was not often a good thing. After Asoka died, his Unconquered tribal Kalinga dynasty fell into disarray. It is thought that his spending peoples Bay of Bengal on Buddhist buildings weakened his state in the end. But by sending groups of Buddhist missionaries to Andhra neighbouring nations, Asoka was no doubt responsible for the early spread of Buddhism outside India during the Indian Ocean Dravidian kingdoms third century BCE.

Asoka’s empire

This map shows Lanka 0 500 1000 km the extent of Asoka’s empire 104 cambridge studies of religion

Today, Asoka is a fi gure of importance not only to Summary Buddhists. He is used by Indian Nationalists to remind all Indians that once their country was united, humane, As king, devoted Buddhist and man of justice, Asoka peaceful and strong. This was particularly important transformed from a bloodthirsty monarch to one of the while Indian nationalists were struggling against the most enlightened rulers of all time. His compassion for British who had made India part of their empire from the life, inspired by Buddhism, made him not only a great 1700s through to 1947. Once India was free, Asoka came humanitarian, but also one of the fi rst people to recognise to symbolise enlightened government and Indian unity. animal rights and the needs of the environment. He gave Buddhism an air of offi cial acceptance it did not have in India until his time. Yet, he also meddled in the functioning of Buddhism, calling Buddhists together to standardise the teachings and practice of their faith. In one of his most important moves, he sent out missionaries to spread the religion far and wide. At the time of his conversion, Asoka found Buddhism a dissenting sect within the Hindu religion, but at his death left it as a growing world faith. exercise 5.1

1 Outline the life of King Asoka.

The Indian National Flag carries the 26-spoke Asoka- 2 Explain the contribution of King Chakra as a reminder of India’s past unity and strength. Asoka to Buddhism. This spoked wheel (symbolising the eternal law of existence) is found on pillars set up by Asoka 3 Analyse the impact of Asoka on the Buddhism of his day. Sources on Asoka As Asoka was the fi rst major patron of Buddhism, activity 5.1 Buddhists were eager to remember him. When Buddhism was brought to China, many Buddhist texts were also 1 Conduct some research and construct carried east. These were translated into Chinese and the an annotated timeline of King Asoka’s originals were eventually lost. Most of what is known of life, noting the signifi cant events. the life of Asoka comes from a book called the 2 Debate the following topic – ‘King Asoka’s Asokavadana that was translated into Chinese around support of Buddhism hindered rather than 300 CE. helped Buddhism as a religious tradition’. The most important sources of information on 3 Research the impact of Asoka on modern Asoka remain the inscriptions that he left on pillars and India and discuss the way he has monuments throughout India. Many of these are written become part of Indian nationalism. in a very informal style. This suggests that it was the emperor himself who dictated what was being carved. It is thus believed by scholars that many of these inscriptions are Asoka’s own words, without editing from scholars or interpreters. An example of a text from one of Asoka’s carvings is a warning to the kings who will come after him: Beloved-of-the-gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: To do good is diffi cult. One who does good fi rst does something hard to do. I have done many good deeds, and if my sons, grandsons and their descendants up to the end of the world act in like manner, they too will do much good. But whoever amongst them neglects this, they will do evil. Truly, it is easy to do evil. chapter 5 buddhism depth study (hsc) 105

schools of thought

Pure Land Buddhism – a Mahayana school of Buddhism in China and Japan that is attractive to ordinary people. It emphasises faith and devotion. Won Buddhism – a Korean school of Buddhism that emphasises the role of the laity and the practice of meditation. Zen Buddhism ‘Zen’ is a Japanese word derived from ‘chan’, the Chinese equivalent, which comes from the Indian term ‘dhyana’ meaning ‘meditation’. Zen Buddhism is Buddhism as expressed in Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese contexts. Chan is the term used in China; Zen Zen is used in Japan. a Buddhist sect that advocates self- contemplation and INVESTIGATE wisdom in striving Zen Buddhism often features signifi cant truths in poems or towards awakening questions (for example, ‘What is the sound of one hand clapping?’). The following is a famous example of an exchange of poems.

Shen Hui (a monk): Our body is a bodhi tree Our mind a mirror We must polish and clean every day To let no dust settle.

Hui Neng (sixth patriarch of Chan/Zen): Yet there is no bodhi tree There is no mirror at all In fact no object ever existed So where can dust alight?

Zen is one of the most fascinating aspects of Buddhism, especially for Westerners. It is a variant of Mahayana Buddhism and so is connected with that popular form of Buddhism. It began in China as Chan Buddhism some time during the 500s CE and transformed into a formal aspect of Buddhism some patriarchs years later with its own monasteries, patriarchs and from the Greek and Latin monks. In China, a patriarch is the leader of a religious ‘pater’ refers to the power structure of men in a society movement, either Taoist or Buddhist. The patriarch is or in reference to the ‘fathers’ the ultimate custodian of a school or section of one of of religious traditions these religions. The patriarch appoints his successor who becomes the next patriarch in an unbroken lineage through time. Bodhidharma was a Buddhist mystic from India or Central Asia who was thought to live around the 520s CE when he made his way to China 106 cambridge studies of religion

The most fascinating aspect of Chan/Zen is its Kyudo or Zen archery is a Buddhist practice where the archer rejection of texts and its focus on meditation and other seeks to avoid releasing the arrow by conscious thought actions. In this it seems just as inspired by Taoism (see Taoism Chapter 14) as by Buddhism. Chan/Zen Buddhists major Chinese religion/ philosophy, founded believe that enlightenment is possible at all times and about 600 BCE; also for everyone. One does not need to be a monk or dedicate known as Daoism one’s life to a monastery in order to become enlightened. The idea of ‘sudden enlightenment’ is central to its doctrine. Chan Buddhism was soon accepted into Japanese culture, where it became Zen, a philosophy used to explain Japanese ideas of beauty and action. Zen encapsulated the Japanese principles behind some martial arts, painting, gardening, archery, tea making and theatre. Ultimately Zen remained a ‘way of doing’, despite having an increasingly sophisticated philosophy develop behind it.

FURTHERMORE Zen Buddhism seeks to fi nd the spiritual way of doing many activities, not only those thought of as religious. The following illustrations relate to several areas of life where Zen has been applied – archery, tea and calligraphy.

The history of Zen Chado is the way of tea. A tea room is devoted to the ceremony In the period 491–497 CE a series of persecutions against Buddhism took place. Ancient Chinese chronicles record that ‘millions’ of Buddhist monks and nuns were made to return to lay life. This is no doubt an exaggeration, but many temples and scriptures were destroyed. The development of a Buddhism such as Chan/Zen that did not need temples or scriptures, but relied on meditation practice alone, was a sane response to these persecutions that helped Zen to survive and grow. Some time after these persecutions, the story of Bodhidharma began to be told. He is known as the fi rst Similarly shodo or the way of writing applies Zen patriarch. Bodhidharma was considered by the Zen attitudes to calligraphy Chinese to be from Persia or Central Asia. Upon his arrival he was interviewed by Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty. The year was supposedly 527 CE. At this interview the Emperor asked the monk about truth. Bodhidharma replied that there was no truth. The Emperor then asked Bodhidharma who was standing before him. The monk replied (with great cheek) ‘I don’t know.’ Finally the Emperor, who had spent vast amounts of money on rebuilding temples and ordaining monks, asked how much karmic merit would come from doing these things. The monk replied ‘None.’ chapter 5 buddhism depth study (hsc) 107

Bodhidharma, whether a real historical personage 713 CE). He was an illiterate peasant who understood or not, represents in this exchange a simple form of better than anyone else at the monastery the essential Buddhism focused on nothing but the personal Zen understanding of selfhood. He carried on the experience that comes from meditation. To prove this lineage of the patriarchs in the south, having fl ed from point further, the story goes on to explain how those Zen monasteries in the north that looked down Bodhidharma spent the next nine years sitting in a cave upon his low birth. The history of the sixth patriarch meditating. On one occasion the monk was so annoyed stresses, yet again, Zen Buddhism’s celebration of that he had fallen asleep that he cut off his own eyelids! personal insight and experience, rather than birth or During these nine years he was approached three learning. Hui Neng is famous because all surviving Zen times by a man who wanted to become Bodhidharma’s schools regard him as their philosophical ancestor. disciple. Only after he chopped off his left arm did Contribution to the development Bodhidharma take the man seriously. This man, and expression of Buddhism Huike, is considered the second patriarch of Chan/ Zen. It is said that both he and Bodhidharma based Zen’s impact on individuals their teachings on an Indian Buddhist text called the When Chan/Zen began to appear, China had already Lankavatara Sutra which emphasises self-enlightenment experienced centuries of Buddhist development. Much beyond words and thoughts. Buddhist activity was focused on bringing Buddhist There were other patriarchs, of whom very little is texts from India and translating them. Many of these known. About the fi fth and sixth patriarchs, there is texts were important, but their huge numbers were more historical certainty. The fi fth patriarch was daunting for anyone who wanted to understand A shrine near Nongren, who fl ed to the south of China to escape the Buddhism. Chan/Zen succeeded in this environment Mount Songshan in jealousy of the northern Buddhists, and is fi rmly China; the mountain because it made Buddhism accessible to everyone, not grounded as a historical character. The most famous is said to contain the only scholars. cave of Bodhidharma patriarch of this lineage was the sixth, Hui Neng (638– 108 cambridge studies of religion

Buddhism became acceptable to all people through Zen’s impact on Buddhism the Chan/Zen doctrine of zazen. This puts the focus in zazen Before Chan/Zen, China already had a long tradition of a person’s spiritual growth on their own experiences of experiential meditation meditation and tranquillity that was derived from its own fi nding their inner nature rather than on complex religion of Taoism. The followers of this religion were eager meditation practices or sophisticated texts. to play with paradoxes and confuse with their doctrines, Meditation and other Zen practices can lead to because they thought that truth was ultimately unspeakable. satori. This is a Japanese word for ‘enlightenment’, When Chan/Zen began to appear, many believed it to be a satori that is, realisation of the inherent truth in the the Japanese word development of the ideas of Taoism in the form of Buddhism. Buddha’s teachings about existence. In Zen, such for enlightenment This was not surprising, as during the 300s Buddhism had enlightenment comes suddenly, like a lightening increased its popularity in China by being considered a strike. It can only come from personal experience. It branch of Taoism. Chan/Zen increased Buddhism’s is described as a feeling of ‘infinite space’. To approach acceptance in China by making it more like Taoism in many satori, Zen practitioners will often suggest startling respects. Buddhism was also made more acceptable to other or paradoxical events. Chinese ideas such as those contained in Confucianism. Confucianism This can include meditation where a Buddhist Chan/Zen enabled Buddhism to be open to age-old the religious/ master walks behind those meditating with a large philosophical system Chinese philosophical ideals and social assumptions. stick. He either slaps the stick violently against the based on the teaching Once Buddhism had taken on Chinese concepts, it was in of the Chinese floor or (without pain but with great shock) against the turn able to infl uence the other religions of China: philosopher Confucius back of someone meditating. Paradox can be introduced (551–479 BCE) Confucianism and Taoism. in the form of a koan. koan Zen’s impact on society question-and-answer INVESTIGATE riddle that challenges Chan/Zen was a strongly egalitarian system of Buddhism. thinking and leads Develop a greater understanding of these practices. Zazen, This was especially the case with Soto Zen in Japan to enlightenment satori and koans can all be accessed on the Cambridge Studies which, like Chan in China, gained widespread support. of Religion website. At the scholarly level, however, Chan Buddhism in China developed under the infl uence of Taoism and, to a lesser Koans are dialogues between Zen masters and extent, Confucianism. Because Buddhists of the Chan their disciples or other people interested in Zen. The school were dealing in ideas that were in origin Chinese, point of a koan is to be, at some level, a poetically Chan was able to infl uence Buddhism as it developed nonsensical, paradoxical, contradictory set of ideas or other Chinese ideas. That is, the religions of China began contain a juxtaposition. Koans are vitally important to speak the same language. For a religion originally from juxtaposition for making satori accessible to all. Some examples are: India, with a vast range of foreign terms, Chan helped thoughts or images of two things not normally Joshu (778–897 CE) was a famous Chinese Zen Buddhism cement its place in China. considered together Master. One day a troubled monk approached him, Because Japan had already been strongly infl uenced intending to ask the master for guidance, and at that by the Chinese religions of Confucianism and Taoism, moment a dog walked by. The monk asked Joshu, ‘Has that dog a Buddha-nature or not?’ The monk Zen was easily understood there and spread quickly. This had barely completed his question when Joshu was also the case with Zen’s spread into Vietnam (Thien screamed out ‘MU!’ Buddhism) and Korea (Seon Buddhism). Nansen saw the monks of the eastern and western halls (of a monastery) fighting over a cat. He seized Analysing Zen’s impact the cat and told the monks: ‘If any of you say a good word, you can save the cat’. No one answered. So Chan/Zen was extremely infl uential in allowing Buddhism Nansen boldly cut the cat into two pieces. That to grow, not simply as a foreign religion in East Asia (China, evening Joshu returned and Nansen told him about Korea, Vietnam and Japan), but as an East Asian religion in this. Joshu removed his sandals and, placing them on his head, walked out. Nansen said: ‘If you had been its own right. It made Buddhism extremely popular in many there, you could have saved the cat’. East Asian societies. Chan/Zen was vital to the development of artistic and martial practices, particularly in Japan. It also These tales not only have an abrupt logic, they helped develop a particular sense of beauty in Japan. also introduce an element of unpredictability to More recently, Zen’s celebration of simplicity and its Buddhism. They introduce craziness and humour into focus on the experiences of the mind have made Zen Buddhism and make it more human and accessible. Buddhism increasingly popular in the West. Zen’s appeal through meditation experiences will no doubt continue throughout the world. chapter 5 buddhism depth study (hsc) 109

Chan/Zen in Japan Summary Zen became the largest dimension of Buddhism practised Throughout the history of Chan/Zen Buddhism, there in China, yet it was only in the twelfth century that it has been a focus on breaking down the barriers between reached Japan. Myoan Eisai journeyed to China and monks, nuns and laypeople. The Buddhism that was brought back Zen Buddhist ideas that formed the Rinzai alive in China in the 400s CE focused on text translation, school, today one of the larger schools of Buddhism in monastery building, increasing the sangha and elevating Japan. Later, Dogen, a disciple of his, travelled to China its prestige. Monks and nuns were seen as a race apart, to study under a Chinese Zen master. When he returned, and Buddhism seemed inaccessible to everyday people. he formed a rival school of Zen named Soto which is, Chan/Zen changed all that. Firstly, it made Buddhism today, far larger than the Rinzai school established by his completely Chinese by incorporating many concepts of Japanese mentor. Taoism, thus putting Buddhism into a framework all Soto Zen became incredibly popular because it Chinese people could understand. Secondly, it turned followed through with the essential Zen attitude of not Buddhism’s emphasis away from elite pursuits such as distinguishing between people and focusing on the monastery building, writing and translating scriptures, authenticity of experience, rather than the authority of and located the authority for being a good Buddhist with monastic structures or scriptures. This was revealed most those who had experience, rather than knowledge. This contextualised clearly in their attitude to funerals. By allowing laypeople was a contextualised Buddhism, not only in terms of the the context of the to be ordained as monks and nuns after their death, Soto Chinese context, but also in the context of the lives of expression; for example, Zen Buddhists were able to bury everyone using rituals expressing a religious ordinary East Asian people. tradition in a way that that had previously been kept only for monks and nuns. Chan/Zen Buddhism restored the relevance of can be easily identifi ed Soto Zen is included as a Buddhist school of thought on Buddhism to the lives of the individual and the with its cultural context the Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM. community. In danger of becoming the province of the elite, it once again became the practice of the ordinary, Zen Buddhism in the West everyday human being. DT Suzuki (1870–1966) was central to explaining Zen Buddhism to the West. His books were hungrily devoured, and Zen Buddhism made a signifi cant impact on Westerners in Europe and Asia seeking a spirituality exercise 5.2 radically unlike the Western monotheisms. Zen was also a way of explaining the sense of beauty and the sense of 1 Describe the development of Zen Buddhism. tranquillity that East Asian religion and philosophy 2 Explain why Zen was such an important seemed to embody. Books explaining the arts of Japan development of Buddhism. often touched on Zen. Perhaps the most famous is Eugen Herrigal’s Zen in the art of archery (fi rst published in 3 Analyse the contribution of Zen English in 1953 with a foreword by DT Suzuki). In this to Buddhism in general. book, Herrigal turns Western expectations on their head. For Westerners, the point of archery is to hit a target; Zen activity 5.2 archery, however, aims to fi nd a connection with the cosmos that allows one to unthinkingly release the arrow. 1 Choose an area of life not generally associated Archery becomes a form of meditation. with religious thought. Explain how Zen might apply to that aspect of life. FURTHERMORE 2 Research to fi nd a koan and write a paragraph Zen sought to fi nd the spirituality in the ordinary events of life. One explaining how it can be understood. of the surprisingly biggest selling books of the 1970s was Zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance, an obvious play on the title of 3 Construct a table outlining the Herrigal’s book (Pirsig, RM, 1974, London, William Morrow). It has differences between Zen Buddhism been described as ‘the most widely read philosophy book, ever!’ and Theravada Buddhism. 110 cambridge studies of religion Ethics

Buddhism is often depicted as a religious tradition with a sexual ethics strong ethical emphasis. Generally there is a concern about the consequences of any action. Thus there is less Premarital and extramarital sex emphasis on sacred writings, for example, although there ‘Premarital sex’ is a term that describes sexual activity are a number of signifi cant references. Rather, the before marriage and ‘extramarital sex’ refers to any emphasis is on the result of the action, on both the one sexual activity outside of marriage. The Buddha, acting and the one acted upon. Prince Siddhartha, emphasised in his later life the In general, three statements tend to underlie spirit of one who has renounced all worldly concerns. Buddhist ethics: In his example and the Vinaya (rules for monks and • Do what is good nuns) a life beyond sex, beyond marriage and beyond • Avoid what is evil producing children is emphasised. Concern for • Practise so that the mind is clear. premarital sex is not as important to Buddhists as moving towards a state of sexlessness, where there is a bioethics concentration on the development of the mind. However, before he was enlightened and became the Relief from suffering and the consequences of actions are Buddha, Prince Siddhartha was married and had a important in Buddhism. The concept of ‘playing God’ is son. His wife Yasodhara bore him a child, Rahula. not important. Though his son later became a monk, as a royal prince While abortion and euthanasia may seem the Buddha still had to provide a son and heir before he inconsistent with Buddhist principles, the issue of escaped the palace of his father. This part of the suffering must be considered. Rebirth occurs three days Buddha’s story suggests that, although enlightenment after death in Mahayana Buddhism, a diffi cult issue for is important, marriage and having children is also an organ donation. Cloning, AI and IVF are not problematic important part of earthly life for Buddhists. as they promote life and aid rebirth. Clearly, in Buddhism marriage is important. Views on premarital sex, however, are diffi cult to outline environmental ethics because in India at the time of the Buddha marriages took place early in people’s lives. Premarital sex only Buddhists seek to maintain harmony in the world, becomes a real issue when marriage occurs much later including the physical world. Interdependence, or balance, than puberty. Moreover, it seems that Buddhism is an important concept. To take life or take what is not tolerated a number of different marriage structures yours breaches Buddhist principles. Trees are particularly including polygyny and polyandry. Early Buddhist polygyny texts refer to a range of marriage types. Some were a husband having signifi cant as the Buddha found enlightenment under the many wives bodhi tree. Environmental concerns have been part of simply for love, others because of fi nancial arrangements between the parents, some were permanent and others polyandry Buddhism since the efforts of King Asoka. a wife having temporary. In the Parama Sakha it is said that a wife is a many husbands man’s best friend, and in a story in the Jataka collection a Buddha, observing a king treating his wife badly, advised her to leave him if his behaviour did not change. The Buddha concluded that union without love was painful. Given the fl exibility of Buddhist attitudes to marriage, it seems unlikely that it was a foreboding institution that individuals feared and avoided in preference to the practice of premarital sex. chapter 5 buddhism depth study (hsc) 111

As Buddhism moved out of India, local attitudes to Because of the openness of Buddhist views on this premarital sex would have infl uenced Buddhist attitudes. issue, scholars tend to examine not Buddhist precepts but In East Asia, attitudes to premarital sex would have been cultural norms. That is, to know about premarital sex in dictated by custom and Confucian ethics. Confucian China, one studies social standards. These standards are ethics place great emphasis on family unity. They forbid not necessarily infl uenced by Buddhism (see the women and men from engaging in extramarital Cambridge Studies of Religion website for an example). relationships. As with the kings of India, however, wealthy These standards also change. For example, China had Chinese men were able to take additional wives and any more liberal attitudes to premarital sex before the 1200s, number of unoffi cial concubines. This, again, lessens the and before the rise of neo-Confucianism. This more signifi cance of issues of premarital and extramarital sex. religious form of Confucianism stresses sex only within The Buddha in the Jataka story above suggests that marriage, and only for reproductive purposes. the emphasis in Buddhism remains on love and mutual respect. Any relationship that causes suffering to either Summary partner is to be avoided. Love and mutual respect are Given the wide acceptance of different expressions of taken to a higher level by monks and nuns who renounce marriage in many Buddhist scriptures, and the sex altogether, to put themselves at the service of the assumption that these marriage forms were available to sangha. Celibacy remains an ideal state in Buddhism. many from the age of puberty onwards, premarital sex This is because sexual intercourse is an expression of has never been a great issue among Buddhists. If it is, this strong attachment to earthly delights. Sex is an activity is because of the infl uence of prevailing social assumptions that uses energy which could be turned towards spiritual held by non-Buddhists. The more pressing Buddhist practices and the quest for enlightenment. The main concerns are love and mutual respect within a relationship state of mind to be overcome as a Buddhist proceeds and the upholding of the Buddhist principles of care and towards nirvana is the eradication of the desire for concern for other human beings. sense-pleasures. Although it might be said that premarital sex is a Homosexuality marginal issue in Buddhism, and that marriage is an The term ‘homosexual’ can designate a love relationship institution which is acknowledged as a good state for between two people of the same gender, or it can simply laypeople who wish to develop a family life, celibacy refer to the sexual behaviour of men and women with throughout life is the most perfect state for any Buddhist their own gender. In current discussions, these meanings to aspire to. are regularly confused. How ethics concerning premarital When the Dalai Lama was in San Francisco sex are analysed by adherents in 1997, it was made clear that ‘His Holiness opposes violence and discrimination based on Because of the lack of defi nitive prescription for or against sexual orientation’. There is a prevailing attitude in premarital sex in Buddhist scriptures, adherents draw Buddhism that sexuality, like the self, is a construction. their perspectives from other, less explicit precepts. As The Buddhist belief in reincarnation means that any noted above, Buddhists from East Asia tend to be individual is believed to have had many previous infl uenced by tradition and other religions that were existences as both men and woman. established before the arrival of Buddhism, such as The Vinaya texts are quite comprehensive in Confucianism. However, there are distinctive Buddhist forbidding all forms and variants of sex for monks and beliefs which relate to the issue of premarital and nuns. The descriptions of forbidden acts are detailed and extramarital sex. It appears that, as long as both parties in graphic at times. The intent of the writers is clear; monks a sexual relationship maintain the Buddhist virtues of and nuns should raise themselves above sexual passion. honesty, generosity and loving kindness, that is, non- violence, most sexual relationships are acceptable. 112 cambridge studies of religion

How ethics concerning homosexuality Nevertheless, the traditions of different cultures are analysed by adherents have infl uenced the practices of Buddhists living in particular societies. The Japanese have never Apart from the forbidding of all sexual acts for monks and proscribed homosexuality. In fact, there are Japanese nuns, Buddhism is not really concerned with texts that connect homosexuality and Buddhism, for homosexuality. In the Jakata stories little is actually said example, the Chigo Kannon engi, in which the Buddhist about the ethics of homosexual relationships. bodhisattva of mercy, Quinyin, rewards a devoted monk While a Buddhist precept warning against by manifesting before him as a beautiful male novice. sexual misconduct exists, this is taken to mean sexual Buddhist countries such as Thailand struggle more with harassment or coercive sex, not sexual misconduct the concept of homosexuality. Adhering to a strong belief in the Christian sense. Generally speaking, in karma, they perceive homosexuality as a punishment Buddhism treats homosexuality no differently from for misdeeds in a past life and so are less tolerant than heterosexuality; that is, while it is forbidden to Japanese Buddhists. monks and nuns, the laity are welcome to practise The current Dalai Lama is an advocate for homosexuality as long as it does not violate the respect and compassion for all humans, including precepts of loving kindness, honesty and generosity. homosexuals, and he suggests that homosexual relations, while not appropriate for monks and nuns, could be mutually pleasurable and harmless (but see under Consider following). The Tibetan laity, however, sees homosexuality in a generally negative light. A fringe group of monks in Tibet, called the lDab ldobs, engage in athletic competitions and act as guards and policemen at various temples. They are connected with homosexual behaviour. They are also dedicated to good works in the community and committed to remaining in poverty. Because of their homosexual acts they are generally considered ‘bad monks’ by the community, but because of their honesty they are not seen as the worst kind of monk: the one who may hypocritically hide his homosexual behaviour. History shows that homosexuality has always been a dimension of human sexuality. Among many lay Buddhists, this fact is well understood. Buddhism is ambivalent towards homosexuality. The traditional roots of different cultures practising Buddhism need to be examined to discover the impetus behind their different stances on the issue.

INVESTIGATE Conduct some research and discuss the following ideas and questions. What is sexual misconduct to the Buddhist mind? Could it be extended to include homosexuality? Should it? Consider also the different responses of different forms of Buddhism to the issue of homosexuality. How do they justify their support for/tolerance The Dalai Lama of/dislike of homosexuality? chapter 5 buddhism depth study (hsc) 113

Summary On the level of legal status, there are more Vinaya rules for nuns than there are for monks. The Vinaya Buddhism has been able to take a very open, liberal and 4.175–6 writes that it is harder for women to beg for alms modern attitude to homosexuality because Buddhists than it is for men. This refl ects the Indian attitude that it over the last 2500 years have considered all forms of sex is harder for women to be in public than it is for men. This in a particular light. This is especially true in Western tends to suggest discrimination against female nuns. Buddhism. Sex is an act that should mutually benefi cial It is possible that these additional rules refl ect the social for those who engage in it. The ideal state in Buddhism, attitudes of the India of the day. Buddhism became a however, is to turn away from the earthly pleasures of sex refuge for women in India. But it did not become a vehicle in order to seek enlightenment. of social change. As Buddhism developed, Hindu attitudes to the status of women remained intact. This included CONSIDER the idea that souls were only born as women because they In a recent interview the Dali Lama said that the purpose of sex lacked the karmic merit to be born as men. Thus, in the was reproduction. That suggests that he would condemn sex for Theravada tradition of Buddhism, male arahats are pleasure and homosexuality. Research comments that he and other considered more advanced than female arahats. Buddhist leaders have made and discuss what they say about Ongoing attitudes to the status of women in modern Buddhist attitudes and practices. Theravada Buddhism, generated predominantly by social attitudes, have meant an ongoing disinterest in nunneries. During the twentieth century, women in Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand found it easier to become nuns in gender roles and the Mahayana tradition. In China, there is a focus on discrimination numerous Buddhist bodhisattvas who are female. The most signifi cant of these is Quanyin. Quanyin is identifi ed The stance of a religion to gender roles is vitally in early Buddhist scriptures as the disciple Avalokiteshvara, important, since this determines the extent to which a male monk; this fi gure changes sex in China and is individuals can self-actualise through their religion. A worshipped in female form. religion’s views on gender equality determine to what extent an individual has access to religious texts, How gender roles and discrimination practices and training. It determines society’s view on are analysed by adherents the spiritual potential of each individual based on gender As with premarital sex, this issue too, is infl uenced by the (and whether or not there is a difference), and also social norms of different cultural groups. In East Asia, dictates the status each individual might achieve within nuns and nunneries had to assimilate with Confucian that religious institution. Religious views on gender roles attitudes to the status of women. In the Analects, can also affect the legal infl uence of certain people with Confucius suggested that women have a slave-like regard to inheritance, marriage and other institutions, mentality and cannot be considered of the same status as the wage rates of different individuals, their status men. Because of this attitude, nunneries were placed in arahat within the family and home environments, and their remote areas of China as a way of controlling the a person who has ability to access education and other opportunities. achieved enlightenment presumed sexual appetites of the nuns. Despite these through listening to the Although there was some debate about women’s attitudes Buddhism, like Taoism, offered women an teachings of the Buddha entry into the sangha, Buddhism strives to treat men and escape route from a strongly male-dominated society. Pali Canon women equally at a religious level. The Buddha agreed An examination of early Buddhist scriptures reveals the Buddhist sacred that women could become arahats (enlightened beings) some discrimination against women. However, it is more text, otherwise called and in the Pali Canon numerous verses were written by the Tripitaka; Pali fruitful to investigate cultural norms in those countries is the language in female arahats. Some even began to attain enlightenment where Buddhism developed, as a way of explaining issues which it is written while still within an unhappy marriage. of sexual inequality. 114 cambridge studies of religion

Tenzin Palmo The case of Tenzin Palmo shows that a woman born The nunnery is also an attempt to create a modern, into Western attitudes of sexual equality still needed environmentally friendly learning centre for Buddhist to fight to encourage Buddhists to take their liberal nuns and women generally. The project combines attitudes to sex roles seriously. traditional ideas with modern Western assumptions. In India during the 1960s, Tenzin Palmo met There is a strong emphasis on allowing women and studied with her guru, the Eighth Khamtrul to develop their intellectual and spiritual talents. In Rinpoche, in his monastery in northern India. She traditional forms of Buddhism women have not been was ordained as a Tibetan Buddhist nun and stayed given such prominence, especially in the monastic for six years. Her guru suggested she develop more life. On the social side, the nunnery will one day intense meditation by moving to the Himalayas. Here include a women’s refuge, so it is not simply about she stayed in a small Buddhist monastery for another promoting Buddhism in a narrow monastic sense. six years. Then, seeking even deeper meditation, she In a traditional sense, however, the nunnery removed herself to a nearby cave where she meditated also looks forward to educating women who enter the for twelve years. Tibetan Togdenma tradition. This was a tradition of After this, Tenzin Palmo worked in Europe for female yogis or teachers based most recently in the some time, spreading the word of Buddhism. nunnery of Khamtrul. This nunnery was destroyed Numerous appeals came to her from Tibetans hoping by the Chinese, removing the chance for many she would start a nunnery and so re-establish many women to achieve enlightenment and dedicate their traditions for learned Buddhist women that had been lives to spiritual contemplation. interrupted when China invaded Tibet. Tenzin Tenzin Palmo has taken on the transformation Palmo took on the commitment to do this. of numerous dimensions of Buddhism in northern Tashi Jong in North India was the place selected India. She is leading a building project that will add for the nunnery. It was named Dongyu Gatsal Ling to the tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. Her nunnery Nunnery. Tenzin Palmo resides here for nine months will be a place for the preservation of Tibetan culture, of the year, directing the building project, and spends especially amongst women. She is using traditional the remaining three months travelling in order to systems to promote the status of women, which is not raise money. necessarily a traditional concern. She is leading a works project that upholds environmental standards which could be seen as Western. Yet Tenzin Palmo is also combining the traditional and the modern to save the practice of elevating women to high status in Tibetan Buddhism. This approach is a balanced way of developing not only Buddhism, but also the whole region where Tenzin Palmo is based.

INVESTIGATE Why, given the Buddhist attitude to non-discrimination in gender roles, does a woman like Tenzin Palmo still need to struggle for sexual equality? Read her book, The cave in the snow.

Tenzin Palmo, in the centre, with two friends chapter 5 buddhism depth study (hsc) 115

Summary In general, Buddhism has an attitude of non- discrimination towards all forms of sexuality. At a monastic level, Buddhism encourages each individual to rise above himself or herself, and not be defi ned by his or her sexuality. From its inception, however, Buddhism also had the attitude that women are less capable of accessing the spiritual life than men. Buddhists have struggled to overcome this, but it has been made more diffi cult by the sexist attitudes in countries to which Buddhism has spread. exercise 5.3 activity 5.3

1 Outline Buddhist attitudes to 1 Debate the topic – ‘Because Buddhism sees the premarital and extramarital sex. world ultimately as an illusion, there is no need to develop an ethical approach to sexuality’. 2 Analyse the case of Tenzin Palmo and justify why the author states that a woman born 2 Talk to a Buddhist monk or nun and write into Western attitudes of sexual equality still down their understanding of sexual ethics, needed to fi ght to encourage Buddhists to take particularly as it relates to the Buddhist sangha. their liberal attitudes to sex roles seriously. 3 Explore and write a paragraph on 3 Recall some Buddhist attitudes the different views within Buddhism to gender issues. to one aspect of sexual ethics.

Significant practices in the lives of adherents pilgrimage cultural identity. The practices of puja are quite varied, meditation being the most common element. Temples Buddhists conduct pilgrimages because the Buddha can be very elaborate or quite simple, often refl ecting himself did so. There are eight particular sites identifi ed cultural traditions. They are designed to symbolise the for Buddhist pilgrimage in northern India/southern fi ve elements of fi re, air, earth, water and wisdom. An Nepal. It is a spiritual pilgrimage, rather than simply a image of Buddha is often used to inspire the worshipper. physical journey. The aim is to share the Buddha’s journey There are several types of temple ceremonies. to spiritual enlightenment. The success of a pilgrimage Buddhists do not have a special day of the week depends on desire, mind, effort and knowledge. The aim when they gather to worship, such as the Christian is the development of ‘perfection’. Sunday. Offerings to images of the Buddha and bodhisattvas can be made any time and in any place, temple puja although usually done at a temple or home shrine. The calendar of Buddhism is generally linked to the phases Temple puja is a personal and community celebration, of the moon, a lunar calendar. Festivals are generally rather than the conduct of worship. It stresses both the associated with events in the life of the Buddha or the individual need for enlightenment and the community’s cultural traditions of the followers. 116 cambridge studies of religion

The Lankarama Buddhist Temple at Schofi elds, west of Sydney

parinirvana Wesak is the day that Buddhists anticipate a the Buddha’s wesak/vesak enlightenment spiritual cleansing, often celebrated by bathing a statue of Theravada Buddhists believe that the Buddha was born, the Buddha, and a chance to achieve new spiritual truth Wesak (or Vesak/ Visakha) achieved enlightenment (parinirvana) and died all on or enlightenment. Candles and lamps are used to depict the celebration of the same day, on the full moon of the sixth lunar month this spiritual light. The celebrations range from quiet the day the Buddha (usually in April/May). To all Buddhists, the Buddha’s meditations to noisy festivals. was born, achieved enlightenment and died death was the day he achieved nirvana. The celebration Buddhists use the celebration of Wesak to meditate of this day is known as Wesak (or Vesak/Visakha). This on the way to enlightenment, to be reminded of the The celebration day is a day of celebration of the New Year, a family history of Buddhism, and to participate in actions that of Wesak at Sydney’s Darling celebration when all new things are honoured. Usually on will bring good karma. Harbour in 2007 this day Buddhists light colourful lanterns and candles, an image of the Buddha is decorated, and a sermon on some aspect of the Buddha’s life is given. Mahayana Buddhists celebrate Vesak as the birth date of the Buddha. For Mahayana Buddhists, an image of the Buddha is washed on this day as a reminder that all faults need to be washed away. In Australia, Wesak is a community celebration and is celebrated according to the customs of the particular cultural community. For example, the Chinese community celebrates Wesak in a huge celebration at Darling Harbour in Sydney. Wesak is celebrated in different forms across the world. Often it accompanies the planting season in Asian countries and shares the anticipation of the coming growth and harvest. In many celebrations the lighting of lamps accompanies Wesak. chapter 5 buddhism depth study (hsc) 117

INVESTIGATE end of chapter Research the celebration of Wesak in your own community. Look up a telephone book, or contact your council or the internet for details summary of a local Buddhist community. How does this refl ect the community • King Asoka was converted from a violent the Buddhists came from? And how does it refl ect the Australian life to the pacifi sm of Buddhism community? • Asoka was one of the most signifi cant people in the development of Buddhism Other signifi cant days of celebration in Buddhism are Asalha, or Dharma Day, when the Buddha gave his • Asoka ensured the spread of Buddhism fi rst sermon. This is the full moon of the eighth lunar throughout the ancient world month. Magha, or Sangha Day, celebrates the time when • Zen Buddhism is a Japanese over a thousand monks gathered spontaneously to honour school of Buddhist thought the Buddha (full moon of the third lunar month). Celebration of the sangha is another important • Zen Buddhism seeks to apply Buddhist Buddhist festival and ritual. For many joining the sangha principles to every aspect of life is a signifi cant step in life and can be undertaken in • Zen has had a ongoing impact on adolescence in some communities as a rite of passage. Buddhism across the world, in both While not strictly associated with the stage of puberty or the East and in Western thought onset of adolescence, the Introduction to sangha often marks the time in a Buddhist’s life when they are • Buddhist ethics seek to do good introduced to the Buddhist community. and overcome evil • Sexual ethics must be expressed in exercise 5.4 a way that avoids hurt and harm and affi rms what is loving and respectful 1 Describe Wesak. • Women have generally had to fi ght to 2 Outline the beliefs of Buddhism achieve equality in Buddhism that are highlighted at Wesak. • Tenzin Palmo is discussed as an 3 Describe how Wesak is signifi cant for individual example of a woman who has achieved Buddhists and the Buddhist community. some signifi cance in Buddhism • Wesak is a celebration of the Buddha’s activity 5.4 birth, enlightenment and death • Wesak refl ects the cultural traditions 1 Research or attend an Australian of the Buddhist community celebration of Wesak. Make a note of the culture it represents. What • Wesak anticipates and demonstrates the significant features are evident? enlightenment that is the aim of every Buddhist 2 Prepare a graphic presentation highlighting the events and signifi cance of Wesak. 3 Interview a Buddhist and ask them to explain the importance of Wesak to their own life and faith. 118 cambridge studies of religion HSC examination-style questions

In the HSC examination, students will be required to answer either a three-part, 15-mark question, or a one-part extended essay of 20 marks. That is, EITHER a question from Section II OR a question from Section III. section ii

Question 1 – Buddhism (15 marks) marks

a) Describe ONE signifi cant practice in Buddhism from among the following practices: • pilgrimage • temple puja • Wesak 3

b) Analyse the impact of ONE signifi cant individual or school of thought, other than the Buddha, on Buddhism. 6

c) Explain the importance of Buddhist ethical teachings in ONE of the following areas: • bioethics • environmental ethics • sexual ethics 6

section iii

Question 1 – Buddhism (20 marks) marks

Analyse the signifi cance of ONE Buddhist practice on the individual AND the Buddhist community. The practice must be drawn from the following: • pilgrimage • temple puja • Wesak 20 chapter 6

Christianity: The basic facts 120 cambridge studies of religion

I am an historian, I am not a believer, but I must confess as an historian that this penniless preacher from Nazareth is irrevocably the very centre of history. Jesus Christ is easily the most dominant fi gure in all history. hg wells

476 CE Fall of Roman Empire in the West; Christianity chapter summary continues to spread through Europe This chapter discusses: 1054 CE The Great Schism – the break between Rome (Catholic) and Constantinople (Orthodox), start of the • The nature of society and the religious Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox branches of practices of Palestine before Christianity Christianity 1095 CE Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade, • The outstanding events in the life of leading to a series of invasions by Christians of both the Jesus of Nazareth and why he is the Muslim-held areas around Jerusalem and Orthodox model for a good Christian life Christian lands

• The early development of the Christian 1098–1179 CE Life of Hildegard of Bingen, mystic and writer communities after the death of Jesus 1204 CE The Fourth Crusade devastates Christian • The rise of the different Constantinople variants of Christianity 1274 CE Death of Thomas Aquinas – most signifi cant Western theologian since Augustine • The principal beliefs of Christianity 1517 CE Martin Luther presents his 95 Theses; this • The importance of the Bible to Christians begins the Reformation and the division of Catholic and Protestant churches in Europe follows • Sections of these sacred texts that 1534 CE King Henry VIII establishes himself as head highlight principal beliefs of Christianity of Church of England, his kingdom becomes Protestant • The principal ethical teachings 1738 CE John Wesley starts his Methodist campaign of Christianity 1810s CE onwards Slow growth of feminist theology • The importance of law and 1829–1890 CE Life of Catherine Booth, ‘mother of the ethics to Christians Salvation Army’ 1870 CE First Vatican Council establishes infallibility • The different types of personal prayer of the pope in the lives of Christians. 1881–1963 CE Life of Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli, elected in 1958 as Pope John XXIII; he initiates the Second Vatican Council Timeline 1917–1991 CE Life of Dennis Bennett, Episcopalian circa 6 BCE Birth of Jesus of Nazareth priest, a seminal fi gure in the Charismatic Christian movement circa 30 CE Death of Jesus 1918 CE Birth of Billy Graham, one of America’s leading circa 65 CE Death of Saint Paul Baptist Christians 312 CE Emperor Constantine’s vision of the cross; the 1948 CE First meeting – World Council of Churches Roman Empire starts to become offi cially Christian 1950 CE Birth of Sarah Maitland 325 CE First Church Council at Nicaea 1955 CE Liberation theology develops circa 384 CE Philosopher and theologian Saint Augustine converts from Manichaeanism to Christianity 1965 CE Conclusion of Second Vatican Council, leading to the radical overhaul of numerous Catholic traditions 451 CE Council of Chalcedon chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 121 Historical and cultural context

Judea Christianity is close to 2000 years old. It began in Judea, others in Jewish history such as King David, would lead part of a mountainous the kingdom of the Jewish people. Jerusalem was the an independant and powerful Judea. This long-awaited area (now divided between Israel and main religious and economic centre of this region. It man – a deliverer of political and religious freedom – is Palestine) that Jews contained the Temple, the principal place of worship for referred to often in the later part of Jewish scripture (the believed had been Jewish people. Here Jewish priests tended the sacred Tenak or Hebrew Bible) where prophets such as Elijah promised to them by God house of their god and made sacrifi ces to him, as well as spoke of the arrival of a saviour. Many Jewish people Jewish performing other ritual duties. were waiting and hoping for change. name given to the people of Israel after their Christianity started as a Jewish development. Its exile in Babylon; the leaders and early followers were Jews. Understanding INVESTIGATE survivors were mainly Judaism will help you understand the background of from the tribe of Judah Christianity. As it grew, Christianity adapted religious The comedy fi lm, Monty Python’s The Life of Brian (1979) is well Jerusalem ideas from societies it moved into. Early Christians were researched although it is a satirical comedy. Judea is pictured as a capital city of Israel; place of turmoil, political hysteria and religious fanaticism. This is was also the capital infl uenced by Greeks, Romans, Persians and others and city of Judea incorporated their ideas into their growing religion. an exaggeration, but one of its scenes was recently voted funniest At the time that Christianity began, the Roman scene in a movie. Jesus of Nazareth (1977) is a historical blow-by- Temple, the blow account of Jesus’ life and goes for several hours; this will the temple built Empire had gained almost complete control of Judea. in Jerusalem This caused religious and political tension in the area. certainly help you with your studies. In 1964 Pier Paolo Passolini directed Il Vangelo secondo Matteo (The Gospel according to Saint Roman Empire Many Jewish people wondered why their holy city, Rome and the Roman Jerusalem, was again coming under direct foreign control; Matthew) which is black and white, in Italian (with English Empire had, by Paul’s it had been occupied previously by the Greeks under subtitles) and probably hard to fi nd. Arcand’s Jesus of Montreal time, controlled all the (1989) puts Jesus’ life into modern Montreal, Canada, and is a lands surrounding the Alexander the Great, and before that by the Persians. Mediterranean Sea The Jews were worried that their god (Jehovah or magical fi lm. Comparing this fi lm with the others above would including Judea and Yahweh) had abandoned them. At this time political and make a great study! Jerusalem; the Romans spoke Latin, but Greek religious groups were attempting to fi nd a way to free was just as important Judea from Rome’s control. It was a time of crisis and On top of these tensions, Judaism was itself divided between a number of groups. These included the Messiah deep self-refl ection for the Jewish people. Some of them the promised deliverer hoped that a Messiah would come, a man who, like Pharisees, the Sadducees and the Essenes. of the Jewish nation

Tenak acronym for the Hebrew Bible that is made up of the Teachings: A map of Judea at the time of Jesus’ birth: the map on the right (Torah – T), the writings shows Judea’s location in relation to the rest of the world. from the Period of Prophecy (Nevi'im – N) and the writings from N the remaining books (Ketuvim – K) GALILEE Sea of Pharisees Yarmuk River a religious sect that was Galilee active in Jesus’ day Mediterranean Sea EUROPE Sadducees a high-status religious SAMARIA ASIA NY VI LE A LI HE group of Jesus’ day Jabbok River OP Apollonia JUDEA Essenes Joppa a separatist religious AFRICA group in Israel in the Jericho fi rst century CE Jerusalem Bethlehem Dead Sea Gaza JUDEA Hebron Arnon River Masada Raphia Beersheba AUSTRALIA

0 50 km 122 cambridge studies of religion

TABLE 6.1 JUDAIST GROUPS OF ANCIENT JUDEA

PHARISEES SADDUCEES ESSENES Modern presence Developed into modern Judaism Disappeared as a Some modern Jewish sects group after 70 CE identify with the Essenes Approach to Apolitical and against Greek Were political and in Indifferent Greek culture infl uence in Judaism support of Greek culture Worship Worshipped in the Temple Worshipped in the Temple Led a monk-like existence then, after it was destroyed by involving celibacy, vegetarianism, Rome in 70 CE, a synagogue and refused to keep slaves Scripture Approached Jewish scripture Took Jewish scripture literally Interpreted the Jewish Bible liberally and interpreted as the absolute truth in a radically different way; it within reason see Dead Sea Scrolls Politics Democratic and liberal Conservative, aristocratic and Were against the ruling family of Judea supported the Jewish monarchy (who acted as governors for Rome)

The attitude of Jesus of Nazareth to these groups The Essenes were a group of Jews who aimed to when he began his ministry shows that he was trying to remove themselves from the world and keep themselves revitalise Judaism. The Pharisees were progressive. They pure. Evidence of their community at Qumran was fi rst held closely to Jewish religious law, yet added many of their discovered in 1947, together with what are now called the own interpretations. In following these rules, they declared Dead Sea Scrolls. A number of texts were found sealed in themselves more holy than ordinary Jews. Jesus called jars. These texts help us understand the ideas that were them hypocrites for masking the true laws with so many current when Jesus lived. The recent Historical Jesus other rules. Paul, who later played a central role in the Movement, which tries to understand Jesus as a historical development of Christianity, was originally a Pharisee. fi gure, is interested in these writings. The Sadducees were opposed to the Pharisees. They believed only in what was written in Hebrew scripture, and were a more conservative part of the Jewish exercise 6.1 establishment that Jesus attacked. 1 List the way the Greeks, Romans and Jews may CONSIDER have infl uenced the origins of Christianity. There are many references to Jesus’ confl ict with the Pharisees and 2 What is the Messiah? the Sadducees in the Gospels. Yet these two groups represented Gospels the ‘religious’ people of his day. Try to determine why Jesus was so 3 List the major Jewish groups of Jesus’ the story of Jesus’ life day and identify their main features. and teachings, especially critical of these people (see Matthew 23, Mark 8:11–21, Mark as in the fi rst four books 12:1–40, Luke 7:36–50). activity 6.1 of the New Testament

1 ‘Christianity is a Western religion’. Discuss with reference to its origins. 2 Debate the following – ‘You have to understand Judaism to understand Christianity’. 3 Research the following – How did Jesus meet (or not meet) the Jewish expectations of the Messiah? chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 123 Jesus Christ/Jesus of Nazareth

myth Virtually all that is known about Jesus is drawn from the Lazarus) had long been a part of Jewish and Classical a spiritual or religious idea expressed in human terms New Testament. There are few references to him outside magic. Not surprisingly, Jesus soon came into confl ict with Christian texts. This means that scholars and students must the Jewish and Roman authorities. Herod, King take care to understand the mythic dimensions of Jesus as In the last weeks of his life Jesus made a triumphal Idumean King of Israel at the time of Jesus’ birth distinct from the possible historical facts of his life. Little is entry into Jerusalem, today celebrated by Palm Sunday known about Jesus except for the last three years of his life. (Mark 11:1–11). He visited the Temple and overturned baptism a religious act of Perhaps the most mythologised part of his life is the least the stalls of moneychangers and other market stalls in the purifi cation by water known by his followers: his birth. Temple courtyard (Mark 11:15–19). He was then involved that allows recipients Jesus was born about 6 BCE. As he is commonly in a series of public arguments with the Pharisees and membership of Christianity referred to as ‘Jesus of Nazareth’ it is possible that he was Sadducees (Mark 12:13–40). After the Last Supper on not born in Bethlehem as the myth of his birth states. the Thursday evening (which became the celebration of Gnostic from the Greek word Bethlehem, in fact, was the home town of David (circa 900 holy communion in the Christian Church), Jesus was ‘gnosis’ meaning BCE) – a famous Jewish king and Messiah fi gure. arrested by soldiers in the Garden of Gethsemane, just wisdom; Gnostic Christians would like to think Jesus was born in that town outside the city (Mark 14:12–50). He was brought to trial doctrines hold that the world and humanity are to promote a favourable political connection. The extensive before Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator. corrupt and only wisdom genealogy of Jesus in the opening chapters of Matthew’s Jesus was sentenced to death and crucifi ed on what of secret matters allows Gospel links Jesus with King David. The myth of Jesus’ Christians call Good Friday (Mark 15:21–41). His death humans to connect with the small spark of the birth also states that angels who visited his mother, Mary, was considered to be necessary, by Christians, to bring divine within them predicted that he would be the son of God (Luke 1:26–38, salvation for all. He was hastily buried on the Friday Matthew 1:18–25). Three wise men or Magi, who were evening. On the Sunday morning, a number of women apostles students whom Jesus star worshippers from the Persian religion of went to the tomb to prepare Jesus’ body for permanent had chosen and trained Zoroastrianism, were also said to have been present soon burial. They found the tomb empty and angels declared for a mission of healing after his birth. This Persian group had long predicted the he had risen from the dead (Mark 16:1–8). Over the next and preaching birth of a chosen man from the womb of a virgin. few weeks, Christians believe, Jesus was seen on several disciples The story continues that, soon after he was born, Jesus’ occasions, once by over fi ve hundred people (1 Corinthians Jesus’ students during his time on Earth family fl ed to Egypt as King Herod killed the male babies of 15:3–8). Forty days after his resurrection, Jesus was said Bethlehem. There is no evidence in history that King Herod to have ascended into heaven (Acts 1:6–11). Sermon on the Mount the large section of Jesus’ actually did this, but this part of the story parallels the teaching contained in similar story of the Egyptian Pharaoh who killed babies at INVESTIGATE the Gospel of Matthew the time of Moses and is consistent with Herod’s character (chapters 5 to 7) Find a copy of one of the Gospels. Mark is the shortest. Ignore the and actions. It then seems that Jesus grew up in Nazareth. chapter and verse divisions and read the gospel – it won’t take you parable At the age of 30, Jesus was baptised by John the long. Try to discover what is being said about Jesus. For example, a short story containing Baptist, a fi gure who was possibly a Gnostic or Essene. Jesus a religious lesson Mark 1:1 says, ‘This is the Good News about Jesus Christ, the Son wandered in the wilderness for some time and was tempted of God’. As you read the Gospel ask, ‘Who recognises Jesus as the miracle by the devil (Luke 3:21–23, 4:1–15). After this, he returned an effect in the physical Christ (the Messiah), who recognises Jesus as the Son of God and world, which surpasses to Judea and preached for about three years. He selected a what is this telling us?’ all known human or small band of twelve apostles, and became known as a natural powers and is teacher and miracle worker. A number of women disciples therefore ascribed to supernatural agency were part of Jesus’ group. Jesus encouraged his listeners to interpreting the move beyond the strict legalism of the Judaism of his day Last Supper and look at motives for actions. He stated he had come to principal events in the fi nal meal Jesus had with his disciples ‘fulfi l the law’ of Judaism and mixed freely with those the life of jesus before his crucifi xion considered ‘sinners and outcasts’ (Matthew 5:17, Mark 2:15– Good Friday 16). Jesus was a historical fi gure, but what he actually did the Friday before Easter His teachings were radical and inspiring, and during his life has long been a matter of discussion. The that commemorates examples can be found in the Sermon on the Mount. New Testament is the central set of texts that form the day Jesus died Jesus used parables as an effective teaching device (Mark Christian scripture or sacred writing. The Old Testament salvation 4:1–20). A parable is in story form and has various meanings is the Christian term for the Hebrew Bible (sometimes Christians believe Jesus died to save them from for different people. Jesus also worked miracles: healing with added texts called the Apocrypha, particularly in the punishment of sin the sick, casting out demons, evidencing power over nature the Catholic version). The New Testament is the only and even raising the dead (see Mark 2:32–34, 4:35–41, real source for studying the life of Jesus. There are only resurrection the bringing of a person John 11:1–44). Bringing people back from the dead (as with occasional references to him outside Christian texts. back to life 124 cambridge studies of religion

To complicate things further, there is no one simple John introduces elements and assumptions that are Christ account of the life of Jesus. Instead there are four Greek and calls Jesus Christ, which was a pagan term the Greek word used for the Jewish testaments (or Gospels) written by early followers, each before Christians borrowed it as a term similar to term ‘Messiah’ concentrating on various aspects of Jesus’ life. A text Messiah. In Mark Jesus is careful about stating whether pagan called Q is supposed to be one of the earliest accounts of he is the Messiah or not, but in John it is declared openly. a follower of Jesus. This text apparently contained much of Jesus’ This illustrates how Christian attitudes developed. In ancient religions

teaching but is now lost. The Gospels of Matthew and John’s account Jesus almost leaves off being a fi gure of Q Luke both claim to borrow sayings and stories about Jesus history and speaks with the authority of God. In John the from the German Quelle from it. This claim is supported by the fact that the message is mystical at one level, but very clear in another meaning ‘source;’ Q is believed to be an early wording of these two writers is sometimes very similar. – is the world a good place? collection of Jesus’ The supposed ages of Christian writing look like this: John’s development of the Jesus story is the basis for sayings and is apparently the doctrine of the Trinity. This is belief in the idea that used by Matthew and TABLE 6.2 THE PURPORTED AGES OF CHRISTIAN WRITINGS Luke in the common God is three parts: Father, Son and Holy Spirit, yet these words of their Gospels three parts are an indivisible whole. BOOK ACCEPTED DATE Trinity OF COMPOSITION the concept of INVESTIGATE one God and three Letters of Paul from the 50s CE Research and fi nd some information about Philo of Alexandra who persons (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) Q (a source for before 65 CE lived around the time of the New Testament. Do his expression and Matthew and Luke) way of thinking seem similar to John’s Gospel? Mark 65–75 CE Matthew 70–85 CE Luke 85–95 CE John 90–130 CE

Mark is taken to be the earliest account and was written possibly as late as fi fty years after the death of Jesus. His account concentrates on the last three or four years of Jesus’ life when he started to become an important alternative leader for some Jewish people. Luke’s Gospel, written after Mark’s, contains additions to the story of Jesus’ birth. These details are understood by some scholars today in mythological terms rather than a strictly biographical sense. The Gospels of Mark, Luke and Matthew are referred to as the synoptic Gospels because they take similar views of Jesus’ life. John’s Testament is quite different from the fi rst three. It is a later and more theologically refl ective Texts written close to the life of Jesus are still being document. This is not strange because Christianity was discovered. These religious books, written at around the getting close to a hundred years old when this Gospel was time of Jesus, were found in Nag Hammadi in 1945 written and it had a different purpose. John starts his account by mentioning the Logos – the word of God that synoptic literally, ‘seen created the world. Logos is a Greek concept and illustrates together;’ the Gospels the infl uence of Greek thought on the Judaism and of Matthew, Mark and Christianity of the fi rst century. Philo, a Jewish theologian Luke, which share many common features living at the time of Jesus, also writes of the Logos. John tells us Jesus is this Word made fl esh. In his account Jesus goes from being a Messiah to God in human form. chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 125

TABLE 6.3 THE MAIN INFLUENCES ON EARLY CHRISTIANITY

FROM JUDAISM FROM THE GREEKS FROM ROME FROM THE PERSIANS Monotheism Greek philosophy Pax Romana (the Great Idea of the virgin birth; the Empire at Peace) Magi present at Jesus’ birth Exile led to codifi ed faith Infl uence on Roman roads Hell as a place of punishment – rather Judaism (Philo) than just a place for the dead to dwell Diaspora developed Greek language – Safe Mediterranean Personal salvation – rather than synagogues lingua franca group salvation as with Judaism Expectation of Messiah Gymnasium and confl ict Roman citizenship Jesus as the god Mithra – whose birthday was 25 December

the ministry of jesus As a religious and political revolutionary, Jesus said and did radical things. His sermons to gathered Understanding the complex nature of the accounts of groups, such as the Sermon on the Mount, preached Jesus’ life can allow us to emphasise what he may have universal love and gave hope to the downtrodden. His achieved as a historical fi gure. The most important part of entry into Jerusalem when the city was in festive mode, Passover Jesus’ life starts with his contact with John the Baptist. probably Passover, could have been seen as a the Jewish feast that From this point he was able to perform a number of celebrates the Exodus provocative act by the authorities. In the days before he and related events miracles. These included driving out of demons, healing died, he carried out his Last Supper. This meal looks the sick, raising the dead and turning water into wine. like a Jewish Passover meal. Here Jesus offered to his communion literally, 'fellowship'; Sceptical scholars suggest that these were later followers communion of bread and wine, which he has become applied exaggerations written into the story, misunderstandings, likened to his body and his blood. This act has become to the sacrament of or only partly true. Some Christians agree that Jesus’ a central part of Christian worship. holy communion miracles, like his parables, may not have happened but It was also at this time that Jesus went to the are part of the myth that allows us to understand essential Temple and caused a disturbance by overturning the truths. Other Christians claim that Jesus was God so he stalls of the money changers there, protesting against could actually perform these miracles and turn the laws commerce in a holy place. This could have caused his of science upside down. One’s position is ultimately a arrest and execution. Crucifixion was the usual Roman matter of faith for the religious, or a question of science method of execution; the Jews used stoning. The New and lack of evidence for those who disbelieve. Testament suggests that the Jews were responsible for On both religious and political levels, particularly in the death of Jesus. This idea has had terrible anti-Semitism the fi rst three Testaments, Jesus spoke about the ‘Kingdom consequences, particularly in Christian Europe, in prejudice against of God’ (Matthew 6: 33, Luke 18: 28). This is a highly anti-Semitism. Jewish people metaphorical term which could have been taken by a Jew Three days after Jesus was taken from the cross at the time to mean the re-establishment of Judea or, as it and entombed, he reportedly arose from the dead. The was understood later, the Christian heaven. resurrection is regarded by believers as his greatest Orthodox miracle and the part of the story that asserts his literally meaning divinity. It is re-enacted during the celebration of keeping to the correct Easter, from Good Friday to Easter Sunday. Church teachings of the Church; has come to refer to worship, particularly in Orthodox services, also the Eastern Church recreates this story. 126 cambridge studies of religion

jesus as the model of christian life

In Christianity, Jesus is seen as ‘sinless’ and is the example Christians strive to emulate. Jesus left in his teachings the Christian commands that apply to ethical behaviour, but also lived a life that Christian adherents should follow. He showed compassion to the needy, healed the sick, lived selfl essly and taught the love of God. Jesus was described as a good man and a holy man (Acts 3: 14). Christians are expected to follow this example and be good, so that others turn to God (Matthew 5: 16). In the letter to the Hebrews in the New Testament, the writer suggests that Jesus was the fi rst of the new faith and the one who brings perfection – an example for all Christians who follow. Let us run with perseverance the race that is set before us, looking to Jesus the pioneer and perfector of our faith. hebrews 12: 1, 2

The apostle Paul urges Timothy to follow him as he follows Christ, and this introduces the idea that Christians should also look to mature Christians as examples of life (2 Timothy 3: 10). exercise 6.2

1 Recall where we learn about the life of Jesus. 2 Clarify what Jesus did or said that was signifi cant. Look at Matthew’s Gospel for details. 3 Outline what the Kingdom of God is. activity 6.2

1 Draw a timeline of the life of Jesus of Nazareth. Note the signifi cant events. 2 Was Jesus a political revolutionary? Research and explain your answer. 3 Outline on one page in dot points some reasons why Jesus is a model for Christian life today. chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 127 Development of early Christian communities

Catholic The earliest texts in the New Testament are the letters of The Church of England was established by the actually means Paul. Paul was a Roman citizen, a well-educated Jew who English King Henry VIII. Between 1534 and 1535, Henry ‘universal’; the denomination usually lived in Tarsus, in modern-day Turkey. He never met made the English Parliament pass Acts of Parliament that called Catholic is the Jesus in the fl esh, but as a Jew travelled to Jerusalem made the head of the Catholic Church in England, not Roman Catholic Church where he at fi rst opposed the Christians. (See the section the Pope in Rome, but the English king. Henry did this Pope on Paul in the following HSC chapter.) primarily because the Pope would not permit his divorce the head of the Roman The letters of Paul and the teachings of the early from Catherine of Aragon. Catholic Church apostles have been the foundation of Christian From 1547 Henry’s son Edward VI, surrounded by Protestant theology and practice since New Testament times. Protestant councillors, turned what was a dissenting part those churches that split from the Catholic The Church had to meet secretly at first, but became of the Catholic Church into a Protestant Church. Edward’s Church in the sixteenth an influential movement in the three centuries successor, his sister Mary, tried to eradicate Protestantism century in protest at the following the time of Jesus, eventually becoming the and rejoin England to the Catholic faith. But the long reign Church’s teachings official religion of the Roman Empire. of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) turned England and its Church proselytising into a Protestant domain, although this was somewhat of a encouraging converts the churches: compromise between Catholic and Protestant extremes. from one religion to another Traditionally, the Anglican Church stresses the importance christian variants of scripture, reason and tradition in determining matters Baptist a denomination The history of Christianity is a history of division, often related to beliefs and practices. of Christianity for political or social reasons as much as theological ones. The Anglican Church in Australia continues to defi ne that rejects infant itself in relation to its closeness to Catholicism. The more baptising, believing Five major variants of Christianity are identifi ed in the that followers should syllabus and they will be discussed here in the order in ritual-oriented churches in Anglicanism are referred to as choose to be Christian which they are listed. ‘Anglo-Catholic’ although they refuse the authority of the of their own accord Pope. This ‘High Church’ Anglicanism still has many Evangelical Anglican connections to Catholic attitudes and is the more liberal arm originally, ‘from the The Anglican Church of Australia is closely linked to of the church. ‘Low Church’ Anglicanism is more Gospels’; from the 18th century CE it refers to the Church of England. Until 1962 it was a part of the conservative and focuses on proselytising in a manner a Protestant movement Church of England, and received its own Australian similar to Baptist, Evangelical and Pentecostal Churches. that considers one’s constitution in that year. It was named the Anglican However, all Anglicans accept the creed statement about soul can be saved only by having faith in the Church of Australia in 1981. belonging to the ‘One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church’. atoning death of Jesus

Pentecostals followers of the variant of Christianity that emphasises the gifts of the Holy Spirit

creed a statement of religious belief, often summarising the major concepts of that religion

The Duomo, Milan’s cathedral, is one of the largest churches in the world 128 cambridge studies of religion

The Catholic Church Orthodoxy Apostolic Succession the unbroken handing The Catholic Church follows several important doctrines. For the fi rst thousand years of the Catholic Church, the on of authority and belief from the time One of these is the Doctrine of Apostolic Succession, also Orthodox churches were simply those Christian Churches of the apostles followed by the Anglican Church. This says that Jesus gave that existed in the Eastern half of the Roman Empire and priest a sacred mission to the apostle Peter, whom Catholics came under the control of the Emperor in Byzantium. A someone who performs recognise as the fi rst pope, and this mission was then centre for Christianity established at Constantinople religious rites and makes passed on to all other popes. In this way, the Catholic (now Istanbul in Turkey) by the Emperor Constantine sacrifi cial offerings Church claims it represents the true legacy of Jesus’ life. grew to rival Rome as the most signifi cant Christian city. bishop There were a number of other Christian Churches In 1054 CE the Eastern Church, the Orthodox Church, an authority fi gure of the Christian clergy set up at the same time as the one in Rome – those in split from the Western Church, the Roman Catholic Greece, Antioch, Syria and so on (see Orthodoxy below). Church. This split is called the Great Schism. cardinal These churches have diffi culty with the authority Both churches trace their origins to the apostles, a senior fi gure of the Roman Catholic Church claimed by the Roman Church. They agree that the but over time they developed different ideas and Catholic pope is a Christian fi gure of outstanding practices. These included the Pope, whose authority sin an act considered authority, but argue he has no automatic claim of authority was not accepted in the East, the use of icons in the a transgression of over their churches. East, and some differences in the Doctrine of the Holy divine law, an offence In Catholicism, priests, bishops and cardinals Spirit, whom the West says proceeds ‘from the Son’ as against God mediate between believers and God. All of these are well as the Father (this is called the fi lioque clause). sacrament under the authority of the pope. Catholics believe that There is also the fact that clergy can marry in the East a religious ceremony confessing their sins to a priest will aid their salvation. but not in the West. that celebrates an outward sign of an The Catholic Church recognises seven sacraments: The Orthodox churches became regional inner spiritual grace baptism, confi rmation, holy communion, penance churches and reflect the culture and identity of their Immaculate Conception (confession), ordination, marriage and extreme unction people. They spread into Greece, Russia, Serbia and the doctrine that Mary, (anointing of the sick). These are also accepted by the other northern areas following the Muslim invasion of the mother of Jesus, Orthodox churches. Byzantium (modern-day Turkey) in the fifteenth was free from sin from her conception As Christianity moved into Europe, it blended with century. There are 200 million Orthodox Christians other religious practices already popular there. European across the world and they are represented in Australia Purgatory the intermediate state infl uence led to an emphasis on the role of the Virgin Mary, by many groups including the Greek, Russian, between death and whose worship is strong among the people of the Catholic Macedonian and Serbian Churches, many having heaven, according to Church. She was increasingly sanctifi ed until the Doctrine arrived with post-World War II migration. Roman Catholic theology of Immaculate Conception was established offi cially in indulgence 1854. This says that Mary was born without sin. This Pentecostalism in Roman Catholicism, doctrine was not developed with reference to the Christian a pardon from the Pentecostalism began as a revival movement within expectation of scriptures but refl ected the faith of the Church. In 1264 at Christianity in the early twentieth century. Its central punishment in Purgatory the Council of Lyons, the Doctrine of Purgatory was also concept is that it is possible for Christian believers to be after the sinner has been absolved adopted by the Church. This states that an intermediate made perfect by the will of God. This is referred to as realm exists for souls who are Christian but need to repent ‘baptism by the Holy Spirit’. In order for this to happen, Great Schism of their sins before entering heaven. one must keep to a strict moral code. This idea can be the split between the Western and the As time went on, popes in Rome continued to claim traced to the teachings of the founder of , John Eastern Church in the that the Church had authority over kings and scientists, Wesley. The Pentecost is a time of the Jewish calendar eleventh century CE and only they could grant entry into heaven (the keys mentioned in Leviticus 23: 5–21 and Deuteronomy 16: icons hanging over the entrance to St Peter’s Basilica in Rome 8–10. It may originally have been a harvest festival. stylised pictorial are claimed to be the keys to heaven). Church offi cials Rabbis have suggested that this day commemorates the representations of saints, biblical started selling indulgences, exchanging donations to the giving of the law to the prophet Moses. For Christians, characters or stories, Church for the cancellation of sin. During the thirteenth Acts 2: 1–14 records that a wind and tongues of fi re used as aids to worship and fourteenth centuries there was also much trading of appeared to one hundred or so early Christians on the day in the Orthodox churches the bones of saints and other holy relics. In 1517 Martin of Pentecost. Those present were fi lled with the Holy fi l i o q u e c l a u s e Luther, a monk in Germany, attacked the Church for this Spirit. This enthusiasm for God is the emotional heart of literally, ‘from the Son’; corruption, and eventually set up (although this was not this form of Christianity. this clause was added to the Nicene Creed and his original intention) his own religious group based only caused great debate on scripture. In this way Protestantism (those who protest about the divinity of against papal authority) developed (see more below). ‘the Father’ compared with that of ‘the Son’ chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 129

Charles F Parham (1873–1929), an ex-Methodist Protestants emphasise the authority of the Bible as minister in Topeka, Kansas, realised that the baptism of opposed to the authority of the Pope, the grace of God the Holy Spirit was accompanied by the speaking of that brings forgiveness as opposed to the buying of unknown languages. He led his Bible students into prayer indulgences to gain salvation, and the importance of to experience this. His student Agnes Ozman was the faith as opposed to the idea of earning salvation through fi rst to begin speaking in tongues on 1 January 1901. This good works. Protestant churches generally recognise led Parham to preach widely around the southern USA, just two sacraments, baptism and holy communion, using this phenomenon to enliven and revitalise compared to the seven of the Catholic Church. They Christianity in America. recognise the ‘priesthood of all believers’ in gaining access to God, as opposed to the role of the priest as mediator in the Catholic Church. Clergy can generally marry in Protestant churches and many have more fl exible styles of church government. exercise 6.3

1 Draw a timeline and note the signifi cant dates and events relating to the various churches. 2 ‘The Catholic Church is the true Church.’ Discuss. 3 Outline the major features of the Christian variants discussed in this section. activity 6.3

1 Conduct some research on Philo of Alexandria. Explain how he may have influenced the transition from traditional Judaism A Hillsong Protestantism to Christianity. congregation mass at Darling Harbour ‘Protestant’ is not the name of any single church but a 2 The New Testament church is often held up Convention Centre movement of religious groups in Europe opposed to as the ideal church. Was this the case? Discuss various non-Biblical doctrines of the Catholic Church using examples from the New Testament. and not accepting the power of the Pope in Rome (see the 3 Census statistics show that Pentecostalism fi nal section on the Catholic Church in this chapter is the fastest growing Christian Church in 95 Theses and the section on Luther on the website for the writings by Martin Australia. Talk to a Pentecostal Christian story of one of the leading Protestant fi gures in Europe). Luther that expressed and try and determine why this is so. his displeasure at the Protestantism began with the nailing of Martin Luther’s sale of indulgences 95 Theses to the door of Wittenberg Cathedral in Germany on 31 October 1517. Luther’s protest coincided with signifi cant political, social and theological changes in Europe and led to the breakdown of the authority of the Holy Roman Empire. Others took Luther’s protests even further, including John Calvin, the theologian of Protestantism, John Knox, who started the protestant Church of Scotland (the Presbyterian Church), and Huldreich Zwingli. 130 cambridge studies of religion Principal beliefs

Christianity has over the years organised its beliefs into a In the New Testament there are clear statements systematic theology, drawing from the sacred writings about both Jesus’ divinity and his humanity. Many and traditions of the Church. Any Christian bookshop passages in the Gospels and New Testament speak of will have books on theology where the major Christian Jesus’ humanity. But Jesus is also described in terms that beliefs are laid out in a way that is easy to understand. suggest he is divine. Some of these passages include: The following are some of Christianity’s major beliefs. • ‘I am’ (a translation of YAHWEH, the Hebrew name for God) – John 6: 35, 8: 12 INVESTIGATE • In Matthew 2: 2, 14: 33 he is worshipped There are many internet sites on Jesus Christ and Christianity. • In Matthew 1: 21 he is spoken of as the saviour Students must exercise caution when accessing some of these • In John 11 he is able to raise the dead sites. A Google search for ‘Jesus Christ’ will show over 50 million • In John 5: 17–23 he is spoken of as the equal of God links and about 70 million for ‘Christianity’. Access the Cambridge • Acts 10: 36 calls him ‘Lord of all’ Studies of Religion website, which has as a good starting point an • In Matthew 25: 31–46 we read of him as the judge on English site containing a considerable amount of information. It is the fi nal day of the world. also a good example of ecumenism. Explore the site and note Ecumenism features such as the story of Jesus’ life, the sayings of Jesus, the movement towards unity death and within the Christian e-zine, and the impact of Jesus on the lives of people through church between different history and today. resurrection of jesus Christian denominations The resurrection of Jesus consisted of him dying in human form on the cross, and three days later rising from jesus as human the dead to live forever. The death and resurrection of and divine Jesus has many meanings for Christians. The resurrection proves to believers that there is life after death. Jesus’ As Christianity moved through the Roman Empire in the conquering of death shows his mythical power to bring all centuries after Jesus’ death, explanation had to be given his followers to life after death. of his relationship to God. There were a number of Scriptures concerning the different points of view. At this time most people could resurrection of Jesus understand that a man could become a god – Roman emperors sometimes turned into gods after death. But it Knowing that Christ being raised from the dead dieth no more; death hath no more dominion over him. For in was more diffi cult explaining how and why a god had that he died, he died unto sin once: but in that he liveth, made himself into a man. he liveth unto God. Paul of Samosata became Bishop of Antioch in 260. romans 6:9 His belief was in the co-equality but difference of God Jesus said unto her, I am the resurrection, and the life: and Jesus. God had remained the Logos or Word and he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live. Jesus had put that into fl esh. After Paul came Arius, who john 11:25 suggested that Jesus was created by God to put God’s Who by him do believe in God, that raised him up from plans into action on Earth. He believed Jesus was not the dead, and gave him glory; that your faith and hope eternal. Therefore the Arian view considers Jesus less might be in God. 1 peter 1:21 god-like than God. Athanasius (296–373 CE), who was also from Alexandria, suggested that Jesus was both of But if the Spirit of him that raised up Jesus from the the same nature as God and fully human. dead dwell in you, he that raised up Christ from the dead shall also quicken your mortal bodies by his Spirit The Roman Emperor Constantine was becoming that dwelleth in you. increasingly interested in Christianity and wanted to see romans 8:11 the dispute resolved. He summoned the Council of Council of Nicea Nicea. This saw further development of the Doctrine of the fi rst council of the Christian Church; also the Trinity and the position of Athanasius was adopted as produced the Nicene the correct teaching of the Church. Jesus is fully human Creed, the Christian and fully divine. The ideas of Arius, however, lingered in statement of faith the East and North Africa for many centuries. chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 131

the nature of god CONSIDER and the trinity God is generally referred to as ‘he’, not because God is male, but rather because God is personal. There is no gender-neutral personal The creeds (statements of faith) of Christianity developed creed pronoun in English, so the closest would be ‘it’, which is impersonal. a statement of religious early on, as part of ritual and worship, or simply to sum up belief, often summarising It should be noted that the Hebrew word for ‘spirit’ is feminine in its the beliefs of the religion. Their language makes strong the major concepts construction, and some anthropomorphic terms used for God connections between God and Jesus. The central creed of that religion suggest feminine qualities, such as in Proverbs 8 to 9 (God as in the Western Church is the Apostles’ Creed, which wisdom), Isaiah 49: 14, 15, and Psalm 131: 2. God is often referred may or may not have been used by the apostles of Jesus, to as ‘Father’ in the Bible and Jesus was a man, but this does not but cites their authority. In 325 CE this creed was suggest an exclusive masculinity, nor does it suggest androgyny. expanded and developed at the Council of Nicaea and it (Note – this can link with ‘Feminist theology’ in the HSC course.) is now called the Nicene Creed. It is used in Catholic and Orthodox Anglican rituals. Traditionally the Trinity has been expressed in terms that state God is one, but three persons make up We believe in one God, the Godhead. It is considered a Christian mystery. the Father, the almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen. revelation We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, A revelation is the disclosure of something which could the only Son of God, not have been revealed without the will of God. The main eternally begotten of the Father, Christian revelation is that which God revealed through God from God, light from light, Jesus, which later took the form of the Gospels. One can true God from true God, distinguish between general and special revelation. begotten not made, General revelation comes to Christians through the work of one being with the Father; of God they see evident in creation, and in their through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation conscience. Special revelation is the understanding that he came down from heaven; God provided of himself through Jesus and the sacred by the power of the Holy Spirit writings of Christianity. he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. salvation For our sake he was crucifi ed under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. Another signifi cant meaning behind Jesus’ death is that it On the third day he rose again was a ritual sacrifi ce. The Testaments make it clear that in accordance with the scriptures; Jesus knew what was coming. It was his fate to die. In he ascended into heaven, Judaism, ritually killing animals is a way of cleansing a and is seated at the right hand of the Father. person, or even the whole Jewish nation, of impurities He will come again in glory to judge they may have by not following God’s law. the living and the dead, Salvation in Christianity can mean three and his kingdom will have no end. different things: We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, • deliverance from sin who proceeds from the Father and the Son. • being resurrected to an afterlife With the Father and the Son he is worshipped • being healed through the power of the divine and and glorifi ed. united with God. He has spoken through the prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen. 132 cambridge studies of religion

The Catholic rites of reconciliation concern the fi rst of these forms of salvation, and offer individuals the exercise 6.4 opportunity to repent, and therefore be saved, from punishment for their sins. Secondly, the Christian belief 1 Write down three of the technical in Christ’s resurrection, as discussed previously, is central terms used in this chapter and your to the belief that after death resurrection to heaven is own defi nition of those terms. possible for those who are ‘forgiven’. The third aspect of 2 Explain the Christian view of the human salvation occurs even today. For example, the water and the divine aspects of Jesus. obtained from the Church of Our Lady of Lourdes is 3 Recall how God reveals himself to Christians. believed to have healing properties for Christians. Just as Jesus was able to have life after death, his sacrifi ce promises the same salvation for Christians. In the activity 6.4 New Testament, salvation has a past aspect (forgiveness of sins), a present aspect (living as a ‘saved’ person) and a 1 Compare differing views of Christians future aspect (looking forward to a life in heaven). Salvation about whether Jesus is believed to be is as much a present reality as a future deliverance. both fully divine and fully human. 2 Clarify as best as you can your response to the question – ‘What is the Trinity?’ 3 ‘For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Jesus Christ our Lord’ (Romans 6: 23). Discuss what this may mean to Christians. chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 133 Sacred texts and writings

The Bible is the sacred text SACRED WRITINGS AND STORIES for Christians OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA NEW TESTAMENT • Written in Hebrew • An additional twelve books • Written in Greek • Thirty nine books • Accepted by Roman Catholic • Twenty seven books • Law, history, poetry and prophecy and Orthodox Churches as • Gospels, letters, history and revelation part of Old Testament

The sacred text for Christians is known as the Bible. The The Catholic and Orthodox versions of the Bible word ‘bible’ comes from the Greek term biblia, which also include twelve books called the Apocrypha. These means ‘books’. The Bible is made up of several major books are not accepted by Protestants, but are valuable in sections and is a closed canon: that is, it is considered fi lling in understanding of historical events and developing complete; no new books can be added to it. religious ideas. Up to the 1960s, the Catholic Church used a translation of the Bible, made by St Jerome (347 the bible –420 CE) into Latin, called the Vulgate. Importance of the Bible The Christian Bible is made up of several texts, some clearly Christian, others borrowed from the Jewish Christianity is the only religion that reads from the New religious tradition. More than two-thirds of the present Testament. This shows how Jesus is the fulfi lment of the Bible is comprised of the Jewish scripture, the Hebrew Hebrew Bible. The New Testament retains a strong focus on Torah Bible. This includes the fi ve books of the Torah. These the last three years of the life of Jesus. It demonstrates to the word of God are believed by Jews and Christians alike to have been believers that he was not only a religious revolutionary, in Judaism written by Moses, containing the Ten Commandments which included political dimensions, but also the incarnation Ten Commandments and miracles performed by God to protect the Jewish of God on Earth. Many Christian beliefs are introduced, or the summary of the law given to Moses people. The writings that follow in the Old Testament developed, in the Bible. Christians use the Bible in their own have been composed at various stages of Jewish history. spiritual development, for their devotional lives and their These writings are explained in more detail in the Jewish understanding of God. The Bible also has a role in guiding preliminary studies section of this book. Christian behaviour and in the practices of Christians, such The New Testament constitutes the last third of the as personal prayer and liturgical worship. Bible. It begins with four gospels by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, as discussed earlier in this chapter. exercise 6.5 Matthew, Mark and Luke are the synoptic Gospels and concentrate on the last three years of Jesus’ life. John is 1 Discuss what the term ‘closed canon’ means. considered to have been written much later than the fi rst 2 Describe the sacred writings of three. It refl ects the book of Genesis, the fi rst book of Christianity, with particular reference Jewish scripture that tells of the creation of the world. In to the variants of Christianity. John, all who have lived will be judged at the end of the world by Jesus. 3 Describe why the Bible is The Acts of the Apostles follow the Gospel of John important to Christians. but are unrelated in style and content. They record events that occurred to Jesus’ followers after his death and activity 6.5 provide interesting hints about the early life of the community. This is discussed in more detail in the 1 Construct a table detailing the books of chapter on HSC Christianity, later in this book, as are the the Bible, so that you understand them letters of St Paul. The Acts of the Apostles are a historical better – include dates and authors. record of the spread of the early Church and a companion 2 Write a paragraph on why the Bible Epistles volume to the Gospel of Luke. The Epistles, or letters, emphasises the fi nal years of Jesus’ life. letters, a term used follow. Many of these were written by Paul or other early in the Bible from the Greek word followers of Jesus. The fi nal book is the Revelation of St 3 Account for the following statement from the John, or the Apocalypse. This is a diffi cult book to book: Christians use the Bible in their own understand, rich in imagery and symbolism, and has led spiritual development, for their devotional to many different interpretations of the end of the world. lives and their understanding of God. 134 cambridge studies of religion Core ethical teachings

The core ethical teachings of Christianity come from a the beatitudes range of sources, including the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Gospels or New Testament. Some churches, One of Jesus’ most famous sermons, the Sermon on the such as the Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox, also draw Mount, is presented in Matthew 5: 3–12. Jesus states that their ethical teachings from the statements of Church certain people will be blessed with happiness (in Latin, Councils, the Pope and the Bishops of the Church. beatitudo means ‘happiness’). This list of people who are All Christians also stress the importance of an blessed is called the Beatitudes and is considered a individual’s conscience in developing ethics. summary of Jesus’ teaching in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew Chapters 5–7). Some of these Beatitudes also the ten appear in Luke, but with different emphases. The Beatitudes are: commandments • Those who are poor in spirit shall be given the kingdom of heaven These are the most important of the laws dictated by God • The patient shall inherit the land to the Jewish prophet Moses. They are referred to twice • Those who are mourning shall be comforted in the Hebrew Bible, in Exodus 20: 2–14 and Deuteronomy • Those who hunger and thirst for holiness shall 5: 6–18. The first two commandments are concerned be fulfi lled with how to worship. • Those who are merciful shall be rewarded with • The fi rst commandment says that one must worship mercy the Lord who delivers the commandments. • Those who are pure of heart shall see God • The second forbids the worshipping of a carved • Those who are peacemakers shall be called the image. children of God • The third is concerned with the ethics of keeping a • Those who suffer persecution shall be given the contract. One must not use the name of God to falsely kingdom of heaven. promise to do something one does not do. These sentiments refl ect others in Hebrew scripture • The fourth returns to the theme of worship and which offer hope and comfort to those who have little. demands that the Sabbath, or the holy day of the week, Moreover, they suggest that if one is guided by mercy, be set aside. driven to be pure and works for peace, then one will • The fi fth demands that respect be shown by children attain both happiness in this life and the chance to enter for their parents. the kingdom of heaven. • The sixth is the ethical injunction not to murder. Many Christians believe that references to the • The seventh demands that men and women keep to Beatitudes include the whole Sermon on the Mount, their marriage vows by not committing adultery, or which includes the Golden Rule (Matthew 7: 12). having sex outside of marriage. • The eighth forbids stealing, again an ethical concern. • The ninth is also ethical, saying that one must not lie when speaking of another. • The tenth demands that one not desire one’s neighbour’s house or those things owned by others and looks at motives as well as actions. chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 135

the commandment As well as these general rules for peaceful community living, Jesus’ Beatitudes suggest that one of love needs meekness, patience and mercy to turn around the problems of the world. These ideals are not satisfying in In Matthew 22: 37–40 Jesus says, themselves, but lead on towards the kingdom of heaven. Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart This could also refer to a perfect state or kingdom on and thy whole soul and thy whole mind. This is the greatest of the commandments, and the fi rst. Earth that Jesus, as a political and religious agitator, was And the second, its like, is this, trying to create. Thy shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. Developing from the Beatitudes is Jesus’ The Greek word Jesus uses for ‘love’ is agape which declaration that unselfish love is the ultimate way to can mean an unconditional, self-sacrifi cing love. Jesus’ connect with God and the ultimate purpose for each command to love is also contained in the passages: person on Earth. In the uncertain and politically challenging times in which he lived, Jesus’ call for I give you a new commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you, you should love one universal love was bold, brave and exciting; some another. would even argue it was overly optimistic. john 13: 34

I am giving you these commands so that you may love one another. exercise 6.6 john 15: 17 1 Write out the Ten Commandments No one has greater love than this, to lay down one’s life for one’s friend. and explain what they mean. john 15: 13 2 List the Beatitudes (Matthew 5: 1–12) Jesus’ own life and ministry were motivated by love. and explain what they mean. the importance of 3 What does Jesus say about love? ethical teachings in activity 6.6 the lives of adherents 1 ‘Christians don’t have to take notice of the Ten Commandments because they are The Ten Commandments can be divided into demands Jewish laws.’ Discuss this statement. about how one should worship and demands about ethical behaviour. This second group of commandments focuses 2 There are two accounts of the Beatitudes, on the essential rules so that a community may grow. By Matthew 5: 1–12 and Luke 6: 20–26. the keeping of contracts and oaths, business and Construct a table listing the similar government can expect that people will do what they statements and note how they are different. swear to do. The seventh commandment advocates that Discuss why that might be the case. women and men remain faithful to each other; this is not 3 Debate the following statement from St Augustine only an ethical concern about love and respect inside (354–430 CE): ‘Love and do what you will.’ marriage, but also ensures that there is no risk to the property held within a family. The eighth commandment against stealing also helps guarantee the ownership of property. The ninth commandment is a refl ection of the seventh and eighth – that one should not desire the possessions of one’s neighbour. The ninth commandment ensures that issues of injustice can be resolved if people tell the truth about their fellow co-religionists. The injunction against murder is necessary for people to respect each others’ rights to exist. 136 cambridge studies of religion Personal devotion

prayer Latin: Pater noster, qui es in caelis: Personal devotion for Christians revolves around prayer. sanctifi cetur Nomen Tuum; A prayer can be a request, an offering of praise or an adveniat Regnum Tuum; attempt to communicate with entities beyond the world. fi at voluntas Tua, In the Christian perspective this can include God, Jesus, sicut in caelo, et in terra. his mother Mary, the saints and the angels. Panem nostrum cotidianum da nobis hodie; Prayer is encouraged in the Bible, where there are et dimitte nobis debita nostra, many examples. It is also considered a normal human Sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris; response in times of need. Prayer is essentially et ne nos inducas in tentationem; communication with God. Rather than a particular form sed libera nos a Malo. of prayer, of which there are many, it is the attitude of heart and mind that is important. English: A girl kneels in prayer Our Father, which art in Heaven, Hallowed be thy Name Thy Kingdom come. Thy will be done, in Earth as it is in Heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, As we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation; But deliver us from evil. (Some churches insert here ‘For thine is the kingdom, the power and the glory, for ever and ever.’ You will fi nd this in early editions of the Church of England’s Book of Common Prayer.) Amen.

Prayers can be said using a written form or extemporary form. Extemporary prayers are those that are said ‘off the cuff’, without being written down or memorised. They are prayers from the heart. Prayers can be accompanied by Bible reading, as is usual in Protestant traditions, or by using aids such as rosary beads or icons. Prayers may be spoken or silent. Prayer may be in the form of meditation, contemplative prayer or simply a prayer from the heart or mind. Prayer can include love and devotion to God, thanks for God’s care or specifi c answers to prayer. Confession of Different types of prayer sin is a common feature, as are requests for things to be done. Prayer for others is called intercession, and makes Jesus taught the most signifi cant prayer in Christianity, up part of the formal liturgical worship of many Christian the Lord’s Prayer. This praises God and asks for the churches. remission of sin and hopes that the one praying will be delivered from evil. The Pater Noster (Our Father) as it was said in the Catholic Church in the Latin Language until the 1960s can be found in Matthew 6: 9–13. chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 137

end of chapter summary

• Christianity began with infl uences from the Greek, Roman and Jewish contexts. • Knowledge of Jesus of Nazareth’s life is drawn mainly from the four Gospels. • Christians believe Jesus was a signifi cant teacher and miracle worker. • Christians believe Jesus was crucifi ed and rose to life again. Rosary beads • Jesus is an example that Christians seek to follow. It could be said that prayer radiates from the one who prays in a series of categories. In the fi rst instance • Christianity had humble beginnings one can pray for oneself alone, for one’s own health and but soon became the dominant safety. Often when a Christian takes on something new, religious tradition in Europe. or makes a signifi cant change in their daily routine, a • Christian variants include the Anglican, Catholic, prayer is said. Some will pray before starting a journey or Orthodox, Pentecostal and Protestant churches. a task, or before a meal. Prayer can signal a change and help the one who prays to accommodate this change. It • Christians believe Jesus is both can be argued that prayer thus serves a psychological human and divine. function as a personal ritual. • Christians believe Jesus’ death and From prayer regarding the self, one can also pray for resurrection were purposeful events. family, one’s community or the world. In prayer, hopes for improvement and betterment can be addressed. Prayers • Christian beliefs include the concept of for world peace are often said. the Trinity: one god, three persons. • Christians believe God has revealed himself exercise 6.7 in many ways, but ultimately through Jesus and the Bible. 1 Describe the different types of Christian prayer. • Christians believe Jesus’ death brought salvation 2 What forms do prayers take? to the world. 3 Why might the Lord’s Prayer be a model prayer? • The Christian sacred text is the Bible. • The Bible is used by Christians for beliefs, activity 6.7 ethics, devotional life and liturgical practices. • Christian ethics are based on the Old 1 Write a paragraph about why Christians pray. Testament (the Ten Commandments) 2 Debate or discuss the following topic: ‘Written and the New Testament. prayers are better than extemporary prayer.’ • The Beatitudes from the Sermon on the Mount 3 Speak to the sky is an Australian song and Jesus’ command to love are principal from the 1970s by Rick Springfi eld. Christian ethical principles. Why is prayer more than that? • Prayer is an essential spiritual Speak to the sky whenever things go wrong discipline to Christians. And you know you’re not talking to the air … • Christian prayers take on different forms and embody different purposes. 138 cambridge studies of religion End of chapter questions

multiple choice questions (10)

1 What power ruled Palestine at the time Jesus lived? 6 The sacred writings accepted by the Roman a Assyria Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, b Greece but not Protestants, are called: c Rome a The Apocrypha d Britain b The Apocalypse c The Gospels 2 Jesus was: d The Generations a A Jew b A Roman 7 How do Christians explain the person of Jesus? c A Christian a He was a great teacher and leader d A Greek b He was fully human and fully divine c He was God but not human 3 Who was most infl uential in the d He never really existed early spread of Christianity? a Paul 8 What do Christians believe about God? b Stephen a There are three gods c Cornelius b There is only one god and that is Jesus Christ d Mathias c God’s name is Allah d There is one god, but three persons 4 Which of the following is a Protestant denomination? a Russian Orthodox Church 9 What is one of the most signifi cant b Presbyterian Church sources of ethics for Christians? c Roman Catholic Church a What feels right at the time d The Rastafarian Church b The advice of newspaper editorials c The teachings of the Qur’an, especially the 5 What are icons? words of Muhammad a Statues of the saints d The teachings of Jesus, especially the b Pieces of bone and other relics of the saints commandment of love c Elaborate painted images used as an aid to worship d Popes and other church leaders 10 Prayer is important for Christians because: a It makes them feel good b It is a way to fi ll in their spare time c It is a means of communication with God d It protects them from evil infl uences chapter 6 christianity – the basic facts 139

short answer response to stimulus questions (6) question (1)

1 Describe the main events in the life of Jesus of Nazareth. Christians have often depicted Jesus in the dress or colour of various nations or cultures. Discuss whether 2 Choose one variant of Christianity and that is an appropriate thing to do, giving your reasons. outline its unique features.

3 Explain why the death and resurrection of Jesus are so important to Christianity.

4 Describe general revelation and special revelation and explain their place in Christian teaching.

5 Choose one key aspect of Christian beliefs and describe how the Bible explains that aspect.

6 Describe the different types of personal prayer in Christianity. extended response questions (3)

1 Explain how the historical and cultural context of the fi rst-century Middle East contributed to the rise and spread of Christianity.

2 Outline Christian beliefs about God, as described in the concept of the Trinity.

3 Outline the main sources of Christian ethics and describe their importance in the lives of Christian adherents. chapter 7

Christianity depth study (HSC) 142 cambridge studies of religion

Christianity is not a theory or speculation, but a life; not a philosophy of life, but a life and a living process. samuel taylor coleridge (1772–1834) chapter summary

This chapter discusses:

• Paul, considered one of the most • Traditional Christian teaching signifi cant persons in Christianity says that sexual relations must be expressed within the context • An early opponent of Christianity, of marriage – a teaching which Paul essentially became its founder continues to be debated today • Paul was one of the earliest • Homosexuality is generally Christian theologians condemned in Christianity • Many of Paul’s letters are in • Homosexuality remains a heavily- the New Testament debated issue in Christianity • Hildegard of Bingen was a signifi cant • Women are considered equal medieval Christian woman but different to men in many • Hildegard was a visionary, theologian, of Jesus’ teachings herbalist and composer • There are many Christian • Hildegard infl uenced women and denominations and each interprets Christianity, both in her own times scripture and tradition differently and in the modern era • Baptism is a signifi cant practice • Christian ethics draw from in the life of Christians the teachings of Jesus • There many different theological • Sexual ethics are based on the perspectives and practices of baptism teachings of the Bible • Baptism generally signifi es the washing away of sin and rebirth chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 143

introduction 2001, was inspired by his Christianity to bring much-needed compassion to the debate regarding This chapter will feature several people or schools of Indigenous Australians. thought, one ethical area and one significant practice. Students will need to describe a Christian ethical Additional material will be available on the Cambridge teaching in a particular area, either sexual ethics, Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM. bioethical issues or environmental ethics. In this In this chapter the life of a significant person or chapter, the ethical area presented in detail is sexual the rise and development of a significant idea in ethics. The HSC exam will also ask students to explain Christianity will be examined. In the HSC exam, why the issue they have chosen is important to the students will be asked to explain how this person/idea Christian faith. contributed to the growth of Christianity and assess the impact of the idea or person on Christianity itself. Students will need to describe a significant To do this effectively, students will need to know practice (ritual, worship etc.) within Christianity and something of the differing views surrounding the show, firstly, how it highlights Christian beliefs and, person or idea they choose to study. secondly, how it makes meaning for Christians, both It is not only great historical personages who individually and as a community. Baptism will be use their faith to change the world. Sir William discussed in some detail. The other practices include Deane, Governor-General of Australia from 1996– Saturday/Sunday worship and marriage.

Former Governor-General Sir William Deane, and Lady Deane, congratulate Murri dance during a farewell at Brisbane City Hall 144 cambridge studies of religion Signifi cant people and schools of thought

people This statue of Paul of Tarsus, also known as Saint Paul, Paul Martin Luther (fi fteenth/sixteenth century CE) – the Apostle or by his German monk who questioned the Catholic Church, pre-Christian name leading to the Reformation. Saul, is in front of St Peter’s Basilica, Catherine Booth (nineteenth century CE) – co-founder, Vatican City, Rome with her husband, William, of the Salvation Army; she was an early feminist and a noted preacher. Pope John XXIII (nineteenth/twentieth century CE) – appointed as caretaker pope in 1958, he became an innovative leader, convening the Second Vatican Council which brought many reforms to the Catholic Church. Billy Graham (twentieth century CE) – an American evangelist who conducted large crusades in the mid- twentieth century; he was an advisor to several US presidents and his 1959 crusade in Australia led to the conversion of many current church leaders. Dennis Bennett (twentieth century CE) – US Episcopalian priest and author who believed in the ‘baptism of the Holy Spirit’; he was a noted leader of the Charismatic movement and infl uenced Pentecostalism. Sarah Maitland (twentieth CE) – British author, particularly of fi ction, and feminist who has had some infl uence within feminist theology. paul of tarsus (born The book of the New Testament called the Acts of the Apostles, possibly written about 30 years after the circa 10 bce, died circa 65 ce) death of Paul, dedicates about half its material to Paul’s life. It sometimes differs with the details found in his own Paul was one of the fi rst great organisers of the Christian letters, which makes it diffi cult to be sure of all the facts Church and the fi rst signifi cant writer of Christian of his life. There is no doubt, however, that his infl uence scripture. After Jesus, Paul was arguably the most on the early Christian Church was enormous. signifi cant fi gure in Christianity. He took a small group of Jews who had followed Jesus and turned this group gentiles those who are not Jewish into a non-Jewish church with international appeal. A Jew himself, Paul spoke Greek and inherited Roman evangelical citizenship from his father. This enabled him to put originally, ‘from the Gospels’; from the Jewish ideas into the language of the gentiles (non- eighteenth century Jews) and Christianity grew rapidly because of his CE it refers to a efforts. It is not surprising that Paul is one of the main Protestant movement that believes one’s fi gureheads of the evangelical movement. Paul is also soul can be saved only described as the founder of Pauline Christianity, that by having faith in the is, Christianity that has shaken off many of its Jewish atoning death of Jesus practices. The earliest Christians had kept to Jewish Pauline Christianity law, ensuring their young boys were circumcised and ‘Pauline’ is a term used critically to suggest that refusing to eat with non-Jews. Paul and his followers unduly corrupted the message of Jesus chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 145

Paul’s life As Chapter 9 of Acts continues, Paul suddenly underwent a dramatic and heaven-inspired change of Paul was a Jew born in Tarsus in Asia Minor (modern- heart. On his way to Damascus he was struck by a bright day south-west Turkey) around 10 BCE, which makes light and fell to the ground, heard the voice of Jesus and was him an older contemporary of Jesus. In his letter to the struck blind. The voice told him to continue to Damascus Romans (2: 17–20), he speaks of holding to the law of where he would be guided. Blind and fi nding it impossible the Jews and being a light to those in darkness. Scholars to eat, Paul was approached by Christians in Damascus. suggest this was his basic plan for life. At fi rst the Christians did not trust him and feared Paul’s enthusiasm was evident throughout his life. for their lives. They knew that he had come to arrest As he matured as a man and a good Jew, he discovered, them. But one of them, Annanias, was instructed by the and was disgusted by, Christians worshipping in voice of Jesus to lay hands on Paul and infuse him with synagogues, trying to convert the Jewish people to Jesus. the Holy Spirit. So Paul was baptised, regained his sight, In Acts, Paul (called Saul at that stage) fi rst appeared as began eating again and started to work for Christians. persecutor a persecutor. He stood by as Jews in Jerusalem stoned someone who to death Stephen, an early leader of the Christians. Paul oppresses or punishes DID YOU KNOW? others for following then helped in a persecution against Christians carried a particular faith out in Jerusalem (Acts, Chapter 8). At the start of The expressions ‘on the road to Damascus’ or ‘a Damascene Chapter 9, Paul asked for authority from the high priest experience’ are often used of people who have undergone, or are missionary about to undergo, a change of heart or conversion. The phrase has a person who works to of the Jews to go to Damascus to fi nd any Christians convert others to their worshipping in the synagogues there. Until that point, become general usage in the English language. religious faith, often in a place where that religion Paul was defi nitely an evil fi gure as far as early is not widely practised Christians were concerned. Paul introduced a systematic plan to take Christianity to gentiles, or non-Jews. His citizenship of martyr to put someone to the Roman Empire may have helped him envisage how death who will not As this map shows, Paul was tireless in his travels over widespread Christianity could be. Paul spent several give up their religion, the lands of the eastern Mediterranean – principally years in Arabia, and this was presumably the time when or views or beliefs the parts of the world that spoke Greek he developed his understanding of the Christian message. Little was heard of him for about ten years. It is possible N Paul’s first journey that he went into a long period of Christian instruction. Paul’s second journey He then embarked on a missionary journey to the north Paul’s third journey of Israel and into Asia Minor. He joined the debate about Paul’s journey to Rome the question of gentile Christians and whether they had to keep Jewish customs and laws, and supported freedom Black Sea from Jewish restrictions. He undertook other missionary journeys that brought the Christian gospel into Europe, Rome Amphipolis Apollonia Philippi Byzantium fi rstly via Greece. Neapolis Thessalonica Neapolis Paul spent many years imprisoned for ‘disturbing Puteoli Beroea the peace’. As a Roman citizen he appealed to Caesar for Troas Assos Latisa a hearing and travelled to Rome, where he was imprisoned Nicopolis Mytilene Sardis Antioch Iconium Edessa again. At this point the Acts of the Apostles concludes. Messina Anatarbus Rhegium Athens Smyrna Lystra Tradition says that Paul was eventually released and Corinth Miletus Perge Syracusa Sparta Myla Attalia Tarsus ANTIOCH continued his travels, but was jailed again. It is believed Melita Rhodes he was martyred by the Emperor Nero about 64 CE. Salamis Palmyra Gortuna During his journeys, and especially during his time in Paphos jail, Paul wrote many letters, some of which have been Sidon Mediterranean Sea Tyre preserved in the New Testament. Ptolemais Cyrene Caesarea JERUSALEM

Alexandria 0 250 500 km 146 cambridge studies of religion

Contribution to development and Paul’s impact on society expression of Christianity Paul issued a challenge to the pagan world. The Roman synagogue Jewish place of worship Paul’s impact on individuals Empire contained a wide range of religions, from the worship of Greek gods to groups that secretly worshipped epistles Before Paul, Christians lived as Jews. They worshipped Egyptian deities. He transformed Christianity into a letters, a term used at synagogues, ate amongst themselves and carried out religion with the form of a Greek mystery religion. in the Bible from the Greek word purity rituals that meant they could not allow non-Jews Such religions were increasing in popularity. Paul created amongst them at certain times. In his Epistles (or letters), a new religious tradition in which both dissenting Jews deity Paul encouraged them to move away from their Jewish and converted pagans could worship together. By a god or goddess habits. He explained that following Jesus was now more speaking of Jesus through Greek concepts, Paul made Greek mystery religion important than following the law of Moses. He developed Christianity accessible to many of the people of the mystery religions a Christian theology that was much concerned with Roman Empire. only divulge their individual belief and ethical behaviour. secrets to those who achieve initiation Paul’s impact on Christianity INVESTIGATE Enter ‘Greek mystery religions’ into an internet search engine. In the decades before Paul, Christianity only grew What you can discover about them? Are they similar to Christianity? amongst disaffected Jews. Those Jews who did not believe Can you detect any links? How are they different? in Jesus regularly persecuted those who did. Thus the Jews who followed Jesus at this time awaited his return as a Messiah. They waited for the day when the kingdom of Analysing Paul’s impact God that he had spoken about could be established in Paul Hellenised Christianity and so gave it the broad Hellenise Jerusalem. This was concrete thinking with a political appeal it has today. But Paul’s infl uence has been to make something Greek aim: the destruction of Rome’s control over Judea and a challenged by those who question which of his letters religious kingdom established in Jerusalem. During were actually written by him. Yet even if all the Paul’s time, Rome’s control of its empire was speculation on Paul’s letters is true, it is still true to say unquestionable. that Christianity would not have been as widespread Paul steered Christianity away from these political in the Roman world without his zeal, energy and upheavals by introducing Jesus as a fi gure of universal undying faith. salvation. The Jewish Messiah increasingly came to be spoken of using the Greek word Christos. In Paul’s Sources on Paul Christos words, Jesus’ kingdom changed from a potential political a Greek term meaning Paul wrote a number of letters or Epistles to early ‘anointed one’ and religious reality into a promise of eternal life in Christian groups. These can be found in the New heaven. Christians were now ‘stewards of God’s mysteries’ Testament. Paul’s letters are much earlier than the (1 Corinthians 4: 1). Following Jesus and his teachings Gospels of Luke and John and either earlier than, or would guide Christians into heaven. contemporary with, the Gospels of Mark and Matthew. Paul’s statements on the difference between Judaism Scholars recognise that, of Paul’s letters, Romans, the and Christianity were accepted by early Christians. His First and Second Letters to the Corinthians and his leadership kept the small but developing Christian letter to the Galatians are defi nitely by him. Scholars communities together. Paul also brought the Christian debate the authorship of the other letters written under Gospel to the gentiles, some of whom received it eagerly. his name. Soon Christianity would no longer be seen as a Jewish sect but as a distinct religious movement. sect a subgroup of a religious tradition, usually CONSIDER emphasising a particular aspect that makes it Some have suggested that Paul is the true founder of Christianity, different to other groups not Jesus. What evidence can you fi nd to support or dismiss that of the same tradition idea? How infl uential was he? chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 147

TABLE 7.1 PAUL’S LETTERS AUTHORSHIP CONTENT HIGHLIGHTS Romans By Paul Theology and doctrine Paul’s record of the essential elements of Christianity First Corinthians By Paul Theology and doctrine Explains operation of the church at Corinth Second Corinthians By Paul Addressing Jewish practices How the church at Corinth must move beyond its Jewish practices Galatians By Paul Addressing Jewish practices Addresses relation of non-Jews to the holding of Jewish law Ephesians Disputed Addressing heresy Stresses that Jesus is central for salvation Philippians By Paul Theology and doctrine Paul’s sense of joy at life through Jesus Colossians Disputed Addressing heresy Paul again emphasises Jesus over Jewish law First Thessalonians By Paul Theology and doctrine Paul’s efforts at converting pagans and Jews to the new religion Second Thessalonians Disputed Corrects reading of other epistles See above First Timothy Disputed Pastoral (addressing the The three ‘pastorals’ discuss issues on nature of the Church) leading the Christian community Second Timothy Disputed Pastoral (addressing the See above nature of the Church) Titus Disputed Pastoral (addressing the See above nature of the Church) Philemon By Paul Personal intercession A slave runs from his Christian master and Paul asks the master to take the slave back without punishment Hebrews Rarely Addressing Jewish practices Holding Jesus above the teaching of the Jewish prophets acknowledged as being Paul’s

As with many early Christians, all we know of Paul comes from Christian sources and some of these sources exercise 7.1 seem contradictory. Sections of the Epistles seem to contradict the Acts. In these cases, theologians tend to 1 Assess the impact of Paul’s infl uence rely on the authentic Epistles as the older and more on Christianity by exploring one genuine documents. or two of his major ideas. Summary 2 Identify the way in which Paul became a Christian. Christians believe that their religion follows from the 3 Summarise Paul’s infl uence on the early church. Jewish religion. They believe that Jesus’ life was foretold by a number of Jewish prophets. The connection with Judaism is used by Christians to strengthen the activity 7.1 authenticity of their faith. The suggestion that Paul brought a strong Greek infl uence into Christianity could 1 Debate the following topic – ‘Paul was be seen as undermining Christianity’s claim to simply an administrator who kept the early authenticity, but could be seen as making Christianity a church together and helped it grow’. broader religion. It is likely that Paul would have tried 2 Using the internet or resources in your every way he could to promote the religion he believed in. library, investigate why some scholars believe It should also be recognised that those who write about Paul blended pagan and Christian ideas Paul want to promote their own understanding of him together, so helping Christianity to become and his work. Those who are pro-Christian are more the fi rst religion in the Roman Empire. likely to argue that he was not unduly infl uenced by 3 In small groups, discuss the nature of Greek thinking and religion. Others may argue that Paul Paul’s infl uence on Christianity today. was more infl uenced by the Greeks than by Jewish religion. Certainly, it was Paul’s infl uence that shaped Christianity as it has emerged today. 148 cambridge studies of religion

hildegard of bingen Hildegard stayed quiet about her visions until 1141 CE when the voice of God told her to write down what (1098–1179 ce) she saw. This was the start of Hildegard’s career as a public fi gure. Once her visions were known, through her letters and books, Hildegard became famous. Christians from all over Europe travelled to see her, or wrote letters asking about religious matters, the future, where they could fi nd hidden treasure, all sorts of things. Hildegard published several books of her visions, encyclopaedias of medicine and compendiums of music she had composed for her convent (see table below). She was also a fervent critic of Church corruption. Towards the end of her life, she was asked to go on a number of speaking tours. This was unusual for a woman in medieval Europe. Hildegard died in Bingen in 1179 CE and was beatifi ed. Hildegard is an unusual case in that beatifi cation many regard her as a saint. She has a feast day and a declaration by the Pope that a soul is appears in older lists of saints, but was never offi cially blessed in heaven; it given the title. is a stage towards the canonisation Contribution to the development or sanctifi cation of and expression of Christianity a person’s soul mysticism Hildegard’s impact on individuals the process of developing a profound At a time when philosophy and reason were being connection with an renewed in Europe, Hildegard reinvigorated the ultimate reality, be mystical tradition in Christianity. Her writings were it heaven, God, a deity or so on believed to illustrate that anyone dedicated to a monastic life and celibacy could have a personal monastic life spiritual recluse as A depiction of Hildegard von Bingen from a medieval manuscript: mystical connection with God. Hildegard was a great monks and nuns she is seen here in her cell writing. The monk Volmar, her secretary, believer in chastity as the fi rst step on the road to a leans in through a window in the cell to assist her with her text connection with God. For Christians who followed her celibate living a life of sexual visions, she brought the reality of heaven much closer. abstinence

Hildegard was born in Böckelheim, Germany, in 1098 Hildegard’s impact on Christianity tithe CE. She was the tenth child of a noble family. The usual a tenth part of some While Hildegard lived, changes were coming in Europe. custom was to dedicate the tenth child to the Church as a amount, specifi cally as Scholars, mainly working in Paris, had discovered a donation to a church tithe. From the age of eight Hildegard was cared for by a Arabic teachings on logic and re-discovered Greek and woman called Jutta, an aristocrat who had dedicated her anchoress Roman teachings on reason and learning. Thinkers like an anchorite (male) life to religious contemplation as an anchoress. Even Peter Abelard were starting to rationalise religion and or anchoress (female) before this time, Hildegard had started having visions of is one who gives the nature of God. Hildegard’s mysticism provided an what she thought were heavenly realms. She confessed themselves over to alternative to Abelard’s rational teachings. She helped total seclusion these to Jutta and also, later, to a monk called Volmar who put emotion back into the Christian faith. helped her write them down. The small group of nuns overseen by Jutta slowly grew. When Jutta died in 1136 CE, Hildegard was appointed their superior or magistra. magistra Numbers continued to grow and Hildegard moved her (Latin) a female teacher community to a site near Bingen. chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 149

Also during this period, other religions in Europe Analysing Hildegard’s impact were starting to grow. In the south of France and also Hildegard, although she spent her life mainly in Cathars in Germany, Albigensians or Cathars were becoming from a Greek word popular and posed a threat to the Catholic Church. seclusion, grew to be an influential woman. Both meaning ‘pure ones’ This heretical group dedicated their lives to the poor everyday Christians and the Church hierarchy used but refused to accept the authority of the Pope. Towards her visions for their own purposes. Hildegard’s letters the end of her life, Hildegard, now famous for being tell us about that influence. At the high end of the touched by the visions of God, was very useful to the Church hierarchy, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the Church. She was taken on speaking tours throughout leading Catholic of his day, encouraged Hildegard by Germany where she urged people not to join the publicising her visions and passed her letters to Pope Cathars. Thanks to her speeches and the work of many Eugenius III, helping to spread her fame. Likewise, other Catholics, including military raids, the Cathars monks, priests and ordinary Christians wrote asking were eventually wiped out. her advice. Hildegard’s words served as a beacon of stability in a Europe that was undergoing intellectual Hildegard’s impact on society and psychological changes. Hildegard helped to develop a whole language of In medieval times it was assumed that women were mystical thought that extended the ways Christians intellectually and emotionally weaker. Being weaker, felt connected to God. She spoke of God’s love as a they were more susceptible to visions, spirits and vigour that renewed both life and nature. She spoke of voices. Hildegard’s visions confirmed this assumption. the ‘sacred sound’, implying that music was central to What is interesting is that the nature of her visions the matrix of the cosmos. Hildegard used all kinds of proved to be so fascinating that her fame brought her to evocative and poetic terms to deepen her own and the attention of churchmen, nobles, kings and popes. other Christians’ understanding of their faith. By being ‘weak’ and given to visions, Hildegard gained a great deal of power and influence. One could argue The soul reveals her capabilities according to the capabilities of the body, so that in childhood she that she was one of the most powerful women in Europe brings forth simplicity, in youth strength, and in the in the twelfth century. fullness of age, when all the veins of the human Both in medieval times and now, Hildegard’s life being are full, she brings forth her greatest strength in wisdom. In the same way a tree in its first growth demonstrates that women can have a prominent and brings forth tender shoots, goes on then to bear fruit powerful place in religious life. Today the image of and finally ripens that fruit to the fullness of utility. Hildegard influences women both within and outside from scivias i, 4 the Catholic Church. Her meditative music is much It is this delight in the sensuous ambiguity of loved, especially by those in the New Age movement. language, the poetry of her visions and the sweet and contemplative drone of her music that spreads her fame DID YOU KNOW? today. Members of the New Age movement appreciate Anchoresses and anchorites take vows, receive the last rites (for her music and her understanding of the healing those about to die) and sometimes are also given a mock funeral. dimensions of nature. And for Catholics, New Agers, Then they are walled into a cell; these cells are usually set into the feminists and music lovers, Hildegard will continue to walls of a church so they can participate in mass. have a strong infl uence.

INVESTIGATE Many people, especially those associated with the New Age movement, have drawn on Hildegard as inspiration for aspects of life such as herbal medicine, music and meditation. Look up Hildegard on the internet and try and fi nd out why that is the case. 150 cambridge studies of religion

Sources on Hildegard Today feminist religious writers use Hildegard to demonstrate the power and infl uence women have had in Sadly, many of the works of Hildegard are still being the Church and the religious life of Europe. To do this, translated into good English. Some of her works on they often play down the way Hildegard was used by men medicine and writings on music have been badly in the Church to champion their conservative views. translated and rushed into print for New Age readers. Hildegard certainly represents a strong female voice in Good translations are taking longer, as Hildegard’s Latin the Church during her time, but she said nothing to is not simple to translate. threaten the men who ran the Church, nor did she Hildegard’s biography, the Vitae sanctae Hildegardis threaten the view that women were inferior to men. (Concerning the holy life of Hildegard), was written during her life and just after by the monks Godfrey and canonisation hagiography Theodoric. They wrote it to help the process of Hildegard’s the process of a biography of the life becoming a of a holy person or canonisation (making her a saint). Their book is a saint in Catholic saint; can imply a hagiography as these two monks were unlikely to write Christianity biography that includes anything but good things about Hildegard. only good things about its subject

TABLE 7.2 HILDEGARD’S MAJOR WRITINGS

TITLE DATES OF SUMMARY IMPACT COMPOSITION

Scivias (know the way) 1141–1151 A report of 25 visions summing Hildegard’s most well-known book up Christian doctrine on salvation of the soul Ordo virtutem (play of virtues) Early 1150s A moral play for numerous female Together with the work of Hrotsvit voices and one male voice (the Devil) von Gandersheim, helped to re-start the European theatrical tradition dormant since the fall of Rome Liber simplicis medicinae Mid 1150s A collection of medical Underlines the uses of the natural (later Physica) a medical ailments and cures world for the benefi t of humankind encyclopaedia Symphonia armonie celestium Late 1150s Hildegard’s collection of her own Reasonable impact at the time. revelationum (Symphony of songs and music transcribed in an Has gone on to become one of the harmony of the early form of musical notation the most fascinating collections heavenly revelation) of early European music Liber compositae meicinae Mid to late Teaching notes made by Published one hundred years after (also known as Causae 1150s Hildegard on treatment of ills Hildegard’s death. Now, like Liber et curae) Notes on simplicis, studied by New Age healers medical treatments Liber vitae meritorum c. 1158–1163 Hildegard’s second book Continued to spread her fame (Book of life’s merits) of visionary works as a seeress and prophetess Liber divinorum operum 1163–1173 Hildegard’s last book of visions. Again, this increased Hildegard’s The theme is the relationship of fame and her power. She was humans to each other and to God approached by many seeking advice about their lives and the future chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 151

INVESTIGATE schools of thought Check the following books and internet sites for more about Liberation theology – Movement in Latin countries that Hildegard. Hildegard von Bingen, Selected writings (edited by Mark questions the power structures of the Church in society. Atherton) in the Penguin series is a cheap and easily available Emphasises Jesus as a revolutionary and identifi es with introduction to Hildegard’s writings and thought. See also Catherine the poor. M. Mooney, Gendered voices: Medieval saints and their interpreters, Feminist theology – Movement that questions the 1999. Refer to the Cambridge Studies of Religion website for some patriarchal structures of the Church and society. useful links to Hildegard. Emphasises the feminine aspects of God and seeks a greater role for women in the Church. Summary Hildegard has had an enduring infl uence on women in the life of the Catholic Church. She was taken seriously exercise 7.2 by many prestigious churchmen such as St Bernard of Clairveaux and Pope Eugenius III. She deepened the 1 Summarise the impact Hildegard has had mystical lives of Christians through her visions, writing on Christianity. and music, and continues to do so today. Hildegard 2 Contrast life for women in Hildegard’s time became famous as a Church fi gure who could be appealed with life for girls and women today. to for spiritual guidance. She was believed to be a 3 Explain how Hildegard had an infl uence prophetess and was able to re-inspire faith during times on Christianity. of uncertainty in Europe.

One of Hildegard's visions: The universe and the Earth created for Man activity 7.2

1 Using a mind map, detail the most signifi cant events of Hildegard’s life. 2 In small groups debate the topic: ‘Hildegard was a saint’. 3 Visit your library or investigate through the internet why Hildegard is a popular fi gure in the New Age movement. 152 cambridge studies of religion Ethics bioethics environmental

Christian attitudes to bioethics vary considerably from ethics church to church. The signifi cant issue is attitudes to The world is considered by Christians to be God’s creation human life, particularly the beginning and end of life. and human beings are stewards or caretakers of it. Some Abortion is usually interpreted as the taking of a life, and interpret this ‘dominion’ (Genesis 1: 28) as a licence to so condemned by the sixth commandment. Euthanasia is make use of the world, while others believe it means ‘care’. also seen as the taking of life, but a distinction is usually Recently the concept of ‘ecotheology’ has developed. Many made between ‘active’ and ‘passive’ euthanasia. Generally churches now have publications or groups that emphasise the Catholic Church opposes such interventions while environmentalism. Australian Christians have sought to other churches are more accepting. IVF and stem-cell develop an Australian Christianity in harmony with the research are open to debate. Australian environment. Pro-choice protestors take part in a rally sexual ethics

Students should revise the material on ethics from the previous chapter, the basic course in Christianity. Special note should be taken of the sources of Christian ethics. At least one of the Ten Commandments applies directly to sexual ethics. Jesus’ commandment to love also has a direct implication for this area of ethics. Premarital and extramarital sex ‘Premarital sex’ is a term that describes sexual activity before marriage. As the Bible was written in a time when people married early – just after puberty in puberty many cases – the issue of premarital sex was a period of change in young men and women, unimportant. Thus premarital sex is not addressed usually in their early directly in Christian scripture. There are passages, teens, that marks such as I Corinthians 7: 8–9, that say the solution for the transition from childhood to adulthood being aflame with passion is to marry. These words sit uneasily in the modern world, where marriage between teenagers is not considered acceptable for many reasons, including its potential to interfere with education and career choice. However, some modern Christian groups have taken a strong stand against premarital sex, quoting less explicit references to purity as evidence that Christians purity freedom from evil or guilt should retain a high level of sexual morality. In I Corinthians Chapter 7: 1–7, Paul underlines the need sexual morality conforming to particular for men and women to be pure of Satan’s infl uence by rules of conduct; being married and satisfying each other’s sexual needs. often, chastity His exhortations to purity are seen by some Christians as an interdiction (prohibition) against premarital sex. chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 153

Many Christian websites focus not on scripture, prohibited. Having sex with another man’s wife is seen but on the practicalities of abstaining from sex. They as a violation of that man’s property rights. Men and heterosexual sex refer to unplanned pregnancies and also to the women should both avoid adultery. This helps explain sex between a man possibility of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Jesus’ attitude to the woman caught in adultery (see and a woman such as genital herpes. Finally, they refer to the ideal of John 8: 1–11). Jesus asked the accusers to look at their Sexually Transmitted marriage as something that should be entered into by a motives in seeking the stoning of the woman, and their Infections man and a woman who have kept themselves in a own failures. He also told the woman, ‘Do not sin again’. infection transmitted through sexual contact virginal state. Thus, premarital sex is described by Incest and bestiality are also prohibited in the Bible. many Christians as something to be avoided. Women should be virgins when they marry. In this, Christians develop the Jewish idea that Exodus 22: 16 explains how men who have sex with sex is created by God, and sanctified by marriage for virgins should then marry them, or else pay monetary procreation the purpose of procreation. Pre-marital sex is a compensation to the virgin’s father. Deuteronomy 22: 13 bringing into being, challenge to the correct functioning of this system. deals with the issue of a man who accuses his new wife creating life Essentially, good believers should be married young of not being a virgin. If there is proof that she is a virgin, and start families. The New Testament calls on men the husband is penalised for his suspicions, but if no and women to remain pure sexually. The Old proof can be found, the woman is to be stoned to death. Testament focuses its wrath on women; in Genesis and This attitude to women as property changed by because of Eve, women are seen as temptresses the time of Paul, when he asked men to ‘treat younger responsible for the fall of humanity from paradise. women like sisters in purity’ (1 Timothy 5: 2). Modern Thus there are interdictions against young women who theologians use Paul’s general calls to purity as an lose their virginity before their marriage. argument against premarital sex, for example, 1 The ideal of marriage for life is becoming less Thessalonians 4: 2. But the New Testament is nowhere common in Western society. The Christian view of near as vocal on the issue of premarital sex as the Jewish- life-long marriage may be seen as unrealistic in today’s based Old Testament. world. In modern Australian society, young men and women marry decades later than their classical and FURTHERMORE medieval counterparts. Moreover, marriage is even Is premarital sex a recent concern unforseen in the Bible? If so, can being seen as irrelevant. When it does take place, the Christianity condemn this practice? Will taking a hard line on chances of it failing are high. This may be partly premarital sex work in all situations, to prevent the spread of STIs because marriage is today made through love. For most and unplanned pregnancy? Have a look at some of the Christian of history, marriages have been arranged by the parents abstinence websites in the US. Some are linked to the Cambridge of young people for economic and class-based reasons, Studies of Religion website. not for love. If you marry because of parental will and economic reasons, rather than love, then there may be Summary less reason to divorce. Australians have developed a generally accepted Changes in the structure of the family created by the morality of serial monogamy. That is, taking one Industrial Revolution and the breakdown of the village partner, then leaving them if you fall out of love or fall community have made premarital sex a signifi cant in love with someone else. Then you take a new partner modern issue. In Biblical times, premarital sex was only and start a new relationship. Opposed to this, Christian acceptable as a precursor to marriage, as Deuteronomy ethics on premarital sex support the traditional ideal suggests, or for males; women had to keep their virginity that a man and woman will marry as virgins and until marriage, unless they were prostitutes, slaves or remain married for life. other lowly citizens. Conservative theologians have interpreted Paul’s general requests for Christian purity Sources and morality as a ban on premarital sex. Modern The major issue for heterosexual sex in the Christian abstinence movements in America are closely aligned to Bible is not premarital sex but adultery, which is this form of Christian morality. 154 cambridge studies of religion

Homosexuality The word ‘homosexuality’ is drawn from the Greek prefi x homo meaning ‘the same’. This relates to individuals who are attracted to their own gender, men to men (gay) and women to women (lesbian). The term homosexuality technically includes lesbians, but the homosexual sex designation ‘gay and lesbian’ is seen as more inclusive. sex between people of the same gender The abbreviation ‘LGBT’ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender) is also used. lesbian Homosexuality can designate a love relationship a female homosexual

between two people of the same gender, or it can simply Reverend Dorothy McRae McMahon of the Uniting Church of bisexual a person who is refer to the sexual behaviour of men and women with Australia came out as a lesbian at the age of 50. Her congregation attracted to both sexes their own genders. The Bible has some proscriptions supported her decision. The Reverend Fred Nile, also of the Uniting Church of Australia, has long campaigned against homosexual activity. against acts of homosexual sex, but in one famous case transgender a person whose identity seems to accept that there can be loving relationships does not conform to between people of the same gender, that is, the relationship INVESTIGATE general ideas of male or female gender between David and Jonathan (1 Samuel 20). Find out what you can fi nd about the contrasting views of Reverend Homosexuality is understood by some Christians as Dorothy McRae McMahon and Reverend Fred Nile. Discuss their sin a challenge to the ideal of marriage and family. Some also views. Can they both be considered Christian views? an act considered see it as a sin. Some Christians even believe it to be an a transgression of divine law; an offence abomination before God and maintain that, no matter History shows that homosexuality has always against God how good or Christian a person is, if they live a homosexual been a dimension of human sexuality. One of the abomination lifestyle they should be excluded from communion. earliest texts ever written, the Mesopotamian Epic of a state of disgust and Conservative Christians in the United States such as hatred; abhorrence, Gilgamesh, is based on a love affair between two men. Reverend Pat Robertson and Reverend Jerry Falwell even detestation, loathing This story is reflected in what some consider the most stated after the 11 September bombings in New York in famous homosexual love affair in the Bible, the story of 2001 that God was punishing the United States for David and Jonathan. The censorious attitudes of allowing abortion and homosexuality. monotheistic religions to homosexuality can lead to However, some Christian congregations accept double standards. While the Hebrew Bible (Jewish), homosexuality as a natural part of human life and the Bible (Christian) and the Qur’an (Islam) seem to welcome homosexual Christians into their groups. In proscribe homosexual activity, often secret but North America a monogamous homosexual man Gene sometimes open and thriving homosexual communities Robinson has been ordained an Episcopal (Anglican) naturally develop within these religious communities. bishop. This has caused some concern amongst other Anglican communities, especially in Sydney. There are some ministers and pastors in the Anglican Church and the Uniting Church in Australia who are known to be gay and lesbian, and whose colleagues are ministers who are staunchly anti-homosexual. We can see that Christian responses to homosexuality are widely varied and range from acceptance to disapproval, and outright fanatical hatred. chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 155

Sources Given that King David is one of the great religious heroes of the Bible and blessed by God, this seems to There are a few explicit references to male homosexuality represent an ideal of male-to-male love. It is certainly not in the Christian Bible. One of the most well known is in directly said that David and Jonathan had a sexual the Old Testament in Leviticus 18: 22: relationship, but these passages do stress that each man You shall not lie with a male as with a woman; it is an deeply loved the other. abomination. Summary This clearly refers to sexual acts between men. To add to the diffi culty of interpreting this, we see in the With its emphasis on marriage and procreation, the same book at 11: 12 that eating anything from the sea Bible is in essence against homosexuality. Increasingly without fi ns and scales, such as oysters, is as serious a in our modern world, however, homosexuality is being crime as a man sleeping with a man. accepted as an authentic form of human identity and In the New Testament we fi nd in Paul’s letter to the some Christian churches are taking a positive approach Romans 1: 26–27: to including homosexuals. In certain traditional … for this reason, God gave them [the wicked] up to churches such as the Episcopal Church in America, unnatural passions. Their women exchanged natural homosexual priests and also homosexual bishops are relations for unnatural and the men, likewise, gave up being ordained. Other Christian churches strongly natural relations with women and were consumed with passion for one another, men committing shameless condemn homosexual practices. acts with men and receiving in their own persons the due penalty for their error. gender roles and fornicators In this passage, however, Paul did not make clear men and women who what the ‘shameless acts’ or the ‘due penalty’ were. discrimination have sex outside of In another of Paul’s letters we fi nd him clearer on marriage In Christian communities women are regularly kept the penalty. In I Corinthians 6: 9–10 Paul made reference from leading spiritual roles. In the modern world, idolater to ‘fornicators, idolaters, adulterers, male prostitutes, a worshipper of idols Christianity is accused of being patriarchal and and sodomites’ who will be excluded from the kingdom (an idolater breaks the needing to reform itself. Feminist theology is a Second Commandment of God. Again the emphasis here is on sex acts. And in I movement aiming to increase the equality between not to worship Timothy 1: 10 Paul spoke similarly. There are no explicit graven images) gender roles in Christian communities. More references to lesbianism in the Bible. traditional societies suggest that there are clear sodomy One of the more famous passages that some another term for teachings which assign to women different roles in the Christians believe shows that homosexuality is homosexual practices; community and that these rules should be adhered to. from a particular condemned by God is the tale of the destruction of Sodom In an institution as old as Christianity, one whose interpretation of the and Gomorrah from Genesis 19. Certainly it is said that story of Sodom heritage goes back to a Jewish society at least three the inhabitants of these towns were wicked, but there is thousand years old, patriarchal assumptions abound. feminist theology no proof in this text (nor in Jewish interpretations of it) Genesis, which includes the story of creation, pictures a movement to that God destroyed them because homosexuality was look at religious the first man and woman as an archetype for human teachings, particularly practised there. The major theme of this Biblical passage behaviour. Genesis contains two creation stories. In within Judaism and seems to be related to rules of hospitality. Genesis 1: 27 God makes man and woman and it seems Christianity, from a Finally, we read of King David’s intense love of feminist perspective they are equal and blessed before him. In the second Jonathan in very explicit terms. 1 Samuel 18: 1 reads: patriarchal creation story in Genesis, from 2: 18, Adam was created from the Greek and When he had fi nished speaking to Saul, the soul of first, and Eve was created later from one of Adam’s Jonathan was knit to the soul of David and Jonathan Latin ‘pater’, refers to ribs. It is Eve who makes Adam eat of the tree of the power structure of loved him as his own soul. men in a society or in knowledge, which causes them both to be expelled reference to the fathers In 2 Samuel 1: 26, we read King David’s startling from Eden. Eve is thus seen not only as an afterthought of religious traditions confession: by God, but also as a temptress, and the reason for archetype I am distressed for you, my brother Jonathan; very humanity’s expulsion from paradise. Male attitudes a model upon which pleasant have you been to me; your love to me was towards women within the Christian Church are subsequent behaviour wonderful, exceeding the love of a woman. and attitudes framed by this and countless other stories of women as can be based subordinate to men. 156 cambridge studies of religion

Picking up on this second Genesis story, Paul Summary wrote in his first letter to Timothy (2: 11): The Bible was written over many hundreds of years, Let a woman learn in silence with all submissiveness. during which time men were accorded public and I permit no woman to teach or have authority over men; she is to keep silent. community-based leadership roles, whereas women were seen as domestic fi gures and carers of young and he offers his reason as: children, ultimately subordinate to men. Some chapters For Adam was formed first then Eve; and Adam was in the Bible can be seen as misogynistic. Only in the misogynistic not deceived, but woman was and became last hundred years has any claim for the equality of expressing a hatred transgressor. Yet woman will be saved through of woman bearing children, if she continues in faith and love women been seriously considered in the Christian and holiness, with modesty. world. Traditionalists continue to suggest that women As we saw, there is doubt that this letter to Timothy should maintain their subordinate role, while progressive is really by Paul, but it nevertheless refl ects attitudes to Christians reinterpret the Bible in terms of Jesus’ women at the time. A genuine letter by Paul says in 1 message of equality and care for the voiceless. Corinthians 14: 34: ‘Let women stay silent in church’. This is complicated by his pronouncement in Galatians 3: 28: ‘In baptism there is neither man nor woman’. So on one hand women must play a passive role in church, yet exercise 7.3 on the other, within that church gender does not matter. Paul offers a confusing message on the status of women. It 1 Classify the sources of ethics for Christians. is a confusion that movements in feminist theology are 2 Summarise the Bible’s views on homosexuality. trying understand. Those who oppose the ordination of women to ministry often emphasise passages such as 1 3 Examine and evaluate the Corinthians 14: 34, while those who support women’s Christian view of sexual ethics with ordination emphasise passages such as Galatians 3: 28. reference to your own beliefs. Sources activity 7.3 In addition to Genesis and Paul’s comments, in Ecclesiastes it says: 1 Talk to some clergy or members of different And I fi nd more bitter than death the woman, whose churches. What varied attitudes to sexual heart is snares and nets, and her hands as bands: whoso ethics can you discover from their opinions? pleaseth God shall escape from her; but the sinner shall be taken by her. 2 Debate the following topic: ‘There ecclesiastes 7: 26 is no Christian ethic’. One of the most famous doctors of the Catholic 3 If Christians rely on the Bible for Church, Thomas Aquinas, says: sexual ethics, are they doomed to be As regards the individual nature, woman is defective irrelevant to modern society? Discuss and misbegotten, for the active power of the male seed this question in small groups. tends to the production of a perfect likeness in the masculine sex; while the production of a woman comes from defect in the active power. thomas aquinas, summa theologica, q92, art. 1, reply obj. 1 chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 157

Jesus as the Christ or Messiah healing the sick. 158 cambridge studies of religion Significant practices in the lives of adherents

marriage Baptism is one of the sacraments of the church. sacrament Sacraments are religious rites that convey a deeper a religious ceremony that celebrates an Marriage is seen as the refl ection of the relationship meaning or significance. Catholic and Orthodox outward sign of an between Jesus Christ and the Church. Christian marriage churches accept seven sacraments, while Protestant inner spiritual grace has several purposes: churches generally accept only two, baptism and holy • the proper expression of a sexual relationship communion. It is commonly believed that the • mutual companionship sacraments were specifically instituted by Jesus Christ • the good order of society in the formation of and convey a special ‘grace’ or spiritual blessing. a family unit. Baptism is generally seen as a sign of new birth or receiving the Holy Spirit. Marriage services (weddings) involve vows before God in the presence of witnesses. Symbolism is important and is expressed through a range of features including The Italian artist Piero della Francesca (d. 1492) renders the wedding rings and a white dress. Different churches have baptism of Jesus in a form familiar to Medieval Christians. In different rituals and traditions. this work of 1442 ‘The Baptism’, Jesus is anointed with water rather than fully immersed. His disciples watch on, perplexed. saturday/sunday A dove representing the Holy Ghost fl ies over his head worship

Most churches have worship in church on Sundays, with many Catholic churches having Saturday evening services, and the Seventh Day Adventist church holding all worship on Saturdays. Christians have met for worship since the beginning of Christianity and services follow patterns set in those early years. Many services include the sacrament of holy communion. Services generally include an approach to God, the hearing of the ‘word’ (Bible readings and sermons) and a response to the word, in prayer and song. Many churches follow a written liturgy, while others are more informal. baptism

Relating to the Greek word `_/o¡fi (baptein), baptism is a purifying ritual generally involving water. Either by anointing, wetting or full immersion, a person can be cleansed or made pure by baptism, and welcomed into a Christian community by this ritual. Most Christian groups recognise baptism as necessary for the salvation of the soul. But Christian groups remain in dispute as to the exact meaning of the ritual. chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 159

As illustrated in the pictures and in the following table, some churches only baptise infants, others only baptise adults (called ‘believer’s baptism’) and some baptise both. Some pour water, some sprinkle, some immerse the whole person and some will do any of these. This variety refl ects different theological beliefs and different understandings of the meaning of the Greek word `_/o¡fi. Various Christian groups have different ways of explaining baptism. In Catholic, Orthodox and many Protestant groups, infant baptism is seen as the joining of a soul to the community of Jesus, and thus is a stage on the path to salvation. Some other Christian groups see it as a historical practice no longer relevant. The following table illustrates the main differences.

At St Mary’s Cathedral in Sydney, baptism is carried out by anointing the infant with holy water

TABLE 7.3 DIFFERENT CHRISTIAN VIEWS OF BAPTISM

DENOMINATION BELIEFS ABOUT BAPTISE BAPTISM AS TYPE OF METHOD OF BAPTISM INFANTS INITIATION INTO BAPTISM BAPTISM SPIRITUAL LIFE DERIVED FROM: Anglican A sign that affi rms the Yes High Church = Immersion or Matthew 28: 19 forgiveness received by Yes; pouring where Jesus says: a believer through faith Low Church = No ‘Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations’ Baptist A divine ordinance, a No No Immersion only Romans 6: 3–4 symbolic ritual, a sign of having already been saved, but not necessary for salvation

Eastern Orthodox The ‘mystery’ Yes, infants Yes Immersion three Matthew 28: 19 (sacrament) is necessary can also times; sprinkling because it confers receive holy or air baptism regeneration from the communion accepted in consequences of original and emergency sin and forgiveness for chrismation actual transgressions (anointing)

Pentecostal Water baptism is an No Varies Immersion; also Varies ordinance, a symbolic stresses the ritual used to witness to necessity of a having accepted Christ ‘second’ baptism of as personal saviour. They a special outpouring also baptise ‘in the spirit’ of the Holy Spirit 160 cambridge studies of religion

DENOMINATION BELIEFS ABOUT BAPTISE BAPTISM AS TYPE OF METHOD OF BAPTISM INFANTS INITIATION INTO BAPTISM BAPTISM SPIRITUAL LIFE DERIVED FROM: Presbyterian One of two sacraments Yes No Sprinkling, pouring Varies. Linked to with the Lord’s supper. or immersion the Old Testament A seal of the adult covenant of believer’s present faith. circumcision Also a sign of the covenant relationship between the family and God

Quaker Only an external symbol – – Do not believe in – that is no longer baptism by water to be practised Roman Catholic Necessary for the infusion Yes Yes By anointing with Matthew 28: 19 of the sanctifying power water in the West, called grace that starts by immersion one on the path of in the East grace. One of the seven sacraments Seventh Day An affi rmation by the No No Immersion only Adventist believer in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ Uniting Church Affi rms place of believer Yes For children Anointing of Australia within the community baptism shows with water that his/her parents are willing to guide into the Christian life

communion and, ultimately, salvation. For Orthodox CONSIDER faiths, baptism cancels out the automatic state of sin we Celebration of the sacraments is usually considered one of the are born into and provides a rebirth from which salvation signs or marks of the Christian church. Yet neither the Salvation can be attained. Christian groups such as the Society of Army nor the Society of Friends (Quakers) celebrate baptism. Why Friends note that, although Jesus was baptised by John, do they not do so? Are they still churches? What then is the ‘mark of Jesus himself never baptised anyone; therefore, they do the church’? not believe in the practice, for they do not believe they are the followers of John. Baptism can be seen as a rite of passage for an The process of washing or being anointed with water individual, marking their spiritual development. It can is a powerful one. The act of washing helps make one also be seen as a purity ritual that helps defi ne them and more pure. In other monotheistic religions such as Judaism their relation to the group. Moreover, baptism can be seen and Islam, washing rituals are an important way of as a standard by which to assess who is within Christianity reconnecting with God before worship. and who is outside it. Signifi cance for the community Signifi cance for individuals Baptism allows the community to defi ne its membership. For the Catholic Church, baptism is seen as the fi rst step It is a ritual that allows new members to be welcomed. on the path of grace towards salvation. In Anglicanism, it The presentation by parents of their children for baptism allows the individual to access the sacrament of holy is a declaration by those parents that they will guide their chapter 7 christianity depth study (hsc) 161

child into the Christian way of life. The appointment of godparents gives the child a set of spiritual parents who end of chapter will watch over his or her religious growth. Adult baptism summary confi rms a new member’s adhesion to the Christian group and Christian lifestyle. • Paul, formerly Saul, is a leading fi gure in the development of Christianity. Sources • Paul developed a Christianity that The Gospel of Luke, Chapter 3: 16–17, Acts 2: 38 and other was acceptable in his day. parts of the New Testament mention baptism. Some parts such as Mark 7: 3 seem to confuse baptism with washing. • Paul wrote many letters contained Other references include Acts 2: 38–39, Romans 6: 1–11, 1 in the New Testament. Corinthians 12: 13, Colossians 2: 12 and Titus 3: 5–7. See • Hildegard of Bingen was an infl uential also Acts 8: 26–39 and Acts 16: 29–34. woman leader in the Middle Ages. See also Catechism of the Catholic Church, sections 1212–1213. • Hildegard was a visionary, musician, scientist and theologian. exercise 7.4 • Hildegard has been rediscovered by modern society. 1 Write your own brief defi nition • Sexual ethics include issues such as premarital of what a sacrament is. sex, homosexuality and gender roles. 2 Summarise the sacrament of baptism. How • Christianity is generally typifi ed by loving does it express the core beliefs of Christianity? relationships with particular restrictions. 3 Compile a list of changes, if any, to • Christians differ greatly in their views the way baptism is performed today on the acceptability of certain types of as compared with the past. relationships such as homosexuality. activity 7.4 • Baptism, a signifi cant practice, is a sacrament of the Church. 1 In pairs, speak to pastors, ministers or • Baptism is a sign of repentance, priests in two Christian denominations to new life and the Holy Spirit. gain greater insight into how these churches perform the sacrament of baptism. • Churches vary greatly in their understanding and expression of baptism. 2 As a class, debate the following statement: ‘Baptism has no meaning without the Christian community’s presence’. 3 Using the internet, research two or three additional Christian sacraments, such as marriage. Construct a table that details the various points of view on these sacraments as they appear in the Bible. 162 cambridge studies of religion HSC examination-style questions

In the HSC examination, students will be required to answer either a THREE part, 15-mark question, or a ONE part extended essay of 20 marks. That is, EITHER a question from Section II OR a question from Section III. chapter summary section ii questions Question 2 Christianity (15 marks) marks 1 Analyse the impact of Paul or Hildegard on Christianity. a) Describe ONE signifi cant practice in Christianity. The practice described must be one of the following practices: 2 Describe and explain Christian sexual ethics. • baptism • marriage ceremony 3 Analyse the signifi cance of baptism for individual • Saturday/Sunday worship 3 Christians and the Christian community as a whole. b) Analyse the impact of ONE signifi cant individual or school of thought on Christianity. 6

c) Explain the importance of Christian ethical teachings in ONE of the following areas: • bioethics • environmental ethics • sexual ethics 6

section iii

Question 2 Christianity (20 marks)

Analyse the signifi cance of ONE Christian practice on the individual Christian AND the Christian community. The practice discussed must be drawn from the following: • baptism • marriage ceremony • Saturday/Sunday worship chapter 8

Hinduism: The basic facts 164 cambridge studies of religion

The essence of Hinduism is that the path may be different, but the goal is the same. manmohan singh chapter summary Timeline 2700 BCE Evidence of Indus Valley civilisations This chapter discusses: 1900 BCE Sarasvati River dries up – which could provide large movements of people • The origins of Hinduism, with particular reference to the Harappan civilisation, 1500 BCE Evidence of Indo-Europeans could suggest the signifi cance of the Aryans and an invasion of India the debate about their infl uences 800 BCE Oral Vedas are in evidence in Sanskrit, an Indo-European language • The Vedic period and its infl uence 600 BCE Possible Upanishadic period • The signifi cance of the Upanishads 326 BCE The Greek armies of Alexander invade India for the development of Hindusim 100 BCE Mahabharata (which includes the ) is being composed • The concept of sanatana dharma 200s CE Composition of the Laws of Manu • The main features of the two signifi cant 500s CE Beginnings of the Tantric tradition variants, the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas 700s CE Rise of Bhakti poetic tradition, particularly • The belief in the concepts of in the atman and Brahman and the 1206 CE Mughal (i.e. Muslim) sultanate established relationship between the two in Delhi

• The principal gods and goddesses 1518 CE Death of Kabir, a famous north Indian Bhakti poet • The key beliefs of dharma, karma 1556 CE Emperor Akbar takes the throne and moksha and their relationship 1583 CE Death of Sri Caitanya, a Bengali Vaisnava • Union with God through Bhakti leader the four kinds of yoga 1757 CE British establish control of Calcutta; the subsequent development of the British Empire will see • A signifi cant example of Hindus exported to Africa, Australia and South-East Hindu sacred writings Asian British domains where they continue to live and worship as Hindus today • Extracts from some of the Hindu sacred writings that refl ect 1800s CE Philosophers such as Schopenhauer begin incorporating Hindu ideas into their philosophies aspects of Hindu teachings 1878 CE Helena Blavatsky settles in Madras and through • The ethical system of Hinduism, Theosophy spreads Hindu ideas to the West especially as it relates to the 1893 CE The Hindu Vivekananda represents Hinduism concepts of varna and ashramas at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago

• The signifi cance of home puja as 1947 CE India achieves independence from Britain; a Hindu devotional practice Pakistan and East Pakistan (Bangladesh) separate as Muslim homelands. India becomes a full republic in 1950 1992 CE Indian nationalism continues to grow, fuelling a re-invigoration of Hinduism; Hindu militants destroy a mosque in Ayodhya chapter 8 hinduism – the basic facts 165

introduction

‘Hindusim’ is the name given to the major religious tradition of India. It differs from the other major religious traditions of the HSC in that there is no single person who can be identifi ed as its founder. Its origins lie in the distant past, having begun over fi ve thousand years ago. Hinduism is not a single, easily identifi able religious tradition. Rather, it has many infl uences, including animism animism, Vedism and the Bhakti movement, and it is primitive or tribal evidenced in many varied expressions, ranging from religion; the belief that spirits inhabit Brahmin-led Vedism, to the almost monotheistic Tamil all objects and have Shaiva Siddhanta, to the Balinese Hinduism of infl uence on people Indonesia. and natural events The great bath at Mohenjo Daro Vedism INVESTIGATE the early religious system of India that For students who want to learn more about Hinduism, access the The Indo-European Aryans (circa 1500 BCE) developed into Hinduism Cambridge Studies of Religion website. The second theory of how Hinduism developed in India Bhakti movement is linked to the idea of a major invasion. Until recently, devotional movement in Hinduism many European scholars speculated that around 1500 the early inhabitants BCE groups of Indo-European people called Aryans Aryans an early European people of the indus valley invaded India from the north. There is little concrete who are thought to have evidence that supports this theory. A number of invaded India several There are two general views as to how India and its circumstantial factors are used to explain it. The theory thousand years ago religions developed. suggests that either in Central Asia, Russia, eastern The fi rst suggests that local inhabitants developed Europe or even Scandinavia, a large group of warrior- cultures in India many thousands of years ago and India nomads who herded cattle and had developed war-chariot developed from these civilisations. Ruins discovered technology (making them very powerful) expanded during the twentieth century have demonstrated outwards from their original homeland. Those who went evidence for the age of these civilisations. west became Europeans, and others invaded India from The Harappan civilisation (circa 2700 BCE) the north, bringing their language with them. The main support for this theory is the fact that most European Excavations in 1926 unearthed large ancient cities along languages are related to Sanskrit, an ancient language of Sanskrit the Indus valley. The two signifi cant towns in this area Hindu scripture. ancient sacred were Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. They were about fi ve Some recent Western and Indian scholars have language of India hundred kilometres apart but seemed to have much in proposed an alternative theory to the idea of Indo- common. These towns go back to at least 2700 BCE, but European invasion, bringing support to the idea that are probably much older. India simply developed without being invaded. They The ruins reveal towns that were very well suggest that the Aryans were in India all along and the planned. Many clay tablets have been found with Indo-European homeland was actually northern India. writing on them, but this language, unfortunately, is The clearest evidence of this is that India’s third great yet to be deciphered. One remarkable religious site at river, the Sarasvati (which fl owed between the Indus and Mohenjo Daro is a vast bath three metres deep, designed the Ganges), dried up in 1900 BCE, according to recent to be fed by a well and with a drain. Was this used to satellite evidence. With this river gone, civilisations along wash people? Or could it be a link with early agriculture its bank needed to move. So the Aryans left India and (there are cattle motifs carved into the walls)? It is hard spread towards Europe, taking their language with them. to say because not much is known about these sites yet. It became the source of most European languages. 166 cambridge studies of religion

Danish This language tree ENGLISH Swedish Icelandic demonstrates that Norwegian Russian Middle English Polish English, and many Anglo Saxon Bulgarian other European Czech languages, trace High German WEST EAST themselves back to an SLAVIC Indo-European source Dutch and to languages Afrikaans German NORTH GERMANIC Anglo-Frisian Lithuanian closely connected Latvian to those spoken in India today Gothic (Osrogoths, BALTIC WEST GERMANIC EAST GERMANIC French Visigoths) Italian GERMANIC Spanish Portuguese BALTIC-SLAVIC Hindu Persian Romanian LATIN Urdu Rhaeto-Romantic Sanskrit Kurdish Afghan

Hittite Albanian INDIAN Umbarian ITALIC TOCHARIAN Welsh Armenian IRANIAN Cornish Gaelic Breton CELTIC Manx INDO-ARYAN KENTUM SATEM Greek

Attic GREEK Darian *INDO-EUROPEAN

The Vedic period (from circa 1000 BCE) An important part of this tradition is the existence of some very old texts called Vedas. They were written Vedas There are a number of challenges with the study of the earliest sacred in Sanskrit and there is a great debate as to when. Less Hinduism. writings of Hinduism certain theories suggest that the oldest go back to 4000 • Hinduism is not a unifi ed system of belief. Instead, it BCE. More general thinking places them about 800 is a collection of vastly different religious practices BCE or earlier. that non-Indians label as one single tradition. We know that the Rig Veda (sometimes spelled Rg • Hinduism is not simply a religion that involves Veda) is the oldest of the four main texts because it is worshipping – it is a complete way of living and seeing mentioned in the most ancient texts. The other Vedas the world. Some Hindus, for example, recognise their are called: Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda. cultural heritage as Hindu, but do not believe in the These texts comprise many styles of writing, but religious aspects of Hinduism. • A few centuries ago, there was no such concept as the oldest are prayers chanted during sacrifice rituals. ‘Hinduism’. People born in India might have been The earliest parts of the Rig Veda contain 1028 hymns. Traces of these hymns are repeated in the Sama and described as belonging to particular groups (now varna called varnas). People might have said they were Yajur Vedas. Each Veda also contains an explanatory the concept commonly Brahmin (the priestly group) or Kashatriya (warrior or or philosophical text called the Upanishad, but these known as ‘caste’; the commentaries were certainly added later; they will be four varna form the ruling group) but not said that they were Hindu. basis of Hindu society • The word ‘Hindu’ was created to identify people in discussed below. The Atharva Veda tends to break the pattern. samsara India who were not Muslim, Buddhist or Christian, the cycle of rebirth, that is, people who followed the traditional systems of Instead of containing prayers that relate to rituals and or reincarnation sacrifice, it contains remedies to ward off evil, for life in India. These systems are often based on ideas of karma samsara (reincarnation) and karma. ‘Hindu’ was example, incantations for good health. Some argue the effects of one’s used by the Muslim rulers of India to describe non- that this means it is not Aryan. If this is the case, then actions on life, good it may be evidence that Indian religions were eager or bad; the natural Muslims. Later the word proved useful to the British, consequences of who needed a term to identify the people who lived in from an early period to mix religious practices from actions the areas they began conquering. different traditions. chapter 8 hinduism – the basic facts 167

Vedic period transforms into rise of cities, may also have contributed to this move. Upanishadic period (circa 1000 BCE) India’s 330 000 gods (some estimate 33 million!) were still worshipped in all their variety but, as will be seen Scholars assume that the Vedas were texts used by below, a number of families (or systems) of gods grew in priests. This is how they are used today, particularly popularity, namely, the manifestations of Vishnu and when offerings are made to gods and priests make family of Shiva. arati sacrifi ces to fi re (arati). Ritual sacrifi ce involves the This time of religious turmoil was followed by a a Hindu fi re ritual, burning of goods such as ghee (clarifi ed butter) in a sacred waving the fl ame before thousand-year period of constant religious development fi re. Sacrifi ce is performed to guarantee that the world the images of the gods known as Hinduism’s classical period, from about 500 maintains its order. The Vedas are considered by priests BCE to 500 CE. om to contain both an eternal truth and an eternal sound. the sound with which creation began; The sound ‘om’ which starts most of the prayers is said to the symbol for Hinduism be the original sound of the cosmos. sanatana dharma and a common expression for a mantra Sanatana dharma means ‘everlasting religion or truth or rule’. It is often used by Hindus to refer to their religion. It Vishnu the supreme god is a very open term that encompasses all that is traditional for Vaishnavas, and about Indian religion, including ethics, law and varna. a manifestation of The debate about what is traditional, however, is Brahman in other traditions of Hinduism controversial and ongoing. Sanatana dharma may even be considered a philosophical interpretation of the religion, rather than its expression. Indians link concepts such as reincarnation, karma, the practice of yoga to attain a connection with God, and the sacredness of cows, which are all inextricable from sanatana dharma.

The word/sound ‘om’ has become a recognised symbol of Hinduism exercise 8.1

The Upanishads are believed to have developed 1 Describe the major events in the from 1000 BCE. They address the relationship between development of Hinduism. Brahman (God, or ultimate reality) and atman Brahman 2 Account for the changes that Hinduism concept of the ultimate (individual souls – see Principal beliefs section below), god, sometimes called experienced as it developed over the and introduce many Hindu concepts. These texts are ‘the great world soul’ centuries into classical Hinduism. more personal in nature. They comment on and develop atman themes found in the Vedic hymns but apply this material 3 Explain sanatana dharma. the Hindu ‘self’, similar to the concept of the to everyday life through a series of philosophical debates. individual soul They form the foundation of Indian philosophical activity 8.1 speculation. The word Upanishad means to ‘sit under a tree or at the foot of a master’. They resemble dialogues 1 Research and prepare to debate the topic: between a teacher and a disciple. It is in these texts that ‘Hinduism is another expression of animism’. there is the fi rst mention of the concept of karma, which 2 Write a paragraph discussing the refers to actions and the punishments and rewards that following statement: ‘The priests used develop from actions. Hinduism to entrench their power’. The rapid expansion of religious life 3 Research Hinduism as it is expressed in The Upanishadic period was marked by a vast increase Australia. Can you identify any diffi culties in religious building activity throughout India. Scholars that Hindus may encounter living a say this indicates a movement of the Vedic religion from Hindu lifestyle in modern Australia? courts and palaces out to the people. Urbanism, or the 168 cambridge studies of religion The two main variants in Hindusim: Vaishnava and Shaiva

Most signifi cant Indian religious practices fall into two Vishnu has come to hold a place in Indian religion as categories. The fi rst comprises those of the followers of important as that of Shiva. He is not linked to a family of the god Vishnu, and the second those of the god Shiva. gods, but is known for his ability to take the form of gods and persons who manifest on earth. There are ten vaishnava devotion manifestations, or avatars, of Vishnu. avatars In the Vedas, Vishnu is a god who separates heaven forms or manifestations – worship of the of the Hindu gods, and earth by making three giant steps across existence. especially Vishnu great god vishnu Later in the Puranas he is a dwarf defeating the demon Puranas Bali by betting him that he can take three steps across a body of Hindu sacred the world. Bali loses the bet after Vishnu makes his writings that mainly three steps, and his evil is destroyed. But, as with Shiva, tell legends about the Hindu gods Vishnu is not a prominent god in these early texts. The Puranas or ‘stories of the ancient past’ are Bali an evil god in Hinduism documents that contain the family histories of certain kings and gods. In these texts there are a range of gods whose importance has increased markedly from the Vedic period. Shiva, Vishnu and Devi (the mother goddess) are the most popular at this stage. Also mentioned regularly are Shiva’s sons, Skanda, a war god (also known as Murugan or Kartikkeya), the elephant- headed Ganesh, and Agni, the god of fi re, who was important for ritual fi re sacrifi ces. In the Vishnu Purana, a text devoted completely to Vishnu (and composed around 400 CE), he is described as the most powerful. Vishnu wakes, becomes the creator god Brahma and creates the universe. He sustains the universe as Vishnu, then changes into Rudra (another name for Shiva) and destroys it. Followers of Shiva (the Shaivas) and Vishnu (the Vaisnavas) both wish to ascribe to their gods ultimate power. In this way Hinduism can be seen as a kind of monotheism monotheism. There may be thousands of gods – but the worship of only one god each of these gods represents an aspect of the one god who, as it were, hides behind thousands of masks. Vishnu is said to manifest in the world when the religious laws of India are being ignored, or some other problem arises. Taking the form of a different god, or human, Vishnu works to set the world back on course, and so he is known as the preserver of the universe. These manifestations are called avatars. Each avatar of Vishnu is linked to a particular story or has a particular use. In the Vishnu Purana ten avatars are listed. Image of the God Vishnu’s incarnation as a wild boar chapter 8 hinduism – the basic facts 169

1 Matsya (the Fish) – In the Matsya Purana Vishnu, in shaiva devotion fi sh form, saves the fi rst man (Manu) from a great fl ood. – worship of 2 Kurma (the Tortoise) – As Kurma the Tortoise, Vishnu the god shiva supports a mountain being used as a stick by the gods to churn the Milk Ocean, producing all the things of the world. 3 Varaha (the Boar) – Vishnu rescues the Earth from the depths of the Cosmic Ocean. 4 Narashima (the lion-man) – Vishnu destroys a horrible demon. 5 Vamana (the Dwarf) – Vishnu wins the world back from the demon, Bali. 6 Parasurama (Rama with an axe) – Vishnu comes to destroy those of the warrior group (Kshatriyas) who challenge the authority of the priestly group (Brahmins). 7 Ramachandra (or Rama) – the hero king of the Great Epic, the Ramayana. 8 Krishna – the most popular form of Vishnu, the hero of the Bhagavad Gita. 9 Buddha – the founder of Buddhism, incorporated into Hinduism. 10 Kalki – a white horse that will come at the end of this cosmos to destroy the wicked. The most famous avatar is Vishnu’s manifestation as the god Krishna. Krishna is a being of high importance in India’s greatest and most spiritual poem, the Shiva is understood as the Lord of the dance Mahabharata (see Sacred texts and writings on page 174 (Nataraja). As he dances, all things, including those and following). The scene in which he appears is called that seem solid and stable, dance with him the Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord). This scene is a dialogue between Krishna and the hero, Arjuna. The INVESTIGATE Bhagavad Gita is often published separately and read The illustration of the statue of Shiva as Nataraja (Lord of the widely as India’s major sacred writing. dance) is highly symbolic and says much about Shiva. Investigate Shiva Nataraja on the internet, and identify and explain the features that are evident in this depiction of Shiva. 170 cambridge studies of religion

Shiva is not just a single god, but a deity intimately Shiva is known as the destroyer and regenerator of the connected to a whole family of gods. Shiva has become universe. Many Indians believe the cosmos is created, immensely important as a local deity and a universal deity. sustained and destroyed on a regular basis. The Indian concept of time is cyclical, and ends can only ever lead to • Firstly, he is a god of ascetic ideals. ascetic new beginnings. To show the power of certain gods in this • Secondly, Shiva represents the ideal of the perfect someone who practises process, a trinity of gods who create, maintain and then severe self-discipline family man. His relationship with his wife Sakti (or destroy the cosmos have ultimate power over the world. and possibly retires Parvati) is the ideal marriage for many Indians. He is into solitude in order Shiva is part of this trinity of gods or trimurti. The third eye the creative force in the relationship, while she is the to achieve this of Shiva, set in the middle of his forehead, is the source of his force that carries out his will. trimurti destructive power. This eye is rarely pictured as being open; • Thirdly, Shiva is a deity who has conquered desire; the three Hindu gods, when it does open, the universe can come to an end. yet in some tales he takes on a very erotic form and Brahma, Vishnu and The followers of Shiva suggest that Shiva has Shiva, who make up the seduces women with his sexual powers, which are Hindu godhead, Brahman mastered all three of these powers and is the ultimate both male and female. Shiva is often expressed in expression of the Hindu trimurti. The followers of Vishnu androgynous an androgynous form, and also in a very potent say the same of their god. refl ecting both male and sexual form. female characteristics; These paradoxes allow Shiva to be seen as either a mix of, or neither, masculine and feminine unique, combining many attributes of other deities exercise 8.2 under the Shiva name. He is represented pictorially in a number of ways. 1 Describe some differences between the Hindu variants. 1 He is seen as the Lord of yoga and pictured in a state of meditation, removed from the world high in the 2 Identify and explain the avatars of Vishnu. Himalayas. The River Ganges is depicted fl owing 3 Distinguish the various persons who are the through his hair as the goddess Ganga. family members of Shiva. 2 He is depicted as a family man with his wife Parvati and his sons Skanda and Ganesha. The sacred bull Nandi is also depicted as Shiva’s vehicle. activity 8.2 3 He is portrayed as Shiva Nataraja – Lord of the dance, 1 Visit a . Identify the Hindu eternally dancing. This image demonstrates both his variant that is evident and describe boundless energy and the constantly moving energy how it caters for all Hindus. of the universe. 4 Shiva is also seen in the form of a lingam. The lingam 2 Research and describe the main features lingam phallic symbol – a phallic stone set in a vagina-like dish (the yoni) – is of devotion to Vishnu and Shiva. associated with a very old form of representation and is used by priests Shiva in Hinduism 3 Prepare a ten-minute talk about the importance as a site for sacrifi ce. of the god Brahma and his signifi cance in Hinduism today. chapter 8 hinduism – the basic facts 171 Principal beliefs

atman and brahman Probably the most popular god in India is Shiva’s son Ganesha (or Ganesh). Ganesha is the god of openings and Atman is a word used to refer to the self, sometimes good beginnings. When going to a temple to pray, one identifi ed as the ‘individual soul’, whereas Brahman is the should fi rst seek out the shrine to this elephant-headed concept of the ultimate god, sometimes called ‘the great god. There is a special way of getting his attention, which world soul’. The Upanishads attempt to explain the includes knocking your temples with your knuckles and relationship between these two. From these ideas, several pulling your ears. It is believed that this makes Ganesha schools of philosophical discourse in classical Hinduism laugh. Ganesha is asked by the individual, or by a priest developed. Each deals in some way with the relation of on behalf of the individual, for help in speaking with the atman (the self) and Brahman (the highest reality). The other gods, or in beginning a particular project. The main theme of most schools is that, if people can reduce annual Ganesha festival in Sydney is the best-attended of the interference in their lives from the earthly world, the year. Followers of Shiva and Vishnu are equally eager then they can operate like gods. to praise Ganesha. While atman refers to the individual and Brahman refers to the supreme deity, the ultimate aim of every Kali Hindu is to unite atman with Brahman, to achieve the moksha state of moksha. In essence, atman is the real individual, release from the cycle of made up of the results of many previous existences rebirth; reunifi cation of the atman with Brahman (reincarnation), on the way to becoming an integral part of the world soul, Brahman. gods and goddesses

INVESTIGATE There are numerous websites relating to Hindu gods and goddesses. Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and investigate some of the major gods and goddesses of Hinduism.

However many gods there may be, Hindus consider them manifestations of the one god or ultimate reality. Some of the major gods have been mentioned above, and some of the other important deities follow. Ganesha

The fi erce Hindu goddess Kali

Kali is the goddess of destruction and the wife of Shiva. Born from the mother goddess Durga during a battle with evil forces, Kali represents Durga’s fearsome aspect. She entered the battle that created her and started destroying everything in sight, until Shiva threw himself at her feet to stop her. Despite this terrifying image, worshippers have a close bond with her, like children with a protective mother. She seems to have become popular through the Devi Mahatmya, which was written in the fi fth century CE. Kali as Shiva’s wife is also identifi ed as Devi, the ultimate expression of the goddess. The god Ganesha (or Ganesh) 172 cambridge studies of religion

dharma, karma eternal, leaves the body after death, karma determines its rebirth. A life of charity, invoking the gods and thinking and moksha good thoughts will help a soul achieve a better life. In this Dharma system, humans who behave badly, exhibiting their animal natures, can be reborn as animals after they die. Dharma was a doctrine of ‘duty’ fi rst promoted by the dharma state and high-caste family groups. Later it became Moksha the right way of living, righteousness central to ethics in India. ‘Duty’ is one way of translating Moksha can be translated as ‘release’ from the cycle of this word, but there is no exact equivalent in English. samsara (reincarnation). Moksha is one of the spiritual Some other words that have been used to translate goals of Hindus. It is, however, generally limited to men of dharma include: the priestly class. This makes moksha important in terms of both social structure and sexual politics. Moksha is the 1 religion privilege of the priestly caste, and also demonstrates that 2 justice women are below men in the hierarchy. Most traditional 3 law Hindus would agree that a Brahmin women needs to be 4 ethics reborn as a man before her soul can achieve moksha. 5 religious merit The standard way of achieving moksha is through 6 principle the process of sannyasi. This is a process of renunciation 7 right. predominantly carried out by men. Firstly one must fulfi l sannyasi All of these are correct in some way, but none all the duties of life; for men this includes getting married one who renounces capture the complete meaning of the word dharma. It and having a family. Once the family has grown up, and if life and dedicates also refers to the ‘right order’ of ritual sacrifi ce. A sacrifi ce themselves to strictly there is enough money to support the family, the man can spiritual pursuits must be carried out in exactly the right way. Similarly, if make the decision to become a sannyasin. That means he people live exactly as they should, then everything has gives up his home, family and property and withdraws been done correctly and order in life has been preserved. from society. Many sannyasi go to live in temples or One Indian philosopher, Jaimini, said that dharma is forests, or wander the roads seeking charity. Having declared in the Vedas to be an obligation, that is, a ritual walked away from the main diffi culties of life, sannyasi action (karma). Not to follow the Vedas in this regard try to completely control their thoughts and lives. They would be adharma (not dharma). Bad karma would strive to achieve spiritual ecstasy. In this contemplative adharma accrue, as adharma leads to retribution from the cosmos. the opposite of state, Hindus can realise their potential for linking their dharma: all that is As far as the Vedas are concerned, ritual action produces self (atman) with God (Brahman). bad, wrong, wicked ‘good’, while the absence of ritual action produces ‘bad’. The idea of following dharma and accruing good karma developed into a universal idea. union with god Karma through yoga Karma is, fi rstly, the good that results from ritual action, Yoga is a variety of physical practices, an attitude and a yoga world view that facilitates a closer understanding with any of various systems from doing the correct things in the right circumstances. of discipline in the Secondly, it is a way of paying back the believer for their God (ultimate reality) or the realisation that one is a part Hindu philosophical actions. Good for good actions, bad for bad. A life of God. Again, yoga has become familiar through the system concerned with infl uence of New Age spiritualities. achieving union of the accumulates either good or bad in this way. One’s rebirth mind and body with is altered, either from a good life to a better rebirth, or Karma yoga the universal spirit from a bad life to a worse rebirth. For Hindus, being born into higher castes (varnas) brings them closer to moksha. This form of yoga is the practice of following your fate. In In Hinduism this release from the cycle of rebirth is only India, each person is born into a specifi c level of society available to those of the highest spiritual attainment on (one of four varnas, see below). Rulers and warriors, earth – that is, men in the priestly caste. priests, merchants and labourers all belong to certain The Upanishads suggest that correct sacrifi ces to the political, religious and economic levels. For each level, gods should be rewarded. Bad behaviour should be there is an implied way of life. Thus, someone born into punished. In India, this system is almost an automatic the priestly caste should not turn their mind away from function of the cosmos – rather than a system of justice religion, just as someone from the warrior caste should be administered by gods. When the soul, which is considered willing to fi ght in battle. chapter 8 hinduism – the basic facts 173

Bhakti yoga Jnana yoga ‘Bhakti’ means blissful devotion to God. This yoga This yoga practice concerns itself with the seeking of involves the emotional practice of maintaining a loving knowledge about the self and the cosmos. A series of and devoted personal relationship with God. Bhakti yoga mental practices enable the soul to more readily connect practices are known in the West through the practices of with God. To achieve this, there are four main the Hare Krishnas, a Bhakti group in Hinduism. Their characteristics of Jnana yoga: singing, dancing and chanting the name of Krishna on • Viveka – the ability to say what is and what is not real the streets of Western cities is a manifestation of the love and eternal. This ability allows practitioners to they feel for Krishna. It is a love that they wish to share by distinguish what is eternal and how to better connect taking their devotion to the street. Glorifying Krishna in with that in their lives. this way is one part of a nine-part process for connecting • Vairagya – the ability to detach oneself from the unreal lovingly with God. and temporary world. Dispassion for the material world is seen as a major step towards rising above the minutiae • hearing about the Lord of life and turning the mind towards cosmic issues. • glorifying the Lord • Shad-sampat – the practising of six virtues. These • remembering the Lord include control of the mind, control of the senses, • serving the Lord renunciation of all activities not directly connected to • worshipping the Lord one’s karma or fate, endurance, faith and focus. • offering prayers to the Lord • Mumukshutva – a powerful desire to escape the • pleasing the Lord mundane world and avoid things which are not • building a friendship with the Lord sacred issues. • surrendering everything to the Lord. It is common for Hindus to follow several of these Raja yoga paths of yoga, particularly the fi rst three paths. Jnana yoga is followed by those wishing to study Hinduism at a Raja yoga, meaning ‘royal’ or ‘classical’ yoga, focuses on deeper level, because of its intellectual demands. dhyana the expansion of the mind through meditation (dhyana), one method of yoga which creates a connection between the individual and expressed in meditation reality. From a foundation of good physical and psychological health, one can further understand the exercise 8.3 depths of consciousness and existence through this form 1 List the major Hindu gods and goddesses. of yoga. Ultimately, one seeks to understand one’s relationship with God. Raja yoga believes that the body 2 Write one sentence for each, defi ning and its needs must be brought into unity with the will of the following concepts: dharma, the mind. Many physical practices, such as Hatha yoga, karma, moksha, samsara. are connected to this practice. 3 Describe the four kinds of yoga. activity 8.3

1 Construct a table to identify the main Hindu gods, their qualities, relationships, areas of interest and other relevant information. 2 Construct a mind map to show the relationship between the key Hindu beliefs. 3 Research the four kinds of yoga and discuss the practice and importance of each in the life of a modern Hindu. 174 cambridge studies of religion Sacred texts and writings

There are hundreds of writings that are considered the bhagavad gita sacred texts in Hinduism. These include writings in Sanskrit, the sacred language of Hinduism, but also The most important section of the Mahabharata is called many texts in regional languages, notably Tamil. the Bhagavad Gita (Song of the lord). This part of the Epic Hindu sacred writings are generally divided occurs near the end, and takes the form of a discussion into two main categories. The sruti writings are between Arjuna, one of the heroes of the poem, and the the ‘revealed’ writings and include the Vedas and god Krishna. The dramatic tension is high; one of the Upanishads. The smrti (‘remembered’) writings great battles of the story is about to take place. Arjuna include the Epics (Ramayana, Mahabharata and drives his chariot into the battlefi eld to take a close look at Bhagavad Gita) and other later writings such as the the enemy. This is essentially a family dispute, and dharmashastras. Some of the major texts will be Arjuna can see his uncles, teachers and childhood friends discussed here. on the other side. He realises he will probably kill many of them and this idea disturbs him greatly. He sits down the vedas and in the middle of the battlefi eld, renouncing all action. His chariot driver, however, is Krishna in disguise, and a the upanishads great debate takes place between them just before the battle begins. The importance of the ancient ritual texts of the Vedas The message Krishna imparts to Arjuna is that he has already been discussed on page 166. These are the was born of the warrior caste (Kshatriya varna) so it is his foundational sacred texts of Hinduism. The more personal nature, his duty, to fi ght. If he does not fulfi l this duty, he commentaries and philosophical discussions of the is doomed to a life of bad karma and a poor rebirth. It is a Upanishads have also been discussed. part of dharma that he must do what he is ordained, by As classical Hinduism developed from 500 BCE to his birth, to do. In this the Bhagavad Gita reaffi rms the 500 CE, a range of even more popular works was conservative message that, if everyone lives according to developed. These are often called the Epics, and the their nature, as determined by their birth, then their major epic works are the Mahabharata (including the spiritual rewards will be great. Krishna also assures Bhagavad Gita) and the Ramayana. Arjuna that death is nothing to fear. Death is part of a great cycle of rebirth (samsara). the mahabharata These two messages on the nature of Hindu thought, in this small scene from a great epic, have become the The Mahabharata is a work whose ancestry goes back to most famous religious text in India. The Mahabharata is at least 700 BCE. Between 100 BCE and 100 CE it was the sacred work that brings mythological events into a edited into its fi nal version. This work is one of the great historical context. The Bhagavad Gita is also a popular epics of literature. It is a verse poem of over 200 000 devotional text for Hindus, and would be the most couplets, the longest poem ever written. It is the story of familiar of all the Hindu sacred writings. two warrior families, and their fi ght for control of a kingdom. Along the way the gods, spirits and demons of the ramayana India take part in the action. There are many conversations between characters concerning the nature This great Epic tells the story of a prince, Rama, whose of life and religious duty. wife Sita is abducted by the demon king of Lanka, Stories from the Mahabharata are played out by Ravana. This Epic appeared at the end of the classical acting troupes all over India and South-East Asia as a period of Indian religion and was written between 500 form of education, particularly for those who cannot BCE and 100 BCE. This makes it contemporary to the read. A wealthy family whose child is getting married, Mahabharata. Like that text, it is understood as history, for example, will sponsor a troupe of actors to play out but it is predominantly a great tale of loyalty and bravery. these scenes and invite the whole village. Again like the Mahabharata, it contains the teachings of The Mahabharata is sometimes spoken of as ancient Hindu wisdom, presenting them in narrative the fi fth Veda. It is a popular text that can be used to form. The hero Rama, his wife and other characters in spread Indian religious thinking to all groups of society, the text are archetypal fi gures popular across India. One whether literate or not. of the favourite modern gods of Hinduism, Hanuman the monkey king, is introduced in the Ramayana as a loyal and devoted friend of Rama. Rama is considered one of the avatars of Vishnu, as discussed earlier. chapter 8 hinduism – the basic facts 175

extracts from The nature and duties associated with varna – see the vedas and epics BG 18:41-45. Also see: Think also of your duty and do not waver. There is that demonstrate no greater good for a warrior than to fi ght in a righteous war. principal beliefs bhagavad gita 2: 31 Vedas Yoga Do your work in the peace of yoga and, free from selfi sh Ego is the biggest enemy of humans. rig veda desires, be not moved in success or failure. Yoga is evenness of mind – a peace that is ever the same. bhagavad gita 2: 49 Comments such as this in the Rig Veda reveal the great theme of the text, which is the relationship of the Moksha self and God (ultimate reality). This is the eternal in man, O Arjuna. Reaching him, all When there is harmony between the mind, heart and delusion is gone. Even in the last hour of his life upon resolution then nothing is impossible. earth, man can reach the nirvana of Brahman – man rig veda can fi nd peace in the peace of his God. bhagavad gita 2: 72 Here the Rig Veda is suggesting that a concerted Devotion and worship effort to bring the body and mind into a single being of desire for God is the most effi cacious path for those He who offers to me with devotion only a leaf, or a fl ower, or a fruit, or even a little water, this I accept seeking religious truth. This theme is underlined in other from that yearning soul, because with a pure heart it Vedas such as the Yajur Veda, for example, was offered with love. bhagavad gita 9: 26 Subtlest of the subtle, greatest of the great, the atman is hidden in the cave of the hearts of all beings. He who, free from all urges, beholds Him overcomes sorrow, seeing by the grace of the Creator, the Lord and His glory. exercise 8.4 yajur veda 1 Identify the important Hindu sacred writings. The Vedas also reveal the ultimate goal for the successful religious adherent: 2 Outline the differences between the sruti and smrti writings In heaven there is no fear at all. Thou, O Death, art not there, nor in that place does the thought of growing old 3 Describe the story of one signifi cant make one tremble. There, free from hunger and from thirst and far from the reach of sorrow, all rejoice and sacred story, such as the Mahabharata, are glad. the Bhagavad Gita or the Ramayana. yajur veda

The Epics activity 8.4 Arjuna and Krishna’s conversation in the Bhagavad Gita 1 Research and discuss the following statement: includes a number of signifi cant verses that relate to ‘The Mahabharata is a story that marks Hindu beliefs. Examples include: the transition from myth to history’. Fulfi lling your dharma 2 Investigate the way one of the Epics is Having spoken thus, on that fi eld of battle, Arjuna sat portrayed in dance, drama, story or some down in the chariot pit, letting go of arrows and bow, other regional form. Interpret the variations his heart anguished with grief … with the traditional sacred text. Then, to Arjuna, who was so overcome with compassion, despairing, his troubled eyes fi lled with 3 Find the sacred texts on the internet, or tears, [Krishna] said – ‘Why has this mood come over in written form, and fi nd extracts which you at this bad time, Arjuna? This cowardice is unseemly to the noble, not leading to Heaven, demonstrate the principal beliefs of Hinduism. dishonourable. Do not act like a eunuch, it does not become you! Rid yourself of this vulgar weakness of heart, stand up, enemy-burner! bhagavad gita 1: 47 to 2: 3 176 cambridge studies of religion Core ethical teachings

There are a number of sources for Hindu ethics such Vanaprastha (retired life; ages 50–74). One begins Ten Commitments as the Hindu sacred writing, the Manusmrti, and what retiring from life, giving up desires for the material, and ten actions that have been developed have been called the Ten Commitments, the most becomes an exemplar for society rather than an active to express Hindu signifi cant of which is the fi rst – ahimsa. Hindu ethics agent. This stage is sometimes called the hermit stage. ethical behaviour closely relate to the lives of Hindus, particularly as they Sannyasi (renounced life – ascetic; ages 75–100). ahimsa live according to the demands of their varna and their One should remove oneself from life completely and be non-violence

stage of life (ashrama). Perhaps the best defi nition of totally dedicated to spiritual pursuits. varnasrama dharma Hindu ethics is varnasrama dharma, which means the These modes of living are laid out for men, and the system of social performance of the required dharma (duty) and mainly relate to the activities and life of the Brahmin life and stages in an individual’s life obligations according to the four varnas and the four caste. The Mahabharata makes some comments on these ashramas of the individual. stages: The person leading the Brahmacharya [student] mode of life should always observe rigid vows and, with the four varnas senses under control, should always pay attention to the instructions he has received. Refl ecting on the Vedas, Hindu society is divided into several castes, or varnas. he should live dutifully and wait upon his preceptor Good ethical behaviour for Hindus is a matter of and always bowing unto him. Unengaged in the six understanding the correct behaviour for each caste, kinds of work (such as offi ciating in the sacrifi ces of others), and never engaged with attachment to any rather than applying universal rules to all of humanity. kind of acts, never showing favour or disfavour to any There are four general caste groupings. The top is one, doing good even unto his enemies, these, O sire, are the duties laid down for a Brahmacharin! the priestly caste, called the Brahmins. Then come the the mahabharata, santi parva, rulers and warriors, called the Kshatriyas, then the section lxii merchants and farmers, called the Vaishyas, and fi nally

the Shudras. This table illustrates some of the teachings The person leading the Grahasthya [householder] about the varnas contained in the Bhagavad Gita, together mode of life should, after studying the Vedas, with some additional information. accomplish all the religious acts laid down for him. He should beget children and enjoy pleasures and comforts. There are also many people who are completely He should be without pride, and his charity should not outside the system of varna. These people are called be confi ned to any one sect. He should also be always dalits, or untouchables. One’s place in society devoted to the performance of the Vedic rites. dalit the mahabharata, santi parva, an ‘untouchable’, an determines one’s ethical behaviour. An obvious section lxi outcast; someone Hindus example is the duty of the members of the Kshatriya believe has no varna caste to involve themselves in battles and the decisions When the householder beholds wrinkles on his body necessary to rule a state. What is most challenging for and grey hair on his head, and children of his children, he should then retire into the forest. The third part of Westerners to accept, and for many in Indian society, is his life (from 50 to 75 years) he should pass in the the traditional lowly status of women in Indian religion. observance of the Vanaprastha mode. Forest recluses Technically, caste is illegal in modern India. may act in these ways for worshipping guests and performing sacrifi ces. They should during the season Ashramas of the rains, expose themselves to water during the autumn. During the summer they should sit in the Just as one’s ethical status and behaviour are determined midst of four fi res with the sun burning overhead. Throughout the year, however, they should be by one’s fated role in life as member of a particular varna, abstemious in diet. They sit and sleep on the bare they can also be determined by the stage of life one is earth. They stand on only their toes. They contend passing through. There are four stages of life, called themselves with the bare earth and with small mats of grass (owning no other furniture for seat or bed). ashramas. These are: the mahabharata, santi parva, Brahmacharya (the life of a student; approximate section ccxliv ages 0–24. For those dedicated to the spiritual life, young people should learn through spiritual masters and Ethics in Hinduism, then, are not doing right and practise celibacy. wrong in relation to a divine commandment, as in the Grihastha (the life of a householder; ages 25–49). Semitic religions. Rather, Hindu ethics are the interactions This is when one fulfi ls one’s duty to society, raises a family between an individual and a signifi cant group – that is, and seeks money. It is the responsibility of the householder members of a particular varna, at a particular stage of to provide for those in the other stages of life. life. Ethics are strongly guided by the concept of dharma, for the generation of good karma. chapter 8 hinduism – the basic facts 177

TABLE 8.1 THE FOUR VARNAS FOR MALES AND FEMALES

ACCORDING TO THE MORE GENERALLY INTERESTING NOTES BHAGAVAD GITA CH 18:41–45 Brahmin ‘Yoked with a pure spirit and Understood as being at the spiritual top – Male subduing himself with fortitude, of the reincarnation system, it is the renouncing the sense objects duty of the Brahmin male to dedicate of sound and discarding love himself to highly religious matters. It and hatred, seeking solitude, is accepted that Brahmin men will, eating lightly, restraining after settling their family with enough speech, body and mind’. money to live on, detach themselves completely from humanity, sit in forests, practise yoga and meditate. Brahmin – Brahmin females are considered to be Until the British stopped the practice, Female one life away from the pinnacle of the many Brahmin women carried reincarnation system. If a Brahmin out the ritual of sati. They threw female dutifully obeys her husband themselves into the fi re of their or, if he dies before her, obeys her husband’s funeral pyre, for it was eldest son, she has the chance to viewed as unseemly for a woman to reincarnate as a Brahmin male. live beyond the life of her husband. Kshatriya ‘Gallantry, energy, fortitude, This caste has long been connected – Male capability, unretreating with the ruling groups of India. Their steadfastness in war, liberality, inability to access complete religious and the exercise of power’. liberation has led to many people from this caste, e.g. the Buddha, to break away from traditional Indian religion. Kshatriya – Again, it is the duty of the female – Female to obey her husband and live up to traditional expectations of society so that she might reincarnate as a male. Vaishya ‘Husbandry, cattle Purusha is understood as ‘the cosmic – Male herding and trade’ man’, that is, a model of Indian society. His head is understood as Brahmin, his arms Kshatriya, and his belly represents the Vaishya caste. Thus, this caste represents all activities that help to feed India. Vaishya – (see above female groups) – Female Shudra ‘… the natural task of The Shudras are the downtrodden Recently, Shudras have been Male the serf is to serve’ servant class of India. They are converting in large numbers understood as close to the bottom to Buddhism and Christianity. of the human reincarnation cycle. As the most disadvantaged Hindus understand that souls can group in India, they have the be reincarnated as Shudra from most to gain by converting. bad karma if they are from the Anti-discrimination in India attempts upper castes, or from animals. to stop injustices directed at Shudras. This is not always effective. Shudra – The lowest group on the human – Female reincarnation cycle. 178 cambridge studies of religion

exercise 8.5 activity 8.5

1 Describe the sources of Hindu ethical teaching. 1 Research the Ten Commitments and write a paragraph on their place in 2 Explain Hindu varna and the the Hindu ethical system. differences between the groups. 2 Construct a table noting your own 3 Describe the importance of ethical explanation of Hindu varna and the teachings in Hindusim. differences between these groups. 3 Debate the following topic: ‘It is too diffi cult for modern people to experience the last two stages of ashrama’.

Thaipusam festival: Preparing the silver chariot chapter 8 hinduism – the basic facts 179 Personal devotion in the home: Puja

puja Puja is any act that shows personal devotion and Whether at home or at the temple, there are 27 worship; rituals may be reverence to a god, a spirit or an aspect of the divine, steps involved in puja: carried out at a public both at home and at a temple. The word puja means ‘to temple or in the home 1 Think of or meditate on the god or goddess honour’. This can be done through chants, prayers, arati 2 Invite the god/goddess into your home/heart songs and rituals that include offerings. The fi re ritual Hindu fi re ritual, waving 3 Offer a seat the fl ame before the (arati) has been an essential part of puja since the 4 Offer water to wash the feet images of the gods earliest days of Hinduism. These rituals lead to a 5 Offer water to wash the hands spiritual connection with the divine dimension of life. 6 Offer water to drink The focus of puja at a temple is the shrine of a specifi c 7 Give a bath deity. However, Hindus will often have a home altar 8 Bathe the head dedicated to one or more gods or goddesses. It is in the 9 Seat the god/goddess home that puja is most commonly expressed. 10 Offer clothes An image or other depiction of a deity is often used 11 Offer the holy thread (part of a as a basis for communication with the god. This depiction Hindu’s initiation into adulthood) is thought to contain the energy of the god. It is not 12 Offer sandalwood paste/powder important for depictions to have great artistic merit, but 13 Offer akshatha (rice) the objects are important as the means by which contact 14 Offer fl owers with the gods can be gained. It is common for Hindus to 15 Say the holy names of the lord have many different images of the gods in their shrines. 16 Offer fragrance 17 Offer light 18 Offer food 19 Offer fruit 20 Offer betel nut and leaves 21 Offer wealth 22 Perform arati (light from wicks soaked in ghee) 23 Continue arati 24 Prostrate before the god or goddess 25 Offer incantations and fl owers 26 Offer prayers and make a request 27 Admit wrongdoings and ask forgiveness Home puja can be an elaborate ritual, or a simple offering and prayers. A common prayer is the Gayatri mantra, a Sanskrit prayer that is considered the ‘essence of the Vedas’. Sanskrit prayers from the Vedas carry power and signifi cance in themselves. The sounds said in these prayers are important and the actual meaning of the words is irrelevant. Home puja is generally conducted at the beginning and end of each day. Most Central to many Indian homes is the home shrine Hindu homes have a room, a corner or a shelf set up as a permanent shrine. Home puja can be used for daily prayers, for certain He who offers to me with devotion only a leaf, or a celebrations during the year, to maintain a relationship fl ower, or a fruit, or even a little water, this I accept with the deity, and to put requests to that deity for health, from that yearning soul, because with a pure heart it was offered with love. wealth and happiness. Prayers said at home, however, do bhagavad gita 9: 26 not have the force of prayers made at temples with Brahmin priests offi ciating. 180 cambridge studies of religion

exercise 8.6

1 Describe the actions of a home puja and explain what each means. 2 Explain why Hindu believers offer ordinary items such as food, fl owers or water to their gods. 3 Discuss the signifi cance of home puja. activity 8.6

1 Research the Gayatri mantra, which is often prayed by Hindus who do not understand its meaning. Is it meaningful to say a prayer you do not understand? Discuss. 2 Visit a Hindu temple, if you can, and watch the actions of the worshippers. See if you can discover what these actions mean and why the people do them. 3 Find a prayer that Hindu worshippers would say in home puja. What is expressed in that prayer?

Offerings in Bali, as end of chapter summary in most Hindu puja, include the simple, daily things of life such • Hinduism is an ancient religious • Brahman (the great world soul) and atman as fruit, fl owers and tradition that is identifi ed with the South (the individual soul) are linked. water carried in a ritual procession Asian region, particularly India. • Key beliefs can be expressed in the statement • There is no known founder of Hinduism. – ‘following dharma to generate good karma to achieve moksha and escape samsara’. • The Harappan and Aryan civilisations infl uenced the development of Hinduism, but there is • Yoga is one way to achieve union with God. debate about the extent of that infl uence. • The sruti sacred texts include the Vedas • Hinduism had its beginnings in and the Upanishads. what is called Vedism. • The smrti sacred texts include the Epics – the • The Vedas and the Upanishads are Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita. important early sacred writings. • Hindu ethics are expressed in the concept • Sanatana dharma is the term that of varnasrama dharma – the duties Hindus use to describe their religious and obligations according to the caste practices – the eternal religion. and life stages of the individual. • Vaishnavas (followers of Vishnu) and • Varna and ashrama are integral to Hindu ethics. Shaivas (followers of Shiva) are the two major variants of Hinduism. • Home puja is the norm for the expression of Hindu devotional life. • There are very many Hindu gods that are worshipped. • Home puja includes both the ordinary things of life and also complex rituals. chapter 8 hinduism – the basic facts 181 End of chapter questions multiple choice questions (10)

1 Which civilisation was most infl uential 6 The Vedas include which important in the development of Hinduism? Hindu sacred writings? a Greek a Upanishads b Roman b The Bhagavad Gita c Aryan c Artha d Khmer d Moksha

2 Another name for ‘the eternal religion’ is: 7 The Epics, such as the Mahabharata, a eternalus religious are among which sacred texts? b sanatana dharma a Sruti c animism b Smrti d pantajali c Samsara d Moksha 3 The ‘supreme world soul’ is known as: a Brahman 8 The correct term for ‘caste’ is: b Brahma a Moksha c Brahmin b Varna d Ganesha c Ashrama d Pantajali 4 The ultimate aim of every Hindu life is to achieve: a Material wealth 9 ‘Ashramas’ refer to: b Happy marriage a Special actions in Hindu puja c Meditation b Sexual morality d Moksha c Samsara d Stages of life 5 One signifi cant process used to try and achieve union with God is: 10 Typical Hindu home puja includes a Sanskrit which of the following aspects: b Yoga a Asceticism and sannyasi c Manusmrti b Yoga, duty and release d Artha c Offerings, prayers, ringing bells and fi re d Telling stories in dance and drama 182 cambridge studies of religion

short answer response to stimulus questions (6) question (1)

1 How has the long history of Hindu and Indian This Balinese dance tells the story of the Ramayana, a culture shaped the expression of Hinduism today? Hindu sacred story that has been adapted to refl ect the interests of the Balinese. How has Hinduism adapted, 2 Explain the differences and similarities and how is it refl ected in the everyday lives of people between Vaishnava and Shaiva Hinduism. across the world, and in particular Australia?

3 ‘Hindu gods – one or many?’ Discuss.

4 How do Hindus use their sacred writings?

5 Explain varna and ashrama and their application to modern life in India and Australia.

6 How do Hindus worship? extended response questions (3)

1 Describe the development of Hinduism, noting the various infl uences that have made it a major world religion today.

2 Explain the principal beliefs of Hinduism, and illustrate your answer with particular reference to the life of an adherent.

3 ‘People deserve to suffer in this life, because of their actions in a previous life’. Discuss this statement with reference to the ethical teachings of Hinduism. chapter 9

Hinduism depth study (HSC) 184 cambridge studies of religion

My religion is based on truth and non-violence. Truth is my god. Non-violence is the means of realising him. mohandas gandhi chapter summary

This chapter discusses:

• Shankara was a signifi cant person • Gandhi has infl uenced the civil rights movement and the peace movement • Shankara became a Hindu mystic, a skilful debater and Hindu apologist • Hindu ethics are linked to the concept of dharma • Shankara developed the concept of advaita • Sexual ethics are linked to the idea that marriage is the normal state for Hindus • Shankara’s teaching and writings infl uence Hinduism today • Pilgrimages are signifi cant rites in the lives of Hindus • Mohandas Gandhi is a significant influential person • Pilgrimages are generally made in the twentieth century to sites associated with gods

• Gandhi opposed British colonisation of • There are many sacred sites India through the doctrine of ahimsa available to Hindus

• Gandhi opposed the idea of • The Kumbha Mela pilgrimage partitioning (separating) India is the largest gatherings of and Pakistan at independence human beings in one place

introduction Students will also need to describe a Hindu ethical teaching in a particular area, either in sexual ethics, In this chapter the lives of two signifi cant persons in bioethical issues or environmental ethics. The HSC will Hinduism will be examined, with other examples also ask students to explain why the issue they have discussed on the Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher chosen is important to Hinduism. This chapter will CD-ROM. The two people discussed are Shankara and discuss sexual ethics, with pointers to the other areas Mohandas Gandhi. In the HSC exam, students will be contained in the Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher asked to explain how a person/idea contributed to the CD-ROM. growth of Hinduism and assess the impact of the idea or A signifi cant practice (ritual, worship etc.) within person on Hinduism itself. To do this effectively, students Hinduism will need to be described, showing fi rstly how will need to know something of the controversies it highlights Hindu beliefs, and secondly how it makes surrounding the person or idea they choose to study. In meaning for Hindus both individually and as a this book only two examples are provided. The Cambridge community. The practice discussed here is pilgrimage. Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM contains most of The other options include marriage and temple puja, the ideas and people listed in the syllabus, as well as the both available on the Cambridge Studies of Religion other ethical areas and practices. Teacher CD-ROM. chapter 9 hinduism depth study (hsc) 185

Mohandas (or Mahatma) Gandhi is one of the best known Hindus The erotic images depicted in Hindu temples suggest in the history of the world, infl uencing many people and ideas a variety of attitudes to Hindu sexual ethics; in reality, many Hindus are very conservative in their sexuality

Hindu devotees throw water to each other during the great Kumbah Mela religious festival (see page 197) 186 cambridge studies of religion Signifi cant people and schools of thought

There are many signifi cant people and schools of thought shankara that have infl uenced Hinduism and brought Hindu infl uences into the world. Of these people, two are (shankaracharya) discussed in this section, Shankara and Mohandas Gandhi, Shankara, also known as Sankara or Shankaracharya, and more information is available on the Cambridge was a Malayalee born in the south of India in the region Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM and website. of Kerala, and probably lived from about 788 to 820 CE. Remember, the syllabus allows for ‘another person or These dates are speculative and he may have lived long school of thought’ to be studied. This can be interpreted before this time. Hindu tradition actually suggests fl exibly and could include people not listed, such as Sarada Shankara lived about 500 BCE. It is thought he was the Devi, or other schools of thought, such as Balinese son of a Brahmin family. He was an important philosopher, Hinduism. Also remember that, as well as discussing the composer, writer and infl uential thinker in the life and contribution of the person or school of thought, development of Hinduism. students will need to analyse their impact on Hinduism. people Shankara’s life It is believed Shankara’s birth was unusual, in Ramanuja (eleventh/twelfth century CE) – Indian that his parents prayed for a son who would be brilliant philosopher and theologian, who popularised the concept living a short life, rather than a mediocre son who would of bhakti. He combined the attributes of God with his live a long life. Shankara’s father died when he was oneness. seven years old and his mother took responsibility for his education, which proceeded at an unusual rate. Madhva (thirteenth/fourteenth century CE) – developed He performed the upanayana (sacred thread) the concept of dvaita (dualism). He instituted signifi cant ceremony when only seven, and by the age of sixteen social reform and his writings are still infl uential. he was a master of theology and philosophy and had Mirabai (Mira Bai) (fi fteenth/sixteenth century CE) – written commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita and the female Hindu mystic and poet, noted for her devotion to Upanishads. Krishna and her contribution to the bhakti movement. Ram Mohan Roy (eighteenth/nineteenth century CE) – A popular depiction of Shankara Indian reformer who was concerned about political and religious reform. He worked with the British to oppose sati. Ramakrishna (nineteenth century CE) – Hindu teacher who emphasised God- realisation, the oneness of existence, the harmony of religions and love and devotion to God. schools of thought

Bhakti movement – a movement within Hinduism that emphasises devotion to a particular deity. Purva Mimamsa – literally, ‘prior enquiry’; a school of philosophy that investigates dharma. It emphasises ritual and has its own body of literature based on the Vedas. Vedanta – a school of philosophy that seeks to understand the real nature of reality. It emphasises the Upanishads. Shaiva Siddhanta – ancient form of monotheistic Hinduism that focuses on Shiva. It is mainly associated with Tamil Hinduism. Balinese Hinduism – the form of Hinduism that has developed on the Indonesian island of Bali; it is a mixture of Buddhism and a unique form of Hinduism. chapter 9 hinduism depth study (hsc) 187

Shankara wrote commentaries on many of the Shankara’s belief is called advaita. He said there is Hindu sacred writings and was important in re- one reality, Brahman, and atman is the same as Brahman. establishing reverence for Hinduism in his time. Little is Even today Shankara’s teachings infl uence the modern known about his life, but Shankara’s early life has also expression of Hinduism, suggesting these concepts: been credited with a number of miracles. • the self is not separate, but part of the whole sannyasin At a young age, Shankara became a sannyasin. He • there is one being, the ‘Brahman-atman reality’ Hindu ascetic and mystic went to Varanasi, the holy city on the Ganges, where he • Brahman is everything taught, wrote and gathered disciples. He also journeyed • nothing can exist apart from Brahman to the source of the Ganges in the Himalayan foothills, • Brahman is real, the world is unreal where he wrote his famous commentary on the Brahma • the individual soul is Brahman itself and is not other Sutra. Shankara’s writings are considered to be among than Brahman. the best ever written and are still used today. He began a journey throughout India, proclaiming Shankara’s teaching is considered to be Pantheism monism his ideas and debating others, including Buddhists and (or monism). He said that striving for the contemplation the view that Jains as well as other Hindu scholars. His debate with of the higher level of this understanding, through yoga, is everything (including religion) is one; there Mandana Misra (or Visvarupa) and his wife, Bharati central to Hindu belief. are no divisions (considered an incarnation of Saraswati), is legendary and resulted in them both becoming disciples of Shankara. To INVESTIGATE win the debate with Bharati, he purportedly entered the Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and follow the body of a dying king and experienced the art of love after link to Shankara’s commentaries. Kama Sutra Bharati challenged Shankara to debate the Kama Sutra. an ancient Sanskrit text As a sannyasin he had renounced physical pleasure, so to giving instruction on Shankara’s writings are still infl uential. It has been experience the act of sexual love he had to assume the the art of lovemaking said of him, ‘For learning, logic and metaphysics, go to form of another person. Shankara’s commentaries; for gaining practical After the death of his mother, Shankara fulfi lled his knowledge, which unfolds and strengthens devotion, go promise to perform her funeral rites under extreme to his other works’. Shankara wrote many original works diffi culty and opposition from the Brahmins of his in verse which have been described as ‘matchless in hometown. Shankara then returned to the ashram at sweetness, melody and thought’. Sringeri, living there for twelve years. The disciples of Shankara is considered an intellectual genius, a Shankara included Vidyaranya, a noted commentator on profound philosopher, a matchless preacher, a gifted poet the Vedas. and a great religious reformer. His infl uence lives on in Shankara visited Kashmir, and is said to have Hinduism some 1300 (or more) years after his time. ascended the throne of all knowledge there. He then travelled to Mt Kailash, the legendary home of Shiva, and Contribution to the development was purportedly never seen again. He was then aged and expression of Hinduism about 32. Shankara has been infl uential in Hindu thought, as advaita Shankara’s impact on Hinduism stated. His teachings and writings are noteworthy. He literally, ‘not two’, was infl uential in drawing together the different schools A skilful debater, Shankara won many encounters with an expression of and expressions of Hinduism that were developing in Vedanta Hinduism philosophers of other schools of thought within Hinduism India. He also contributed to the revival of Hinduism and and also other religious traditions. He founded many Vedanta the study of the Vedas. Some Hindus suggest that the highest teaching temples and the four mathas (monasteries). Shankara Shankara is a manifestation (avatar) of the god Shiva. of the Vedas (veda established the Order of Dasanami Sannyasi to spread means ‘knowledge’), the ancient Sanskrit his philosophy of advaita. The concept of advaita is Analysing Shankara’s impact scriptures of India considered to be an expression of Vedanta Hinduism. Shankara’s infl uence lingers in modern Hinduism in his writings, his philosophy of advaita and his infl uence on the revival of Hinduism. He established four mathas (monasteries) that are still sources of Hindu wisdom. His doctrine of advaita is considered one of the key teachings of modern Hinduism and an expression of pure Vedism. 188 cambridge studies of religion

exercise 9.1

1 Outline the life of Shankara. 2 Explain the signifi cant theological insight Shankara developed. 3 Analyse the impact of Shankara on Hinduism today. activity 9.1

1 Construct an annotated timeline of Shankara’s life, noting the signifi cant events of his life and his contributions to Hinduism. 2 Debate the following topic: ‘Modern Hinduism does not need to depend on the writings of a man such as Shankara who lived a long time ago.’ 3 Research the impact of Shankara on modern India and discuss the way he has become part of Hindu tradition.

This statue of Mohandas Gandhi is in Glebe Park, in Canberra; it was sculpted by Ran V Sutar and erected in 2002. mohandas gandhi It lists the seven social sins described by Gandhi on the base

Mohandas Gandhi was one of the most signifi cant people In 1891, Gandhi went to South Africa to practise of the past hundred years. law and stayed for twenty-one years. He was appalled at Gandhi infl uenced the India of his day and the the discrimination shown to the Indian (coloured) leaders of the late twentieth century, and serves as an population, often called coolies. In 1913, he negotiated coolie inspiration to many people across the world. improved conditions for Indian workers. He refused to an unskilled labourer, usually Asian register as an alien, spending time in jail for this, and Gandhi’s life urged others to burn their registration cards as an act of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi) civil disobedience. Gandhi was convinced that the lived from 1869 to 1948 CE. He was one of the most satyagraha was the strongest power in the world, and he satyagraha influential figures in twentieth-century India, with an gave up sex, meat, alcohol, tobacco, threats, violence and ‘soul force’ or ‘truth force’, interpreted by influence that has extended throughout the world. coercion in order to strengthen its power. Gandhi as non- Mohandas Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869 In 1915, Gandhi returned to India and became violent resistance in Porbander, in the state now known as Gujarat. His involved in politics. He became President of the Indian father was the prime minister to the local ruler in the National Congress Party and urged non-violence, non- native state of Rajkot, where Mohandas received his cooperation and strikes aimed at the British colonial sect schooling. He was brought up as a member of a strict government. He advocated prayer and fasting and a subgroup of a religious tradition, usually Hindu sect that espoused ahimsa and vegetarianism. became a recognisable character because of his clothing. emphasising a particular Married at 13 to Kasturba, he left his family to Gandhi wore a loincloth, shawl, cheap watch and sandals. aspect that makes it study law in London in 1888 and was admitted to the He wove the material himself from Indian cotton, in different to other groups of the same tradition bar in 1891. While in London, Mohandas met groups protest against demands that India import cloth from of people disenchanted with industrialism and was England. He was actively involved in civil disobedience, ahimsa non-violence attracted to the texts of the major world religions, often resulting in time in jail. In 1930, he led a ‘salt march’ including the Christian New Testament and his own to collect salt, in protest against the government monopoly. Hindu Bhagavad Gita. While some 60 000 people were jailed, the protest march was successful and the salt law was relaxed. chapter 9 hinduism depth study (hsc) 189

Gandhi was invited to London in 1931 to participate in a conference to negotiate terms for CONSIDER Indian independence, talks called largely because of Was Mohandas Gandhi really a Hindu? Gandhi was greatly his growing influence. Gandhi worked hard to preserve infl uenced by his Jain mentor, Muslim ideas and the Christian New Hindu–Muslim relations and in 1932 began his ‘epic Testament. Some would argue he was not a true Hindu. Yet fast unto death’ to try and avoid divisions in India. Hinduism seems to incorporate other religious ideas quite easily. While he experienced many short-term victories, often See what you can discover about Gandhi’s religious beliefs. at great cost to himself, he ultimately lost the struggle against the partitioning of British India into Muslim While not generally considered a great Hindu and Hindu states. philosopher, some of Gandhi’s influences and ideas Gandhi was particularly concerned with the plight have wide acceptance, and his influence has earned of the untouchables in India and fought to improve their him the right to be considered someone who has made harijans lot, often against his fellow Indians. He coined the name a significant contribution to Hinduism and its ‘children of God’, harijans and applied this to the untouchables. this term applies to expression in the twentieth century. Some areas of his the untouchables In 1946, Gandhi was again involved in negotiating for influence include: Indian independence. He opposed the idea of partition • ahimsa and satyagraha (separating India and Pakistan) and the violence that came • fasting and ascetic practices, although he criticised with independence. When violence broke out between the sannyasi who withdrew from society Hindus and Muslims, Gandhi nursed those who had been • advaitism, for he believed in unity between God and wounded in the fi ghting in Noakhali and Calcutta, where the universe fi ghting stopped largely due to his efforts. When • opposition to the caste system and support for independence was declared on 15 August 1947, Gandhi untouchables, whom he called harijans was still working to care for the suffering, but was declared • being open to other faiths and seeking cooperation to be ‘the father of the nation’ by the new government. between them On 30 January 1948, at the age of 79, Mahatma • opposition to sectarian violence Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu extremist, • reformation Hinduism from within itself; for instance, Nathuram Godse, while on his way to prayers. he advocated the remarriage of Hindu widows who INVESTIGATE were shunned by society. The 1982 Richard Attenborough movie Gandhi, starring Ben Kingsley, Gandhi advocated the spinning wheel as a national is very true to life and highly recommended viewing for students. It is symbol for India. It suggested a simple, self-suffi cient, an excellent portrayal of Gandhi’s life and the impact he had on his non-industrial life by which people could supply their world. Gandhi deservedly won eight Oscars in 1982. Another movie own needs and earn a little extra money. It typifi ed the that may be of interest is the 2005 Hindi-language fi lm Maine Gandhi man – it was both practical and idealistic. Many people, Ko Hahin Mara (I did not kill Gandhi), which is not about Gandhi but Hindu and non-Hindu, have been challenged by his about the effect he has on modern life in a particular context. belief in non-violent protest and his urging of a more simple lifestyle. While Mahatma Gandhi is admired around the world, since his death Hinduism has become Contribution to the development more militant and nationalistic, exactly the path Gandhi and expression of Hinduism tried to avoid. mahatma Mahatma Gandhi was infl uenced by the Bhagavad Gita, Mahatma is a title of great respect and was given a title given to people of with its emphasis on the spiritual life and non-possession to Mohandas Gandhi by Rabindranath Tagore, one of outstanding character and spirituality, of the material, the Upanishads and especially the India’s best known writers. The title has endured and meaning ‘great soul’ Ramayana, Rama being his personal deity. He was also he is generally known today as Mahatma Gandhi. infl uenced by Jesus Christ’s Sermon on the Mount from the New Testament, and a number of contemporary authors such as Leo Tolstoy and John Ruskin. 190 cambridge studies of religion

Gandhi’s impact on the world Gandhi is particularly well known because of his work promoting peace. (A discussion of his impact on the peace movement is contained in Chapter 15.) Gandhi was one of the strongest opponents of British colonialism, and his ideas and passive resistance led not only to the independence of India, but infl uenced the initiatives of many countries that were seeking independence. His teachings on non-violence have also infl uenced the ideas of many other great people, including Albert Einstein, Martin Luther King Jr, the Dalai Lama, John Lennon, Nelson Mandela, Aung San Suu Kyi and Al Gore. In 1925, Gandhi developed his infl uential concept of the Seven Social Sins, which he believed were the basis for injustice in the world. They are: 1 Politics without principle 2 Wealth without work 3 Pleasure without conscience 4 Knowledge without character 5 Commerce without morality 6 Science without humanity 7 Worship without sacrifi ce. Mahatma Gandhi Signifi cant quotes attributed to Gandhi include: • An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind. • You must be the change you want to see in the world. • Whatever you do will be insignifi cant, but it is very exercise 9.2 important that you do it. • I object to violence because, when it appears to do 1 Describe one incident in the life of Mohandas good, the good is only temporary; the evil it does is Gandhi that you consider to be signifi cant. permanent. 2 Explain the central concepts in the • Strength does not come from physical capacity; it teachings of Mohandas Gandhi. comes from an indomitable will. • A religion that takes no account of practical affairs and 3 Analyse Mohandas Gandhi’s does not help to solve them is no religion. infl uence on modern Hinduism. • I am prepared to die, but there is no cause for which I am prepared to kill. activity 9.2 • My religion is based on truth and non-violence. Truth is my god. Non-violence is the means of realising him. 1 Investigate one of the other people mentioned • Those who say religion has nothing to do with politics in the text. Write a paragraph about how do not know what religion is. Gandhi has infl uenced their life. There can be little doubt that Mahatma Gandhi has 2 Construct a timeline of Gandhi’s had a great infl uence on the thinking of many people over life, noting the key events and the the past hundred years. However, it is debatable how significance of those events. infl uential he has been on Hinduism itself. Some suggest Jain that Gandhi should be considered Jain, rather than 3 Read a section of Gandhi’s writings follower of Jainism, a non-theistic religion Hindu. The current rise of Indian nationalism and Hindu and analyse the impact it might have founded in India in extremism seems to contradict Gandhi’s teachings. on the Hinduism of today. the fi fth century BCE However, there are still a signifi cant number of people by Jina Mahavira who respect his ideals in India. chapter 9 hinduism depth study (hsc) 191 Ethics

The ethical system of Hinduism has been discussed in environmental the previous chapter. In the HSC course, some specifi c issues including bioethics, environmental ethics and ethics sexual ethics are considered. In the following pages, Hindus have great reverence for the environment, as sexual ethics will be discussed, while the other areas are Brahman has entered into every object created. The Earth discussed further on the Cambridge Studies of Religion is personifi ed as the goddess Bhumi. Teacher CD-ROM. Life on Earth includes plants, animals and Because Hinduism links the created world and the birds as well as human beings. Water is respected in gods, it is not surprising that there is a strong the Hindu sacred writings, and the Ganges river is environmental emphasis in Hinduism. Hinduism sees considered a goddess. Vegetarianism is an expression of nature as an extension of God; the physical cosmos is a environmental concern. crystallisation of the mind of God. This is represented by rta the Hindu concept of rta. the divine pattern in Hinduism links the personal ethic of human sexual ethics nature, the universal presence that governs conduct with the kindness or cruelty of nature. Hinduism Kama is one of the four aims of life in Hinduism. Kama nature, human ethics, is not simply a matter of religious belief, but a life pattern essentially means ‘enjoying the pleasures of life’ and conduct and justice that is the fabric of existence for a Hindu. refers to, among other things, sexuality. In this way The Rig Veda states, ‘Think of wealth and strive to Hinduism acknowledges the importance of sexuality and win it by rta and puja’. One of the Upanishads states, in the need for sexual ethics. However, there is considerable answer to a king’s question about the state of his kingdom, restriction on the expression of that sexuality. homosexual sex ‘In my kingdom there is no thief, no miser, no drunkard, In Hindu society, marriage is the focus of sexual sex between people no man without an altar in his home, no ignorant person, of the same gender expression. Homosexuality is generally not acceptable no adulterer or adulteress’. To this king, and to Hinduism, and, while referred to in Dharmashastras, is seen as a ethics include educational, religious and civil as well as temporary state to be remedied by marriage. Most moral aspects. Hindus would also expect heterosexuality to be expressed Ethics begin with the householder, whose duties within the confi nes of marriage. include the teaching and example of ethical living. The Sexual expression does not receive a great deal of counsel of the Vedas has been collected into what is called major attention in the writings and practices of the Five Constant Duties. These duties, together with the Hinduism, despite the images of sexual practices demands of varna, the Ten Commitments and other engraved in some temples and the reputation of works aspects of practical Hindu living, are all part of such as the Kama Sutra. maintaining the ethical behaviour of the sanatana In recent times, there has been a revival of interest dharma. The primary ethic is often considered to be in Tantric Hinduism with a supposed emphasis on ahimsa, from which many ethical implications fl ow. spiritual sex. Most practitioners of Tantric Hinduism Ethics in Hinduism mean honouring, respecting and are in fact very austere, and the popular view, seemingly serving others. Below, the application of Hinduism to supported by erotic statues and carvings and the Kama sexual ethics will be discussed in greater detail. Sutra, is generally a misunderstanding of Hindu practices. This is similar to the way early Christians bioethics were accused of cannibalism, because many misunderstood their belief in the symbolism of the Pragmatism is signifi cant for Hindu bioethics. The cycle service of holy communion and thought it involved a of samsara should not be interfered with. ‘Duty’ rather literal eating of the body and blood of Christ. than ‘rights’ is a signifi cant concept for Hindu bioethics. Tantric Hinduism does not cater for lust in the guise Health implies balance, rather than simply the absence of of spirituality, but recognises that sexual ecstasy is an illness. Children are important in Hinduism and this aspect of divine bliss, a step in spiritual evolution. infl uences the notions of abortion and reproductive technology. A dignifi ed death is important for Hindus, and so euthanasia and forms of suicide have been acceptable in Hinduism. 192 cambridge studies of religion

Marriage Dowries are a normal part of the arrangement in dowry India, but for Hindus in Australia this is less often the goods or money Marriage is regarded as the norm for Hindus unless one that a wife, or her case. Usually a priest is consulted to ensure the marriage family, brings to her wishes to become an ascetic, withdrawing from society partners are suitable and horoscopes are used. Modern husband in marriage to follow a god through strict self-discipline. Marriage Hindus are more fl exible in their approach to marriage, ascetic has three main purposes: with less emphasis on caste restrictions and greater someone who practises • the promotion of religion involvement of the future husband or bride in their choice severe self-discipline and possibly retires • the bringing of children into the world of marriage partner. into solitude in order • the expression of sexual pleasure. to achieve this How ethics concerning premarital sex Marriage is regarded as a permanent state that are analysed by adherents cannot be dissolved. It was generally delayed until Premarital sex is not approved of in Hindu society and is completion of the fi rst stage of ashrama (bhramacharya, rarely spoken about. Extramarital sex is also discouraged, or the student stage). The life of a brahmacharyan should and husbands and wives are expected to be faithful to be chaste, so premarital sex is discouraged. Hindu sacred their partners. Where expressions of sexuality other than writings support the idea that sex should be expressed the accepted ones occur, this is considered a private within the context of marriage. A good wife is a matter and rarely discussed. This is evident in the pathivratha. The extended family is considered a vital extreme view often presented in Bollywood movies where pathivratha unit in society, and Hindus are urged to do their duty, a wife who is chaste and a man and woman are not allowed to kiss on screen unless relevant to their stage of life and varna. Within the family faithful to her husband they are portraying a married couple. there are strict religious duties to be followed by each In recent times, as Hindus have become more member. These include the continuance of the family exposed to the pressures of Western thinking and name by having sons. globalisation, the Hindu taboos on human sexuality are Marriage is regarded as a samskara, an important samskara breaking down. There is new recognition of the role of step in the life journey and a refl ection of the divine. The a series of rituals that religion in repressing sexual expression, and greater serve as rites of passage gods of Hinduism marry, so it is regarded as a special willingness to discuss issues of sexuality. But traditional and mark the various privilege for human beings to marry and refl ect divine stages of human life taboos are strong and Hindus norms are often maintained. relationships. In Hindu law, marriage is considered a and signify entry to a particular ashrama lifelong union and divorce is discouraged. While divorce CONSIDER is now legal in the common law of India, it is still uncommon in Hindu society and often results in some There are many Hindu temples that display very explicit, erotic social stigma. Chastity is regarded as faithfulness to the carvings. Why is this the case, when sexual expression otherwise marriage partner, not celibacy. Polygamy is no longer seems so limited in Hinduism? How do sexual ethics relate to other polygamy common, but was common in the Hindu scriptures. It can aspects of Hindu sexual expression, such as those revealed in the having more than one spouse at one time be allowed, in some circumstances, where there are no Kama Sutra and Tantric Hinduism? children from the fi rst wife. It was usual for a marriage to be based on factors such as astrological interpretation, issues related to varna, Homosexuality family backgrounds and the arrangements made by Homosexuality and lesbianism naturally exist in Hindu parents. This generally led to what are called ‘arranged society, but are generally regarded as socially marriages’. It was uncommon for young Hindus to unacceptable. There are clear condemnations of enter a marriage based on mutual love, but it was also homosexuality in the Hindu texts and in Hindu theology, generally uncommon that young people were forced largely because it undermines the importance of having into a marriage against their will. In the past, children. The generally accepted ‘cure’ for homosexuality particularly among Brahmins, when the husband died in Hinduism is heterosexual marriage. sati (or ‘suttee’) was practised, where the widow threw However, there is some ambivalence towards sati herself onto her husband’s funeral pyre. Sati is no longer homosexuality. Hindu sacred texts (the tritiya-prakrti) past practice where a widow threw herself legal or widely practised in India. refer to a third gender, which is often considered and onto her husband’s Marriage is still frequently arranged in Hindu expressed in the idea of a transgender identity. There are funeral pyre society, although this is changing among India’s large many transgender Hindu people, who wish to express jati educated middle class. Usually the couple are both this idea in their dress and lifestyle. term used to describe members of the same sub-caste (jati) and the same varna, communities in India and inter-caste marriages are rare. chapter 9 hinduism depth study (hsc) 193

The Manusmrti text describes punishments for gender roles and homosexual practices, but also for heterosexual misconduct, and refers (in chapter 3:49) to the existence discrimination of the third gender. The Kama Sutra also refers to There is also some ambivalence towards the issue of homosexual practices, generally in a negative way, and gender roles in Hinduism. There are obvious expressions the third gender. that suggest a clear demarcation between genders and There are organisations such as the Gay and patriarchal values, such as the dowry system of Hindu Lesbian Vaishnava Association who consider the current marriage and the practice of sati. resistance to homosexuality a form of homophobia In Hinduism, however, there is a long tradition of imposed by British colonialism, and believe that strict female deities, goddesses. Some of the most popular gods differentiation between male and female is not consistent are female, such as Devi, Laksmi, Parvati and Kali. It is with the writings and traditions of Hinduism. signifi cant that Brahma has been almost eclipsed by his An Indian hijra, consort, Saraswati. The Gayatri Mantra, one of the most or transexual, leads signifi cant prayers in Hinduism, has been personifi ed as a protest march of sex workers the goddess, Gayatri. In some Hindu traditions, male deities even offer worship to female ones: Shiva and Indra offer worship to the goddess, Durga.

FURTHERMORE The Skekhar Kapur movie The Bandit Queen (1994 – rated R) discusses the rights of women, especially lower-caste women, in India. It is based on the true story of Phoolan Devi and graphically portrays the violence of her life in both her own treatment and her treatment of others. Phoolan Devi became the fi rst untouchable to enter parliament, and she opposed the making of this fi lm. Phoolan Devi was assassinated in 2001.

One of the earliest references to the status of women is contained in the Rig Veda, where a wife addresses a group as commander (RV 10.85.26). In other writings, such as the Manusmrti, women are granted rights to own property and to inherit wealth independently. Women are depicted as gurus and have the right to graduate from the Vedic schools. There is a famous description of Shankara’s debate with the woman, Bharati. And, according to the Bhagavad Purana, the Mahabharata was How ethics concerning homosexuality written specifi cally for women and for men who were not are analysed by adherents Brahmins (see BP 1.4.25). In modern Indian and Hindu society, homosexuality is However, in practice women have considerable generally considered unacceptable. It is the responsibility diffi culty in being treated as equals in Hindu society. of Hindus to marry and have children. However, there Marriage is seen as a patriarchal institution and this has is considerable debate below the surface. This draws been perpetuated by the concept of dowry. However, as from a long tradition of Hindu sacred writings and many have noted, this concept does not exist in Hindu understanding of the gods and goddesses of Hinduism. sacred writings, and in fact the sacred texts clearly There is also the concept of the ‘third gender’ which is suggest that the husband is meant to ensure the wife has variously interpreted to refer to homosexuality or independent wealth. It is also noted in many texts that a transgenderism. Transgender people and homosexuals woman is free to choose her husband and there is to be no have long been part of Hindu society, and they have exchange of dowry. Similarly, there are few references to argued that condemnation of homosexuality is a Western sati in the sacred texts. Rather, many of the great women imposition on a society and religious tradition that of the writings are widows. accept the expression of differing sexuality. 194 cambridge studies of religion

Divorce is also allowed in the sacred writings, if How gender roles and discrimination the husband is unable to father children or has become are analysed by adherents an ascetic. Widows can also remarry. There are a number of women who might not be considered ‘pure’ Some suggest Hindu society has recently become a but are praised in the writings. One of the most patriarchal society largely through British infl uence, rather signifi cant is Kunti from the Mahabharata, who had a than Hindu infl uences. However, it is clear in the concept child out of wedlock, and then became a queen loved of varna that Hindu men, particularly higher-caste men, and respected by all. When the king died, she did not do have a position of superiority within their religion. See have to commit sati. the comments under varna in the previous chapter. It is also important to note that many Hindu Modern Hinduism is largely presented in a teachers, saints and gurus are female, some of the most masculine form, with the role of women not recognised or signifi cant being: given as much credit as the sacred texts suggest is appropriate. There may be many reasons for this, ranging • Mira Bai (1503–1573) – poet and mystic who has from the emphasis given to sons over daughters in infl uenced the Bhakti movement perpetuating the system of varna, to the impact of • Sarada Devi (1853–1920) – wife and successor to British colonialism. While women are clearly active in Ramakrishna Indian political and religious life, Hinduism is • Amma (Mata Amritanandamayi, born 1953) – called generally male-dominated. the hugging saint/guru. There is a call in modern feminist Hinduism to reject the infl uences of the West and return to Hindu roots, where women are considered spiritually powerful and, according to the tantra traditions, are ‘friends’ rather than in a subservient position. Certainly, Hinduism is a religious tradition that raised the status of the feminine in many examples of the goddess. In modern Hinduism, that traditional status is drastically reduced. Nowadays Hinduism is seeking more appropriate expressions of gender, ones that reflect its origins and central beliefs, as it seeks contemporary expression. exercise 9.3

1 Interpret Hindu attitudes to premarital and extramarital sex. 2 Discuss Hindu attitudes to homosexuality. 3 Outline Hindu attitudes to gender issues. activity 9.3

1 Debate the topic: ‘Hindus have little Amma hugging one of her devotees interest in ethical behaviour, as their state in life is the result of previous lives’. INVESTIGATE 2 Construct a table indicating the differing Amma (Mata Amritanandamayi) has devoted her life to giving hugs attitudes to sexual ethics evident in Hinduism. to people as her special blessing. She has visited Australia several 3 Talk to a young Australian Hindu about times, most recently in 2006. Access the Cambridge Studies of what Hindu sexual ethics mean to them, Religion website and follow the links to websites devoted to her and or research articles on this subject. Prepare her work. Should she be considered a saint? What is the meaning a ten-minute talk about your fi ndings. of her hugging people? chapter 9 hinduism depth study (hsc) 195 Signifi cant practices in the lives of adherents: Pilgrimage

Hinduism is an elaborate religious tradition where the pilgrimage followers, or adherents, express their faith through a variety of rites and rituals. These include regular personal Pilgrimage is journey with a particular purpose, a rites of passage devotion, public worship and what are called rites of religious journey so that people can worship at particular ceremonies that mark places associated with their religious tradition. Pilgrimage the stages of life that passage. Many of these events are public expressions of people pass through faith, and some are personal. Study of one of three is a signifi cant rite in Hindu life. Hindus are expected to practices is required for the HSC: undertake a pilgrimage at least once a year, and many sannyasi are involved in lifelong, daily pilgrimage. Hindu • Marriage is one of the rites of passage that is writings refer to the practice of pilgrimage; the Rig Veda expressed in most religious traditions, but with praises the ‘wanderer’ and the Mahabharata and Puranas some unique features in Hinduism. speak of the signifi cance of particular sites. Pilgrimage • Pilgrimage is a practice that all Hindus are expected usually involves travel to a particular sacred site for the to complete once a year, and there are many sites darsan purpose of darsan. Darsan means to look at an image of a to be in the presence available with an accompanying festival. Some are god and allow the god to see oneself. Thus a pilgrimage is of a deity major and most signifi cant, others of lesser often made to a place where the image of a particular importance. deity is located. Pilgrims also seek the darsan of signifi cant • Puja, or worship, can be a private act, but also has places that are linked with the gods, for example, the a public face. Temple worship is the HSC option, Ganges river. to build on the concept of home puja in the In Hinduism, places of pilgrimage include natural Preliminary year. sites, such as rivers, crossings, mountains and other adherent Adherent, in this context, is a specifi c term, as not geographical locations associated with the stories of the person who supports gods. The Sanskrit and Hindi word for ‘pilgrimage’ is or gives allegiance to all supporters of a religious tradition are necessarily a religious tradition believers. It is used to describe all who claim a link to that tirtha, which means a river ford or crossing place. It religious tradition at a variety of levels of commitment. carries the connotation of transition, from one element to another, or metaphorically from a particular state or marriage trouble, or from one life to another (or to moksha). Places of pilgrimage also have temples containing images of the murti Marriage marks entry into the ‘householder’ stage of the gods (called murti). Some of these places are particularly an image in which the ashramas. It is a spiritual, as well as a physical, exercise. signifi cant, although there are literally thousands of divine spirit is shown Marriage is generally within the same varna, often pilgrimage sites associated with Hinduism. Many Hindu arranged, and involves consultation with an astrologer. writings, especially the smrti writings (the Puranas and Weddings are elaborate affairs with highly symbolised especially the Sthala Purana), talk about the importance rituals. Marriage is considered a permanent arrangement, of sites and their sanctity. and divorce is rare. Hindu pilgrims often dress lightly and travel fast and barefoot, particularly in India. By suffering discomfort they seek awareness of others who suffer, forgetting their temple worship (puja) usual comfort and gaining good karma. Pilgrimages also puja Temple puja is essentially an extension of home puja. bring Hindus together. This can create a sense of unity worship; rituals may be Temples are links between religion and culture. and community, and can also be a time of learning and carried out at a public renewal, particularly at the feet of great gurus. Some temple or in the home Australian temples are cultural community centres. Hindu temples (mandirs) are stylised buildings that sadhus and sannyasin are considered to be a means of sadhu represent significant aspects of Hinduism. Temple experiencing darsan because of their learning or saintly an ascetic solely lives. They occupy life between the world of illusion and devoted to achieving worship involves prayers, devotion to images of the liberation (moksha) gods and the recitation of texts, often Vedic texts. the world of reality. Essentially, they have achieved through meditation Worship often includes circumambulation, offerings, moksha and have thus become deities. Pilgrimage offers fire and chanting. the opportunity to pass on to others Hindu practices, debates and perspectives. 196 cambridge studies of religion

FURTHERMORE Type the words ‘Hindu pilgrimage’ into a search engine on the internet, and the fi rst few pages of results will be travel websites that arrange pilgrimages. Has pilgrimage become a commercial venture? When on pilgrimage, people give money to gurus and ascetics along the way. Has this also become a way of cheating people of their money? What can you discover about these practices?

Most Hindu pilgrimage sites are in India. Some sites are regarded as signifi cant for specifi c pilgrimages, as are particular times. Some of these are now discussed. Sacred sites Hinduism has many sacred sites that are the focus of pilgrimages. In India there are thousands of sites, but some are particularly signifi cant. In most other religious traditions, sacred sites tend to be associated with the founders of the tradition. This is not the case in Hinduism. Most sites are associated with the gods or signifi cant teachers. The most sacred site is the Ganges river. It is believed that the Ganges used to fl ow in the heavens, but was brought to Earth in response to the prayers of a holy man. Because of the great power of the Ganges, the god Shiva had to let the river fl ow through his hair to stop its impact from destroying the Earth. This is evident in the depictions of Shiva Nataraja where Shiva is represented as the Lord of the dance. The city of Varanasi (formerly Benares) is a particularly sacred place. It is one of the oldest inhabited towns in the world and sits on the banks of the Ganges. It is dedicated to Shiva, who is believed to have lived in Varanasi. Hindus believe that bathing in the Ganges will lead to purifi cation of the soul, especially in one of the holy cities such as Varanasi. It is also believed that if someone dies in Varanasi, this will result in their release from the cycle of rebirth (moksha). Other signifi cant places of pilgrimage include Allahabad (formerly Prayaga) where the Ganges, the Yamuna and the invisible Sarasvati rivers all meet. The Kumbha Mela festival is celebrated there every twelve years.

Three scenes of Varanasi (Benares), one of India’s most holy cities, where pilgrims bathe in the river Ganges chapter 9 hinduism depth study (hsc) 197

Another signifi cant sacred site is Mt Kailas, just north of the border with Tibet. Mt Kailas is supposed to Kumbha Mela be the home of Shiva and Parvati, and its shape is said to The festival of Kumbha Mela is celebrated four times remind Hindus of a lingam. Nearby is the cave at the every twelve years and is one of the most signifi cant pilgrimage site of Amarnath. The cave contains ice festivals to be held at a place of pilgrimage. Kumbha formations that resemble some Hindu gods, including a Mela is celebrated about every three years at one of Shiva lingam, Ganesha, Parvati and other gods associated four cities, Hardwar, Ujjain, Nasik and Allahabad. with Shiva. It is a particularly inaccessible site and so is About 70 million people attended the festival at seen as especially venerable, increasing pilgrims’ chance Allahabad in 2001. The Allahabad festival, every of moksha. twelve years, is considered the Great Kumbha Mela. Kanchipuram is an especially sacred site in the The 2001 festival was the largest recorded gathering of southern state of Tamil Nadu, with Shiva temples the people in human history, and Kumbha Mela is probably focus of pilgrimage. Kanchipuram is a centre for Tamil the oldest continuing religious festival in the world. learning. Huge tent cities are erected to accommodate the Pushkar in western India has three Brahma pilgrims, and the festival is attended by many sadhus temples, some of the few built to worship that particular and gurus, who are generally reclusive but make god. Each temple is built around a holy pool of water said themselves available to people at this time of great to have sprung up from places where Brahma threw learning. It is noteworthy that Kumbha Mela provides fl owers. There is one particular day each year when the opportunity for leaders of different Hindu sects to Brahma is to be worshipped. gather in an environment of mutual understanding The cities of Mathura and Vrindivan in western for the sharing of ideas. Activities include religious India are associated with events in the life of Krishna and discussions and debates (some affecting the are visited by millions of Krishna devotees each year. standardisation of ideas), devotional singing and mass Almost every city and town in India has a shrine or feeding of holy men and women and the poor. Medical temple to a resident deity, so there are countless places of support and other services are also offered, pilgrimage available to the Hindu. The desire to visit a particularly to the poor. particular place depends on the variant of Hinduism Many Hindus consider Kumbha Mela sites the followed, the particular circumstances of the devotee and most favourable places to die. There have been the opportunity available. The elephant god, Ganesha, is reports of ritual suicides at the festival, and certainly the example for pilgrims, as he circumnavigated the the large crowds have meant that many are crushed world on a pilgrimage while studying Hindu scriptures. and killed at each festival. While India has many pilgrimage sites, there are The origins of Kumbha Mela are shrouded in also signifi cant sites for Hindus in other regions, such as mystery and legend. The Puranas tell of the churning the Sri Siva Sabraminya Swami Temple in Nadi, Fiji, and of the oceans and the fact that four drops of the amrita some of the temples in Indonesia such as Temple Besakih amrita (the nectar of immortality) fell from the pot the special drink of in Bali or Prambanan in Java. Many ancient Buddhist (kumbha) and created the four cities. the gods, the nectar temples are also regarded as Hindu places of pilgrimage, The churning took twelve days (human years) of immortality such as Borobodur in Java. Angkor Wat in Cambodia was and thus a pilgrimage (mela) is made to each of these kumbha dedicated to Vishnu and built incorporating Hindu time cities every twelve years. The festival date is fixed a pot that is symbolic measurements and in alignment with particular stars of the womb astronomically and the conjunction of particular and planets at certain times of the year, an expression of stars, planets and constellations determine auspicious the emphasis on astrology in Hinduism. events. There are records from China of the festival from the eighth century CE. The Hindu teacher INVESTIGATE Shankara stressed the importance of meeting with Search the internet for Hindu pilgrimage sites. How many can you Hindu saints at Kumbha Mela and it became popular. discover? Write down some of the main sites and describe why they Learning from the sadhus and bathing in the Ganges might be signifi cant for Hindus. What pattern emerges? remain the two main events of Kumbha Mela. 198 cambridge studies of religion

The major event that takes place at Kumbha end of chapter Mela is a ritual bathing at a particular time, new- moon day (Amabasya), as determined by astrological summary calculation. It is believed that people are then cleansed of their evil karma up until that day. The • Shankara was an infl uential Hindu scholar most recent festival was held at Allahabad in 2007. who developed the concept of advaita The city of Allahabad is particularly significant, • Shankara was a skilful debater and author being the junction of the three major Hindu rivers, of signifi cant commentaries the Ganges, the Yamuna and the Sarasvati. The • Shankara’s work is used today by Hindu scholars Sarasvati is a ‘spiritual’ river that is not visible to the human eye. Bathing at the conjunction of the three • Gandhi popularised his doctrines rivers (known as sangam) has the effect of increasing of ahimsa and satyagraha the purification of the bather one hundred times. • Gandhi sought to gain Indian Bathing during Kumbha Mela increases it one independence through non-violence thousand times. When the bathing begins, the nagas (naked • Gandhi has infl uenced many people outside holy men) bathe first, followed by the other gurus, Hinduism through his approach to human rights sadhus and sannyasi, then the other pilgrims. Many • Pleasure is one of the aims of life for Hindus pilgrims then return home, while others stay to hear the teachers, shop at the markets, watch the dances • Hinduism has a long tradition of sexual and dramas performed by various players, or look at expression in art and spirituality the elaborate displays constructed for the event. • Hindus generally have a conservative approach Kumbha Mela has become a huge logistical to sexual ethics within the confi nes of marriage effort for the Indian government, but it is primarily a pilgrimage described by many as the greatest spiritual • Hinduism is ambivalent to homosexuality festival ever held. in theory, but conservative in practice • Despite the prominence of women as goddesses and in tradition, Hindu women have exercise 9.4 generally had to fi ght to achieve equality • Pilgrimage is a central expression 1 Defi ne ‘pilgrimage’. of Hindu practice 2 Outline the beliefs of Hinduism that • There are many sites that cater are discovered during a pilgrimage. for Hindu pilgrims 3 Describe how pilgrimage is signifi cant for the • Kumbha Mela , a signifi cant Hindu individual Hindu and the Hindu community. pilgrimage, is the largest gathering activity 9.4 of human beings in the world.

1 Ask an Australian Hindu about pilgrimage. Discuss where they go on pilgrimage and why. 2 Prepare a graphic presentation highlighting the events and signifi cance of a Hindu pilgrimage. 3 Imagine you are a Hindu going to Kumbha Mela. Write a diary of the experience and explain why it is a spiritual as well as a physical journey. chapter 9 hinduism depth study (hsc) 199 HSC examination-style questions

In the HSC examination, students will be required to answer either a THREE part, 15-mark question, or a ONE part extended essay of 20 marks. That is, EITHER a question from Section II OR a question from Section III. section ii

Question 3 Hinduism (15 marks) marks a) Describe Hindu ethical teachings in ONE of the following areas: • bioethics • environmental ethics • sexual ethics. 3 b) Analyse the impact of ONE signifi cant individual or school of thought, other than the Vedas, on Hinduism. 6 c) Analyse the importance of ONE signifi cant practice in Hinduism. The practice described must be one of the following practices: • marriage • pilgrimage • temple puja 6 section iii

Question 3 Hinduism (20 marks)

Describe and evaluate the contribution of ONE signifi cant person or school of thought, other than the Vedas, to Hinduism. chapter 10

Islam: The basic facts 202 cambridge studies of religion

I have what counts most: faith that He is the One; and I am proudly His servant. hibba abugideiri, ‘the geography of religion’, national geographic, p. 373. chapter summary Timeline 570 CE Birth of Muhammad ibn Abdullah This chapter discusses: 555(?)–circa 619 CE Life of Kadisha (Khadija) Bint Khuwaylid – Muhammad’s fi rst wife and the fi rst woman • The nature of the society and the religious to convert to Islam practices of the Arabian peninsula before the Prophet Muhammad 622 CE Prophet Muhammad leaves Mecca for Medina. This is called the Hijra and is the point from which • Examine the outstanding events in the Islamic years are reckoned life of the Prophet and consider why he 613–660s CE Life of A’isha Bint Abu Bakr – the Prophet’s is the model for a good Muslim life favourite wife 614–632 CE Life of Fatima Al Zahra – the daughter • Look at the rapid development of Islam of Muhammad during and after the life of the Prophet 632 CE Death of the Prophet Muhammad; leadership • Explain the rise of the Sunni of Islam passes to the fi rst of the four caliphs and Shi’ite variants of Islam 661 CE Caliphate becomes a monarchy under the Umayyad Clan, capital of Islamic community moved • Account for the principal beliefs in Islam from Medina to Damascus

• Recognise the importance of the Qur’an 680 CE Death of Husayn (grandson of Muhammad (Koran) and the Hadith to Muslims through Ali); defi nite split of the Shi’ites (or party of Ali) from mainstream Sunni Islam • Examine sections of the sacred texts 711 CE Muslim armies have conquered north Africa and that highlight principal beliefs in Islam now Spain

• Explain the principal ethical 732 CE Battles in south of France, especially the teachings of Islam Battle of Tours, stop Muslim expansion into France and the rest of western Europe • Explain the process of law 762 CE Caliphate passes to the Abbasid Clan (jurisprudence) in Islam with Baghdad as the new capital 922 CE Execution of the mystic al-Hallaj, a Sufi , • Describe the importance of for proclaiming he was at one with Truth (Allah) law and ethics to Muslims 1071 CE Central Asian Turks begin converting to • Explain the fi ve pillars, or central Islam and scoring signifi cant military victories over parts, of the Islamic faith. the Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople (modern Istanbul) 1095–99 CE and for the next two centuries, Muslims defend themselves from constant attacks by Christian Crusaders in and around Jerusalem 1111 CE Death of al-Ghazali, one of Islam’s great philosophers of faith and reason chapter 10 islam – the basic facts 203

1240 CE Death of Ibn al-Arabi, philosopher of the introduction mystical unity of existence Islam has become one of the most widespread religious 1258 CE Baghdad is invaded by the Mongols; great traditions in the modern world, but is often misunderstood libraries and many great works of culture are destroyed and misrepresented. The popular media focus on terrorist 1273 CE Death of the great Sufi poet Rumi bombings and different customs, and fail to consider the context and teachings of Islam. Islam is the second largest 1390 CE Death of the Sufi poet Hafi z, today known world religion and has spread widely since its foundation as the national poet of Iran almost 1500 years ago in the Arabian peninsula. Islam is 1400s CE Islam arrives through trade route to south-east more than a set of beliefs, it is a religion that requires the Asia. It spreads through the islands of Indonesia, resulting celebration of daily rituals and the keeping of certain in possible contact by Muslim traders with the inhabitants times and laws. It is a guide to life and is often linked to of Australia, leading to a possible Islamic infl uence on the crescent moon and stars that guided people in the Aboriginal culture ancient deserts of Arabia. 1453 CE Turkish Muslim forces fi nally conquer the city of Constantinople. This signals the absolute end of the Roman Empire. The Sultan of the Turks becomes Caliph or general protector of all Muslims 1492 CE Christian forces fi nally reassert total control over Spain. This leads to the subsequent expulsion or persecution of Muslims and Jews in Spain and the rise of the Spanish Inquisition 1592 CE Muslim Turkish forces reach the gates of Vienna but are stopped 1582 CE Mughal expansion continues to spread Islam through India 1792 CE Death of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, leader of the traditionalist revival in Arabia 1897 CE Death of al-Afghani, promoter of the modern Islamic cultural revival 1922 CE Collapse of Ottoman Empire; the Sultan is The crescent moon and stars are a symbol of those that are said to have guided people in ancient times deposed. The modern, secular state of Turkey is created. The Caliphate is terminated soon after 1930 CE Famous Islamic thinker Iqbal proposes a Muslim state in India 1947 CE Because of the infl uence of Iqbal and others, East and West Pakistan come into being as Islamic states after the British leave India 1979 CE Ayotollah Khomeini leads a fundamentalist Islamic revolution against the US puppet state in Iran (Persia) 204 cambridge studies of religion Origins

The social and religious Mecca (sometimes pre-islamic arabia, Makka) conditions of Arabia the city in modern the cultural and Saudi Arabia where The most important social network amongst the Arabian Muhammad lived and historical context peoples was their clan connections. A person’s identity received his revelations; and security was based on their membership of one of spiritual centre of of the rise of islam the Muslim world and these large family groups. If someone in the clan was focus of the Hajj Islam began in the Arabian peninsula about 1400 years murdered, it was the responsibility of other clan members ago with the work of its prophet Muhammad, who lived Medina to avenge that death. Arabia remained clan-focused and (Madina-al-Nabi ‘city of in both Mecca and Medina. disunited. The peninsula often broke out in blood feuds the prophet’) is a few Before Islam, the Arabian peninsula was inhabited by between tribes, as each group took vengeance for the hundred kilometres north Bedouin, or nomadic tribes. There were also some Jewish of Mecca; here the wrongs they considered had been infl icted on their clan. Prophet Muhammad was people living in the area, and in the north there were strong It was a very male-oriented society. The low-status invited to act as judge, infl uences from the Christians of the Eastern Roman of women was emphasised by the practice of infanticide, and established the fi rst Muslim community Empire. This empire had its base in Constantinople where female babies were left in the desert. Girls were (Istanbul). The Persian Empire also had some infl uence in seen as a drain on the family because they required Bedouin the area. The Persian faith at this time was Zoroastrianism. expensive dowries when they were married. On the other Arab desert nomad The peninsula consisted of settlements and nomadic hand, there is evidence that some women could attain Zoroastrianism tribes. These settlements included major trading towns like high status because of the high death rate of men. Widows an ancient religion Mecca and Al Yathrib (later called Medina). The peninsula of dualism; that is, it could become powerful businesswomen if their successful had a good god (Ahura was criss-crossed with trading routes between the Persian husbands were killed in tribal feuds. Muhammad’s wife, Mazda, the Lord of light Gulf (which led over the sea to India) and the Mediterranean Kadisha, is an example. and wisdom) and a bad Sea (which led to Europe). Camel trains, or caravans, carried god (Angra Mainyu, the god of deceit) goods from India and Africa over the sands towards the Persian and Roman Empires and western Europe. Politics, clan policing and justice in the peninsula depended upon the a large family grouping family clans or tribes of the . The Arabian peninsular, showing the cities of Mecca and Medina infanticide the practice of killing newborn infants N

Mediterranean Sea Damascus

Alexandria

Egypt Hejaz Persian Nejo Gulf

Medina Arabia Nile River Mecca

Red Hadramaut Sea Arabian Sea

Yemen

0 500 km chapter 10 islam – the basic facts 205

The Ka’ba in Mecca in diagram form 6 10

5 7

1 The Black Stone (possibly a meteorite) 4 9 2 The door of the Ka’ba 3 The place of Abraham 1 8 4 The black stone corner 2 5 The Yemenite corner 6 The Syrian corner 7 The Iraqian corner 8 The curtain of the Ka’ba 9 The marble base 3 10 The gutter

polytheism the worship of many (poly) gods (theos) The Ka’ba as it appears today at the centre of the Harim Mosque

The Ka’ba (‘cube’) is Mecca’s main religious site. Many scholars think it was built as a tomb about 200 CE, but it is believed by Muslims to have been built much earlier by the Prophet Abraham. They say it was the fi rst temple dedicated to a single god, but fell into use by polytheists later on. Before Islam developed, Arabians worshipped 360 gods in this building. The images or idols of the Ka’ba were set up around the walls of the building. Allah (God) was also worshipped by the Arabs, but only as the supreme god among a range of other gods. His three daughters were the most famous goddesses in Mecca at the time and worshipped by many. The system of polytheism in Arabia, together with clan feuds, general violence and the mistreatment of women, allow Muslims to speak of the time before the prophet Muhammad as ‘the period of darkness’.

INVESTIGATE Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website which has many interesting internet sites for those who wish to dig a bit deeper in researching Islam. 206 cambridge studies of religion The life of the Prophet Muhammad

Muhammad was born in the year 570 CE. He became He told Kadisha what had happened, and was the prophet of Islam. Muslims have counted many worried that he might be going mad. She supported him prophet fi gures as prophets. They believe the fi rst prophet was by suggesting that perhaps he really had seen an angel. an inspired teacher, revealer or interpreter Adam (Qur’an 2: 37), then consider the Jewish prophets Muhammad returned to the cave, and the angel revealed of the will of God such as Abraham and Moses to be prophets of Islam also. to him more words from God each time. Muhammad They accept Jesus as a prophet too. All these fi gures are memorised these words and asked the scribes in Mecca considered vital to the conveying of God’s message to to write them down. humanity, but Muhammad is special to Muslims because he is the last of the prophets. CONSIDER The Qur’an, which means ‘recitation’, is a collection When Muhammad began telling people about the prophecies he of messages given to Muhammad by God (Allah). had received, many criticised him for being a poet or a soothsayer. Muhammad was charged with conveying this message to There are many quotes from the Qur’an warning against poets and all humanity. Muslims believe this book was written to denying that Muhammad was a soothsayer. See sura 69: 38–52 in perfect and complete the Jewish Torah and the Christian the Qur’an (‘sura’ means ‘chapter’). New Testament. They understand the Qur’an to be the perfection of all scripture. Muslims regard Jews and Muhammad was eager to tell everyone in Mecca Christians as ‘Ahl al Kitab’ or people of the book, that is, about the holy words he had been given. At fi rst only a people who also worship God. Jews and Christians who few people would listen. His core message was strictly lived in Muslim-controlled lands were usually extended monotheistic: there was only one god and that god alone a level of tolerance. This was especially the case when should be worshipped. The Meccans were polytheists, so Muslims controlled Spain between 711 and 1492. most people thought he was wrong. If Muhammad had Muhammad was born in the city of Mecca into the not been able to rely on his membership of the Quresh Quresh tribe, which was the main tribe in Mecca at that tribe, he might have been killed. His continued presence time. Due to blood disputes and the violent nature of the in Mecca began to cause problems. One night a group of times, Muhammad’s father died just before he was born. people came to his house to kill him; it is said that His mother died when he was six. Muhammad was cared Muhammad escaped just in time. for in turn by his grandfather and his uncle. As soon as he There was a town about 400 kilometres north of was old enough, he went to work. He did not learn to read Mecca that had many problems. Everyone in the town or write. He did, however, gain a reputation very early in fought incessantly with each other. There was also a life for being scrupulously honest and a settler of sizable Jewish community. People in this town of Al- disputes. Yanthrib had heard of Muhammad. They knew how fair Like many of his fellow citizens of Mecca, and pious he was. They asked him to come and be their Muhammad began working on the caravans. The owner magistrate. Muhammad gathered his followers in Mecca of Muhammad’s caravan was a woman, Kadisha. Like and left the city in 622 CE. many rich women in the area, she was a widow and was The escape from Mecca was called the hijra or occupied with running the family business. She liked hijra ‘fl ight’. It is an important date. It was from this time that the year Muhammad left Muhammad’s honesty, and when he was 25 years old she Mecca (622 CE); this Islam moved from being a small protest group nestled in asked him to marry her. Muhammad agreed. became the fi rst year of Mecca to a powerful religious force in Arabia. It is from It was Muhammad’s habit to leave Mecca in the Muslim calendar this year that the Muslim calendar is measured. summer and seek out cool caves in the mountains In Al-Yathrib, Muhammad and his followers nearby. He would sit there in peace and quiet and established the fi rst independent community of Islam. contemplate life. In 611 CE, at the age of 40, one day The name of the town was changed to Medina, which while he was praying and contemplating in a cave, he means ‘city of the prophet’. Muhammad ruled Medina thought he saw an angel. Many holy books speak of with great care, passing laws that were fair and ensured angels. They are made of light and are often depicted as stability in the city. Moreover, he carried out a social being sent by God to convey messages to certain revolution. By asking Arabians to swear loyalty to the individuals or prophets. The angel said its name was the whole community, he had broken the tribes’ grip on the Archangel Gabriel. Its fi rst command to Muhammad peninsula. Muhammad was beginning to stop the blood- was to read. Muhammad listened to what the angel said, feuding that had kept Arabia divided. then returned to the city, frightened. chapter 10 islam – the basic facts 207

Not long before his death, the prophet received a last series of messages from Allah through the Archangel Gabriel. These stressed that Allah’s message to humanity had been completed and the Qur’an was the fi nal message of Allah to humanity. Muhammad, knowing he was about to die, completed one last pilgrimage to Mecca. This became known as the ‘Farewell Pilgrimage’. Later in the year 632, he died at the age of 62. Despite Muhammad’s death, Islam continued to spread from the peninsula and around the world. Muhammad as role model for Muslim life How Muhammad became the prophet of Allah is well- documented. Sections of the Qur’an, all of the Hadith (his sayings, compiled after his death) and a number of biographies written soon after he lived all tell us about Muhammad. From these sources we get a view of a man With the months measured by the moon, each Islamic year who was honest in the extreme, caring and loving, and a is close to eleven days less than each solar year. In the year very careful administrator of the early Islamic community. 2000 CE, 1478 years had passed in the Islamic calendar In this way Muhammad stands out as the model of personhood in the Islamic world. Yet there is debate Some time around 620 CE, Kadisha died. among Muslims as to the extent that Muhammad is a Muhammad then made a number of marriages. Some of spiritual fi gure. The Sunni or standard group of Muslims these were clearly for love, while others secured his stress Muhammad’s humanity. He is certainly not a community by developing connections with other fi gure to be worshipped, even though he may represent powerful families. Slowly, Muhammad unifi ed the Arabs the extreme good in humanity. under Allah. The people of Mecca felt increasingly threatened. They put an army together and attacked Medina on several occasions. Each time Muhammad was exercise 10.1 able to repel their forces. The most important battle was at Badr in 623 CE. Seven years later, in 630 CE, 1 How was Arabian society structured Muhammad marched his forces to Mecca and stood his in the time of Muhammad? troops outside the city. The Meccans were worried that they would be killed. Muhammad told them that he only 2 What was the signifi cance of the Ka’ba? wanted to go to the Ka’ba. The people agreed to open the 3 Who was Muhammad and why city. Muhammad rode his camel to the Ka’ba and began was his infl uence so great? smashing the idols to the ground, but did not attack anyone. From this point on, the Ka’ba would only be used to worship Allah. Although Muhammad had made his activity 10.1 home in Medina, Mecca became the holiest place in the 1 Construct a timeline of the life of Muhammad, Islamic faith. The people of Mecca eventually converted indicating the key dates and events. and the religion continued to grow. 2 Write a paragraph about why you think Muhammad was able to achieve what he did. 3 Talk to a Muslim and ask them to explain why Muhammad is seen as the model for Muslim life. 208 cambridge studies of religion Islam after the Prophet

After the death of Muhammad, it was considered expansion under important to have people appointed as his successors, to continue the spread of Islam and manage the new Muslim umar (634–644 ce) community. The fi rst four successors are called the four Abu Bakr died in 634 CE, having led for only two years. rightly-guided caliphs (Al-Khulafa-ur Rashidun). caliph The community next appointed Umar, electing him but ‘successor’; this entitled also taking the advice of Abu Bakr from his death bed. the holder of the offi ce the fi rst four caliphs Umar oversaw the expulsion of Christians and Jews from to make religious and political decisions for Arabia, and proposed many expeditions to expand the the Muslim community Immediately after the death of the prophet, the four Muslim area of infl uence. Under his caliphate, much of caliphs attempted to stabilise the community. During the great Persian Empire fell to the Muslims. their rule, increasing tensions played themselves out until Umar was an organiser of exceptional abilities. He the leadership of the caliphs failed amidst dissent. After developed military schools and restructured the army. the fi rst four caliphs, a monarchy was established and a This led in 636 CE to the battle of Qadisiyya against the signifi cant split occurred in the Islamic world. The fi rst Persian Empire. Although battles between Persians and four caliphs were: Muslims continued, the Persians never gained any • Abu Bakr (reigned 632–634) advantage over the Muslims after this battle and • Umar (634–644) continued retreating. The Muslims moved into northern • Uthman (644–656) Iraq and western Iran. • Ali (656–661) When in 639 CE famine struck the Arabs, Umar was quick to organise relief. By reorganising spread of the the army and the mechanisms for famine relief, Umar made military expansion more efficient. These community under changes increasingly centred power in the office of abu bakr (632–634 ce) the caliph, and this would lead to the development of an Islamic monarchy. The momentum gained by Muhammad’s diplomatic tactics continued in the years after his death. Abu Bakr the council for (573-634 CE) was one of Muhammad’s closest friends and, as father to Muhammad’s wife A’isha, was also the establishing caliphs Prophet’s father-in-law. His election by the Islamic community was a signal that Islam would be led by the After being stabbed by a Persian slave in Medina, Umar, best people in the community. This was consistent with who took some time to die, was asked to nominate his the idea that Muhammad was a man and so other men successor. After much discussion, he nominated a number could be elected by the community to manage and direct of the companions of the Prophet to sit as a council and them. The election of Abu Bakr set a democratic choose the new caliph three days after his death. precedent, but not everyone was happy. A signifi cant What had been a democratic system turned section of the community wanted Ali to rule. Ali was both into something more structured, in favour of the close Muhammad’s cousin and, through his marriage to the companions of the Prophet. It was another step towards Prophet’s daughter Fatima, his son-in-law. That is, they monarchy. The new caliph would be announced by the council and then proclaimed as caliph by the wider wanted someone of the bloodline of the Prophet to lead oligarchy the community. Muslim community. It could be argued that in this rule by a small elite Abu Bakr concentrated on defending the community way the caliphate began to operate like an oligarchy. class of people at Medina from a number of surrounding tribes. These tribes had been Muslim, but recanted their faith after Muhammad’s death. Abu Bakr also sent an expedition that had been planned by Muhammad to Syria. In all his work, Umar, who would be appointed the next caliph, worked intimately with Abu Bakr in the management of Medina and the wider Islamic community. chapter 10 islam – the basic facts 209

uthman (644–656 ce) division during

The council fi nally selected Uthman as third caliph. the caliphate of Uthman was connected to the Prophet as his son-in-law. ali (656–661 ce) He came from a powerful clan called the Umayyads. Although he had not played a great role in the development The leaders of Medina, after the sudden death of of the Islamic community up to the time of his election, it Uthman, appointed Ali to the caliphate. But despite could be that his family connections and his closeness to Ali’s position as the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, the policies of Umar made him an appropriate candidate. more division in the country ensued, and Ali’s Under Uthman, however, many grievances arose in personality did not help unify the Muslim world. One of the community. This was partly due to pressure on the the decisions that enraged many Muslims was his community from its rapid expansion, and partly due to refusal to punish those who had killed Uthman. Uthman’s character. He upset many people with his habit Moreover, former followers of Ali joined with A’isha, a of appointing family and friends to governorships and widow of the Prophet and daughter of Abu Bakr. This other choice positions, something the previous caliphs rebellion was suppressed when A’isha lost the Battle of nepotism had tried to avoid. By indulging in nepotism Uthman the Camel, near Basra. See Chapter 11 for more details. undue encouragement also caused a money crisis, as he needed to pay additional Other voices of dissent also arose, particularly or support to one’s relations (often in funds to his family. This led to a decrease in pay for among the Kharijites. The Kharijites believed strongly an employer or soldiers, and general discontent. in both the need for the community to elect caliphs and, political sense) Ali, the cousin and other son-in-law of the Prophet, if that caliph did not prove true to the tenets of Islam, led a signifi cant party of opposition among Muslims. He that the community retained the right to depose the had kept quiet during the tenure of the previous caliphs, caliph. They originally supported Ali, but turned against but increased his opposition to Uthman. This led to even him. Ali spent much time and effort trying to eradicate more dissent. this group. While this was happening Muawiya, a Uthman also took on the diffi cult task of codifying kinsman of Uthman who ruled Syria and northern Iraq and publishing the Qur’an. By doing this, Uthman left as governor, refused to accept Ali as caliph. Muawiya himself open to the accusation of being a ‘religious expanded his control of the Muslim lands north of innovator’ in the way he chose which known texts of the Arabia, claiming to be caliph himself. When Ali was Qur’an should be included in the published text. assassinated by a Kharijite in 661, Muawiya established Uthman was murdered by a group of angry the Umayyad caliphate. Egyptians in 656 CE. the end of the preparing the qur’an elected caliphs The caliphs showed great care in collecting the papers Muawiya (who ruled from 661–680 CE) was able, at the that Muhammad had asked to be written after listening end of his life, to secure the caliphate for his son. In this to the Archangel Gabriel. But not all of his revelations way, the leadership of the Muslim world became a came to him in the cave, and many of his companions hereditary monarchy. The Umayyads ruled from remembered revelations told to them as Muhammad Damascus until their massacre by the next regime, the received them. Arabia was an oral culture, not completely Abbasids, in 750 CE. By this time, Islam had spread into familiar with the idea of writing. Abu Bakr and Umar Spain and would be stopped only in southern France, both asked for people with remembrances of the Qur’an while in the east Muslim armies had already approached to come forward. Umar established a meeting where the gates of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern suras (chapters) were written down and differences were Roman Empire. explained. Umar also ordered the burning of versions Under the four caliphs, Islam’s expansion had been that differed from those he had collected. phenomenal. Under Ali’s rule, however, a major split in The Qur’an was published in its defi nitive fi nal the Islamic world had occurred that would never be form by Uthman. resolved. This was the division between the Sunni (or standard) group of Muslims and those who followed the caliph Ali, known as Shi’ites. 210 cambridge studies of religion

sunni islam exercise 10.2 ‘Sunni’ is a word that comes from ‘sunna’ or the practices of the community at large. This group, which presents 1 Describe the development of Islam under itself as the orthodox expression of Islam, today constitutes the four rightly-guided caliphs. the most popular form of the religion. Its focus is on the 2 What issues emerged under authority of the community. Leaders of Sunni mosques the leadership of each? are chosen by their community for administration. Sunnis consider there is nothing special or divine about their 3 How and why did the split between leaders, except that they are educated in religious law and Sunni and Shi’ite Muslims occur? practice. What is interesting is the way dissenters hold Sunni practice to be incorrect. The main group of activity 10.2 dissenters from this ‘normal’ practice of Islam are the Shi’ites or Shi’a, or followers of Ali. 1 Research some of the early conflicts of Islam. Why, for example, was the shi’ite islam ‘Battle of the Camel’ so significant? 2 Construct an annotated timeline from the When the principal beliefs of Islam are examined below, death of Muhammad to about 1000 CE. there is no great difference in practice to be seen between Sunni and Shi’a (or Shi’ite) Islam. Shi’ites, which stands 3 Is Islam a violent religious tradition? Islam for ‘the party of Ali’, are those Muslims who ascribe a is often depicted in the media as a violent central place to the caliph Ali in the transmission of religion. Explore this idea, drawing upon authority over the Islamic community. They believe that the life and example of Muhammad, the early community should have appointed Ali, as a the influence of the four rightly-guided relative of the Prophet, to lead the community straight caliphs, the Crusades and modern after the Prophet’s death. Most Shi’ites are found in Iraq examples. Beware of simplistic answers. and Iran. Iran (the former Persian Empire) is the main centre for Shi’ite activity. islam in australia

Islam may have come to Australia as early as the 1400s, and certainly by the eighteenth century as Macassan fi shermen visited the north and west Australian coasts. More signifi cant arrivals were the ‘Ghans’, camel drivers who helped transport supplies through the outback. Following World War II, signifi cant numbers of Muslims came from the Middle East and Islam was fi rmly established as a religious tradition in Australia. See Chapters Two and Three for more details. chapter 10 islam – the basic facts 211 Principal beliefs

the articles of faith Books of Allah

The term that is used to identify the essential beliefs of Muslims also believe in the scriptures of prophecy passed doctrine Islam is the ‘Aqida’ (or Aqidah – Islamic doctrine). These down from Allah in other times. These include some a body of teachings essential beliefs include: material from the Hebrew and Christian scriptures. that form the basis Islam believes Allah has revealed his truth through the of a belief system • Tawhid (Allah is one) Scrolls of Abraham (now lost), the Law of Moses, the • Angels (Mala’ika) Psalms of David, the Gospel of Jesus and the Reading of • Books of Allah (Kutubu’llah) Muhammad (the Qur’an). But Islam also believes the fi rst • Rusal (prophecy) four of these are either lost or corrupted, and so the • Akhira (life after death) Qur’an is now the only reliable book of Allah, and only in • Fate/predestination (Al-Qadar) the Arabic text. Ideal of Tawhid (or the unity of God/Allah) Rusul (Rasullah) or prophets The shahada or basic Islamic confession of faith states, Rusul means ‘prophet’. The idea that Allah has sent ‘There is no deity but God and Muhammad is his prophets to different societies at different times is central prophet’. This statement is the gateway to the Islamic to the authority of the Qu’ran which states that, over time, community, the phrase that a new Muslim declares in thousands of prophets have been sent to deliver religious public in order to convert. It is also a constant chant on the messages to humanity. Just as we read in Jewish scripture lips of the faithful. The fi rst part of the statement refl ects that Abraham and Moses spoke directly to God, the 99 names of Allah the unity (or Tawhid) of Allah. There are 99 names Muslim faith asks us to accept that Muhammad also held the names used in the attributed to him in the Qur’an. Qur’an to refer to Allah a heaven-granted position as spokesman for God. Allah cannot be represented in visual or symbolic Shahada, the confession of faith, asks the believer to form. Muslims do refl ect, however, on the 99 names of accept Muhammad as a prophet of God, but does not Allah given in the Qur’an. Many of these names refl ect suggest that he is the only prophet of God. Thus other his superlative characteristics, such as ‘the most gracious’, prophets such as Jesus or Moses are relevant to Muslim ‘the most merciful’ and so on. These names are often life, as long as it is recognised that, of all the prophets, used as a part of the decoration of a mosque. Muhammad holds the distinct place of being the last, and Angels and jinn of completing the messages sent by God. Another feature of Muslim belief is the acceptance of Al-Akhira – life after death, jinn angels and jinn. Angels are referenced in Hebrew heaven, hell, resurrection of the local folk spirits of scripture as messengers between humans and God. Jinn, body and the day of judgement the Arab world on the other hand, are spirits that can be malevolent. After life, the Qur’an mentions that there is, for each These creatures cannot be perceived by humans but soul, an intermediate period (sura 23, verses 99–100). nevertheless exist and infl uence believers. Angels are the Here souls wait suspended between death and purest beings created by Allah and submit to his will in resurrection. When the resurrection (qiyamah) is called everything. Sura 35, verse 1, of the Qur’an explains how by Allah some time in the future, souls are dragged out of angels do Allah’s bidding and carry messages. The most this state. Every human who has ever lived is brought to famous example of this in the Muslim world is the way judgement before Allah, and punished for their sins or the Archangel Gabriel carried the Qur’an from Allah to rewarded for their goodness. In this way, life is a test Muhammad. The Qur’an also tells of angels who rip out (sura 67:2). the hearts of the wicked and gently draw out the souls of Jannah or fi r d o u s is the name given to paradise. It is those good people who are dying (sura 79, verses 1–5). mentioned in the Qu’ran as a place of supreme joy (sura Jinn are mentioned in 40 suras. They were created 32: 17). Those men who attain heaven (whether Jewish, by smokeless fi re before Adam. They seem to have bodies Christian or Muslim) will be given virginal maidens and are often addressed in the Qur’an collectively with called huris. In sura 52, verse 20, when reading about humans. In sura 4, verse 128, Allah condemns jinn as heaven, the Qur’an says that believers ‘. . . will recline on leading humanity astray and seducing people. Thus jinn thrones arranged in ranks. And We [Allah] shall marry can be seen as forces that work to make humans impure them off to huri with wide lovely eyes’. and lead them into evil. 212 cambridge studies of religion

The other realm where souls can go after judgement is jahanna, hell or hell-fi re, a realm ruled over by Shatan exercise 10.3 (Satan), a fi gure of evil. There is a debate in the Islamic world about whether hell is eternal and evil-doers remain 1 Outline the implications of there for ever, or it is a place where punishment is exacted Tawhid for Muslim belief. and the soul eventually released to heaven. The Qu’ran 2 What are the roles of the Books of (sura 6, verse 160) suggests that punishment only relates Allah and prophecy in Islam? to the crime committed. Many argue that this suggests 3 What do Muslims believe about angels? Allah would not keep someone in hell indefi nitely.

CONSIDER activity 10.3 Read this verse and consider your own interpretation. ‘He that does 1 Type ‘ninety-nine names of Allah’ into good shall have ten times as much to his credit. He that does evil an internet search engine to see a list shall only be repaid according to his evil: no wrong shall be done to and explanation of these names. any of them’ (sura 6:160). What do you think it means? Does it mean that people will be released from hell? Talk it through with 2 Research and write a paragraph answering other people. the questions: ‘How can a Muslim be certain they will go to paradise?’ and ‘What will paradise be like?’ Fate and predestination 3 Research and explain the difference It can be argued that the Qur’an preaches a fatalistic between fate and predestination. Which attitude to life. Everything that happens on Earth is is the more correct term for Islam? believed to be preordained by Allah’s will. This has led Muslim philosophers to speculate on the ability of a human to have free will. Sura 17, verse 188, makes the totality of Allah’s will complete. Say, Oh Muhammad, ‘I have no will over benefi t or hurt to myself except as Allah wills it’.

Moreover, sura 64, verse 11, suggests that all the disasters of the world are planned by Allah. The traditional Muslim greeting is with the Arabic phrase, ‘Insha’ Allah’ which means, ‘If it is God’s will’. This invokes God’s blessing but also acknowledges the preordained will of Allah (see sura 18: 24).

INVESTIGATE Look up these verses for yourself and comment on what Islamic fatalism implies for the choices you make in your life, good and bad. If Allah is responsible for everything, why is there evil in the world? Discuss your conclusions with others. chapter 10 islam – the basic facts 213 Sacred texts and writings

Islam is based on the revelations of Allah to Muhammad. Verse one: do not contradict Allah. The record of that revelation constitutes the Qur’an, the Verse two: do not talk over the Prophet. central Muslim text. Verse fi ve: nurture patience. Verse six: avoid malicious gossip. the qur’an Verses nine and ten: help others settle their disputes. Verse eleven: do not let one group scoff at another group. Muhammad received the Qur’an over a 23-year period. It Verse twelve: do not maintain suspicion of others. is believed to be the sole miracle of the religion. When The core ethical teachings in this sura pertain to the caliph Uthman fi nally had the book put together, it acting with good intentions and encouraging socially- was arranged in 114 suras, or chapters, from the longest at acceptable behaviour. Similarly, encouragement against the front to the shortest at the back. Scholars have alcohol and for moderation is found in the Hadith: speculated about what order they were received in. There Whoever forsakes wine whilst he is able to drink it, are suras that were clearly received while Muhammad I shall give him the wine to drink in Paradise; and was still in Mecca. The revelations received at Medina whoever forsakes silk whilst he is able to wear it, I shall are more focused on guiding the growing Islamic clothe him with it in Paradise. hadith: 108 community; these revelations contain information about prayers, fasting and pilgrimage. In this way, the Qur’an The Hadith also contains injunctions against refl ects the early history of Islam. It is important to note anti-social behaviour: that Muhammad is not considered by Muslims to be the Whoever shows enmity to a friend of mine, is engaged author of the Qur’an, but its receiver. in war against me. While there have been previous revelations by God hadith: 109 to people of other eras, the Qur’an is considered by Both the Qur’an and the Hadith press strongly for Muslims to be the fi nal revelation of Allah to humanity Muslims to keep their oaths. In a world where contracts and the greatest of the revelations of Allah. were verbal, keeping your word was an extremely important ethical practice. So sura 5, verse 91, among the hadith others stresses the need to keep oaths.

Attempts to systematise the law system encoded in the Qur’an led to more people becoming interested in recording the doings and sayings of the Prophet. The exercise 10.4 Hadith includes the actions of the Prophet, from judging 1 Who wrote the Qur’an? criminal cases, all the way to comments on washing. 2 Explain the importance of the Qur’an. INVESTIGATE 3 Explain the relationship between Copies of the Qur’an are readily available, but the Hadith is not as the Qur’an and the Hadith. easy to obtain. If you have diffi culty, access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website. activity 10.4

1 Find out why the Qur’an is an extracts that important authority in Islam. demonstrate the 2 Investigate how Muslims use sacred writings in their religious tradition, and how these principal beliefs writings relate to their everyday lives.

Both the Qur’an and the Hadith lay down correct 3 Choose a particular theme or aspect of life and behaviour for the ordering of Islamic society. The Qur’an research what the sacred writings say about it. calls believers to moderation and avoidance of violence and excess, and to be just, gentle in speech, quick to apologise and patient. For example, sura 49 lists the following ethical and moral judgements: 214 cambridge studies of religion Core ethical teachings

islamic jurisprudence Qiyas

Islam can be seen as both an ethical and a legal system. This is comparison with teachings of the Qur’an or Hadith. A scholar or believer can develop an idea about Islamic jurisprudence is the discovery of the law from jurisprudence the scriptures of Islam. In the centuries after the legality of an issue because of a Qur’anic or Hadith theological and scholarly Muhammad’s death, Islamic scholars pieced together injunction. For example, a Muslim may wish to know quest to discover about cocaine use; although this drug is not mentioned, from the scripture of different sections of the Qur’an and the Hadith to form Islam the best way the Shari’a law codes. Shari’a law covers every aspect of wine is. Wine (alcohol) is prohibited in Islam, therefore it to live as a Muslim life in a traditional society, but how can a traditional is safe to assume that cocaine is also banned. Shari’a law system provide ethical rulings for modern The division of halal and haraam legal code of Islam developments? To answer this, a series of authorities was based on the teaching established in the Islamic world; the most important is Halal is a term often applied to meat or other foods. This of the Qur’an and other Islamic sources the Qur’an, followed by the Hadith, then ijma word means that food which is halal, or correctly (consensus of scholars), then qiya (comparison). prepared, can be eaten by Muslims. Halal, however, does halal not only relate to food. It has the wider meaning of what is a term often applied Muslim ethical practices are clearly defi ned in to meat; however, it many situations, drawing from what have been called the permissible under Islamic law and applies to many has wider meaning Eight Ethical Principles, which link behaviour, aspects of life and behaviour. that suggests what is Haraam is the opposite. Whatever is haraam is permissible under community relations and the priority of Allah. Islamic law and applies forbidden. Again, in the narrow sense it refers to Islamic to many aspects of The Qur’an dietary laws. Things that are forbidden in Hebrew life and behaviour When Muslims seek a way to deal with any issue in scripture for Jews are also forbidden for Muslims. This haraam their lives, their first and greatest authority is always includes pork. For Muslims, alcohol is also haraam. The forbidden under Islam the Qur’an. Over the last 1400 years, numerous term can be applied much more widely to anything that is schools have developed with their own traditions of in defi ance of Muslim law codes. It is often applied to interpreting the Qur’an. This need to derive all relationships and behaviour that are unacceptable under human action from the Qur’an makes it difficult for Shari’a law. Muslims to know what their first response should be to issues such as environmentalism. The Qur’an says nothing about this modern concept. Comments about exercise 10.5 how Allah gave the world in custodianship to humans can be used, however, to infer that the Qur’an 1 From where do Muslims draw contains an environmental message. their ethical principles? The Hadith 2 Explain Islamic jurisprudence. Mohammad’s words, habits, acts and gestures, as 3 What are the main ethical principles in Islam? remembered by Muslims and preserved in the literary form of the Hadith, are the source of Muslim authority activity 10.5 where the Qu’ran is not explicit. Again using the case of environmentalism, the Prophet said a great deal about 1 Research the differences between halal the care of animals, for example, and these actions and and haraam. Make two lists entitled halal sayings can be used to defi ne a religious response to this and haraam and explain which aspects issue by Muslims. of life fi t into which lists, and why. Ijma 2 Construct a mind map or fl owchart to illustrate how Muslims develop their ethical principles. This is a consensus of Islamic scholars and religious leaders. A ruling can be sought from the ummah – the 3 Search the internet, or look at some books community of Muslims, particularly those who are on Islam, and see what you can discover learned in Islamic law. There is a hadith, or saying, of the about the Eight Ethical Principles. Prophet which reads, ‘My community will never agree upon an error’. In the Shi’ite world, a fatwa or ruling can be sought from a leading community leader or ayatollah. chapter 10 islam – the basic facts 215 Expression of faith

the fi ve pillars People who are unable to pray because of work, travel or sickness are permitted to make it up later, but (arkan al-islam) Muslims are not allowed to use prayers as a way of getting out of work. The fi ve pillars of Islam account for the basic practices of To pray, a Muslim must face towards Mecca. For a Muslim. They must be done in order to remain a part of fi nding the direction of Mecca, a believer can buy a the Islamic community. The fi ve pillars of Islam are Mecca-fi nder. This is like a compass, but points to Mecca essentially a system of ritual that calls Muslims to be instead of true north. constantly aware of their duty towards Allah. Prayers can be said anywhere as long the space is Shahada clean. Before they pray, Muslims wash themselves. Sometimes they place a mat in front of them. Then they Shahada is the Islamic confession of faith. Its recitation in bow. As they bow, they say prayers to God in Arabic. public allows one into the Muslim community or affi rms They get down on their knees and bring their heads to one’s membership of it. the ground. This shows that they submit to God’s will. It sounds like this: La ilaha il Allah, Muhammad-ur- An example of Rasul-Allah and translates as ‘there is no god but Allah The importance of salat shahada; elaborate and Muhammad is his prophet’. It is a statement that calligraphy is the Daily prayers are important on many levels. Firstly art of Islam. stresses the uniqueness of God for Muslims. they require the believer to demonstrate that he or she is indeed islam (someone who submits to the will of God). The Arabic prayers emphasise the believer’s connection to God. They also help structure the day and keep God in mind. When believers pray, they must first ritually cleanse themselves with water. These actions allow the believer to complete reassuring actions on a psychological level. Also important is the requirement for adult males to attend a mosque at noon on Fridays and pray with the Muslim community. In this way the prayer compels the believer to become a part of the social life of the community. Dua are supplications, another form of prayer, where the believer asks Allah for something personal. Unlike the daily prayers, supplications can be said in the believer’s own language, rather than Arabic. Zakat The third pillar of Islam is charity, and in particular almsgiving. Muslims must give money to the poor each year. This is called zakat. It is set at a rate of 2.5 per cent Salat of a Muslim’s wealth – for example, if in a single year a Muslim has $100 000 in the bank, he or she is required The second pillar is about praying. This is called salat. to give $2500 to the poor. Organisations at mosques Muslims must pray fi ve times each day, in the morning, exist to distribute this money to the poor, but it is better at lunchtime, in the afternoon, in the evening and at to donate the money yourself. The term zakat means ‘to night. Clocks at mosques show the believer when it is best purify’, so the emphasis is on letting go of earthly to pray. possessions to focus on Allah. It has a moral aspect as To non-Muslims, this routine of prayer might seem well as a literal signifi cance. diffi cult. But Muslims report that all prayers said through the day only take up about 40–50 minutes. They also say that stopping at various points through the day not only helps them be better Muslims, but also lessens their stress and puts the day in perspective. 216 cambridge studies of religion

Muslims praying

1 Niyyat Hands 2 Qiyam 1 Hands folded, 3 Ruku Hands on knees, raised to the ears, right over left, over the bowing from the waist palms outwards, lower chest, recite the fi rst thumbs at lobes chapter of the Qur’an.

4 Qiyam 2 Hands by the 5 Sajda On the knees and 6 Qu’ud Rise to a side, standing upright head bowed to the ground kneeling position

7 Sajda As for 5 8 Tashahhud 1 In a kneeling 9 Tashahhud 2 In a kneeling position, turn to the left position, turn to the left and to the right, while a and to the right, while a sacred benediction is said sacred benediction is said (a blessing upon all there, (a blessing upon all there, even if there is no one) even if there is no one)

Sawm Pilgrims must declare themselves to be in a state of cleanliness (ihram). This includes not cutting the hair, The fourth pillar of Islam is fasting. For one month each having sex, hunting or making marriage proposals. The year, all Muslims (excluding women who are menstruating, pilgrim, male or female, changes into two pieces of white breastfeeding or pregnant, as well as the young, old, sick cloth. Everyone on pilgrimage looks the same, without and travellers on long journeys) must not eat, drink or have signifi ers of status. sex between dawn and sunset. Fasting helps Muslims Once inside the boundary area of Mecca, the empathise with the poor, and provides them with a chance pilgrim circumambulates the Ka’ba temple seven times. circumambulate to control their bodily desires. The fasting month is called Retracing the footsteps of Hagar, the wife of the prophet to walk around Ramadan. It is the most holy time of the year. When the something, usually as Abraham, the pilgrim walks between two wells, As-Safa an act of worship sun goes down, people can start eating again. and Al-Marwah. The pilgrim then proceeds to Mina, Hajj fi ve kilometres from Mecca, says prayers here and camps overnight. The next day he or she proceeds to Mount Hajj literally means ‘to set out for a place’. The fi fth Mercy near Arafat, where he or she remains all day in pillar of Islam is pilgrimage. Pilgrimage is a major prayer. The pilgrim then proceeds to Muzdalifah for practice of most religions, but in Islam it is central and more prayers and stays there the night. Here the pilgrim essential. All Muslims who are healthy and have enough collects pebbles, and uses these the next day to throw at money should travel to Mecca. They should walk the three pillars representing the devil. He or she also has the same roads that Muhammad walked. It is a trip that opportunity to sacrifi ce an animal. The pilgrim stones Muslims should make at least once in their lifetimes if the pillars before returning to Mecca for a fi nal series of they are able to do so. circumambulations. Pilgrims might also visit Medina to see the tomb of the Prophet. Hajj is one of the signifi cant practices that can be studied in the HSC course. chapter 10 islam – the basic facts 217

The Great Mosque MECCA SAUDI ARABIA 1 Ka’ba

Mina 2 5 4 Muzdalifah 1 Start of the main pilgrimage 2 Pray at Mina and sleep 3 Spend the day in prayer at Mount Mercy 3 Mount Mercy, 4 Proceed to Muzdalifah, sleep and stone pillars near Arafat 5 Return to Mecca How Muslim pilgrims proceed 04 km through the site of Mecca the connection between the fi ve pillars as submission to allah

The fi ve pillars of the faith demonstrate adherents’ islam or ‘submission’ to the will of God. The shahada attests to believers’ commitment to a very pure ideal of monotheism – the worship of one God. The daily prayers reaffi rm that every day is a gift from Allah and believers should keep their minds on him. Almsgiving stresses a wider commitment by believers to the world and those who live in poverty. Fasting demonstrates devotion to Allah by overcoming the basic needs of the body and the ego as a show of faith. Pilgrimage takes believers back to the momentous events that accompanied the birth of the Islamic faith. Mecca also allows believers to experience the broad appeal of Islam. As they go on pilgrimage, people from all around the world and from all different races join them. It creates a great coming-together of humanity that evokes in each believer an idea of the Last Judgement – all people going equally before Allah. Some have suggested there is a sixth pilar – jihad – which is often misunderstood.

Malcolm X was a radical leader of Black Americans in the 1950s and 1960s. His extreme racial views softened after he converted to Islam and went on Hajj 218 cambridge studies of religion

It is true to say that there have been disagreements exercise 10.6 within the Muslim community about the role of warfare in jihad. Some, such as Sufi s, see only greater jihad. 1 Is it enough to simply recite the shahada? Explain. Others, such as Sayyid Qutb, say jihad includes the 2 Discuss the importance of the fi ve pillars overthrow of governments to enforce Shari’a law, that is, of Islam in the life of a Muslim. lesser jihad. The debate continues today in the Islamic community and among Muslim jurists. 3 Justify how Muslims ensure their zakat goes to people in need. activity 10.6 end of chapter 1 Look over the Qur’an. What instructions summary are given in relation to the Hajj? • Pre-Islamic Arabia was a 2 There are many websites that show nomadic tribal society. how prayer times are astronomically calculated. Type ‘salat times’ into a search • The Ka’ba had been a centre of engine and see what you can fi nd. worship for many years. 3 Collect examples from the media of the way • Muhammad received a revelation from the word jihad is used. Which jihad is being Allah, the one true God for Muslims. spoken about? Analyse the way it is discussed. • Muhammad successfully taught and expanded his new religion. Jihad is a reference to actions that further the cause of • Mecca and Medina became the jihad Allah, including missionary activity, donating money ‘striving’; related to important centres of Islam. the concept of effort and curbing personal desires. There are two main concepts of jihad. ‘Greater’ jihad refers to the efforts of • The four rightly-guided caliphs each Muslims to live their lives as best as they can. In this infl uenced the development of Islam. context, jihad can refer to: • Islam spilt early into two major groups, • learning the Qur’an and engaging in religious study the Sunnis and the Shi’ites. • overcoming things such as greed, anger, hatred and • Key beliefs include Tawhid (the unity other faults of God), angels, the Books of Allah, • taking part in Muslim activities Rusul (prophets), Akhira (life after • working for social justice death) and fate/predestination. • forgiving those who have done wrong • giving up vices, such as smoking • The sacred texts include the • working in the mosque. Qur’an and the Hadith. Jihad can also refer to the confronting of evil and • The Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad wrongdoing, and it is in this context that it may refer to by Allah, through the angel Gabriel. fi ghting or the concept of holy war. This is ‘lesser’ jihad. • Muslim ethics is guided by Shari’a law. The Arabic words for war and fi ghting are harb and qital; jihad is not primarily a term used for warfare. • The Qur’an, the Hadith, ijma and qiyas are There are a number of quotations in the Qur’an that authoritative in determining Muslim ethics. do refer to fi ghting for Islam. See sura 4:74–76 for • The fi ve pillars of Islam are shahada, comments on fi ghting in the cause of Allah, including salat, zakat, sawm and hajj. these verses: • The fi ve pillars of Islam are rituals that Against them make ready your strength, to the utmost remind Muslims of their duty to Allah. of your power, including steeds of war, to strike terror into the hearts of enemies of Allah. sura 8: 60

Truly Allah loves those who fight in his cause in battle array. sura 61: 4 chapter 10 islam – the basic facts 219 End of chapter questions

5 The Books of Allah include: end of chapter a The Mala’ika questions (3) b The Ummah c The Psalms of David d 1 Using the information in this chapter, defi ne Islam. The Book of Mormon

2 Describe how Muslims are ‘people of the book’. 6 What sources does Shari’a law draw from? a The Gospels of Jesus b The Qur’an, ijma and qiyas 3 Explain how Muslims express their faith in c Australia in the twenty-fi rst century. Haram and Makruh d Sura and Sunni

7 Ethical teachings in Islam are refl ected in the concepts of: multiple choice a Ibadat and Mu’amalat questions (10) b The Gospels of Jesus c Sunni and Shi’ite d Al Aqsa 1 Who is supposed to have built the Ka’ba? a Abraham halal haraam b 8 What do and refer to? Moses a The fi ve pillars of Islam c Jesus b d Early Australian mosques Muhammad c What is permitted and forbidden d A special form of calligraphy 2 Where did Muhammad become leader of the city? a Jerusalem Shahada b 9 is one of: Medina a The fi ve pillars of Islam c Babylon b d The early Australian mosques Al Aqsa c The countries where Islam spread quickly d The types of Muslim fundamentalism 3 Which of the following was one of the four caliphs? a Moses hajj b 10 What is ? A’isha Bint Abu Bakr a Fasting during the month of Ramadan c Abu Bakar Bashir b d Violent jihad Ali b. Abi Talib c Giving money to the poor d A pilgrimage to the city of Mecca 4 The two major sub-groups of Islam are: a Sunni and Shi’ite b Sufi and Shari’a c Qur’an and Hadith d Khulafa and Rashideen 220 cambridge studies of religion

short answer response to stimulus questions (6) question (1)

1 Describe how Islam developed, with This symbol refers to halal food. Explain what halal and reference to Muhammad’s infl uence. haraam mean and how they apply to modern life for a Muslim.

2 Explain why Muhammad is a model for Muslim life.

3 Why has calligraphy become the art of Islam?

4 Examine the role of sacred writings in Islam.

5 How does a Muslim know what is the right thing to do in any situation?

6 Explain the importance of the statement: ‘There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet’. extended response questions (3)

1 Outline the historical setting of pre-Islamic Arabia and its infl uence on the development of Islam.

2 ‘Shari’a law governs every aspect of a Muslim’s life’. Discuss.

3 Describe how a Muslim in modern Australia can express their faith by the fi ve pillars of Islam. chapter 11

Islam depth study (HSC) 222 cambridge studies of religion

I did not come into contact with any Muslim before I embraced Islam. I read the Qur’an fi rst and realised no person is perfect, Islam is perfect, and if we imitate the conduct of the Holy Prophet . . . we will be successful. yusuf islam (formerly cat stevens) chapter summary introduction In this chapter students will examine the life of a This chapter discusses: signifi cant person or the rise and development of a signifi cant idea in Islam. In the HSC examination, • A’isha, favourite wife of Muhammad, students will be asked to explain how this person/idea is a signifi cant person in Islam contributed to the growth of the Islamic faith and assess the impact of the idea or person on Islam itself. To do this • A’isha infl uenced some of effectively, students will need to know something of the Muhammad’s thinking controversies surrounding the chosen person or idea and their contributions to Islam in their era and today. Several • The Qur’an refl ects the infl uence of A’isha signifi cant people or schools of thought will be discussed, together with one ethical area and one signifi cant practice. • Many of the Hadith come from A’isha More examples and additional material are available on the Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher CD-Rom and • A’isha is a controversial woman in Islam the Cambridge Studies of Religion website. Students will also need to describe an Islamic • Sufi sm is an infl uential and signifi cant ethical teaching in a particular area, either sexual ethics, school of thought in Islam bioethical issues or environmental ethics. The HSC will also ask for an explanation of why the issue chosen is • Sufi sm refl ects a mysticism not important to the Islamic faith. generally found in Islam Finally, students will need to describe a signifi cant practice (ritual, worship etc.) within Islam and show, fi rstly, • There are many signifi cant and how it highlights Islamic beliefs and, secondly, how it infl uential Sufi teachers makes meaning for Muslims both individually and as a community. Students will need to choose one of the • Islamic ethics are drawn from following practices: Friday prayer at the mosque, a Muslim the Qur’an and Shari’a law funeral ceremony or the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).

• Sexual ethics must be expressed Omayyad mosque within a marital relationship in Damascus, Syria

• Zina (illegal sexual acts) refl ect a contractual attitude to marriage

• Homosexuality is generally not accepted in Islam

• Friday prayers at the mosque are a signifi cant Muslim practice

• The mosque is a community centre in Islam

• Friday prayers affi rm the second pillar of Islam

• Friday prayers affi rm the global community of Muslims chapter 11 islam depth study (hsc) 223

The Ka’ba (‘cube’) temple in Mecca, a city in Saudi Arabia, is the centre of the Islamic world

Sydney Muslim Mehmet Ozalp

His book, 101 questions you asked about Islam 224 cambridge studies of religion Signifi cant people and schools of thought

Kadisha (Khadijah) Bint Khuwaylid (sixth century a’isha bint abu bakar CE) – First wife and supporter of Muhammad; she was the fi rst convert to Islam. Her name is also transcribed from Arabic into English as ‘Ayisha’ or ‘Ayeesha’. Fatima Al Zahara (sixth century CE) – Daughter of Muhammad and wife of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the fourth A’isha’s l i fe rightly guided caliph; she is particularly signifi cant in A’isha was the daughter of Abu Bakar, one of the Prophet Shi’ite Islam. Muhammad’s closest companions. Born circa 615 CE companions Imam Malik (eighth century CE) – One of the most [disputed], she died circa 678 CE. She was betrothed to companions of the Prophet include those respected scholars in Sunni Islam. the Prophet at a very early age. Of the eleven or twelve who knew and supported wives whom Muhammad took as Prophet, it is clear from Muhammad during Imam Abu Hanifa (eighth century CE) – Founder of sources that A’isha became his favourite. After the death his prophetic career Hanifi school of Islamic jurisprudence. of the Prophet, A’isha supplied many biographical Rabi’a al-Adawiyya (eighth century CE) – Female Sufi accounts of Muhammad, as well as many of his sayings. saint, noted for her poetry and devotion; she is considered She became enmeshed in the politics of the new Islamic the founder of mystical love. community. In widowhood she led a revolt against the caliph Ali. This culminated in the battle of Basra (the caliph Imam Al-Shafi (eighth/ninth century CE) – Founder of battle of the camel) on 4 December 656 CE. She lost this ‘successor’; this entitled Shafi school of Islamic jurisprudence. the holder of the offi ce to battle and the victor, caliph Ali, returned her to Medina. make both religious and Abu ali Hussein Ibn Sina (tenth/eleventh century CE) Here A’isha lived in relative seclusion until her death in political decisions for – Also known as Avicenna; Persian scholar expert in about 678 CE. the Muslim community many fi elds, regarded as the father of modern medicine. Medina Contribution to the development (Madina-al-Nabi Al-Ghazali (eleventh/twelfth century CE) – Sufi and expression of Islam ‘city of the prophet’) is a theologian and mystic; his writings are considered among few hundred kilometres the greatest of Islam. A’isha’s impact north of Mecca; here the Prophet Muhammad was Sayyid Maududi (twentieth century CE) – Pakistani It is said that A’isha was the nineteenth person to convert invited to act as judge to the new religion of Islam. Her father, Abu Bakar, and established the fi rst journalist, theologian and philosopher; supporter of the Muslim community partitioning of the Indian sub-continent and believed perhaps the closest of all the companions of the Prophet Shari’a law was necessary for an Islamic state. Muhammad, was an earlier convert. A’isha was one of the fi rst children to grow up in a Muslim family. Her marriage Sayyid Qutb (twentieth century CE) – Egyptian author to Muhammad bound the Prophet and Abu Bakar closer and intellectual, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood; in their common religious and political objectives. linked to assassination plots in Egypt and radical Islam. A’isha did not marry Muhammad until the last decade of his life. In his early years he had married Kadisha, with whom he remained monogamous until monogamy her death when he was 40 (circa 619–620 CE). Considered having one spouse at any one time the fi rst convert to Islam, Kadisha gave her husband great support: ‘She believed in me when I was rejected; when they called me a liar, she proclaimed me truthful; when I was poor she shared with me her wealth’. With Kadisha dead, Muhammad began marrying polygamously. polygamy Once Muhammad had left Mecca and been having more than one spouse at one time welcomed into Medina as Prophet, apartments for him were built facing onto the mosque that was constructed there. Thus, the private area of Muhammad’s house and the public area of the mosque were barely separate. It is suggested that somewhere between 622 CE and 624 CE, Muhammad formally consummated his marriage with A’isha. Convention has it that she was around nine years old. Once married and living with the Prophet, A’isha was extremely close to the centre of Muslim power. chapter 11 islam depth study (hsc) 225

Muhammad’s wives A little while later, a young man called Safwan ibn-Muttal discovered A’isha, put her on his camel and Around 625 CE Muhammad married Hafsah, the young returned her to Medina. This caused a great scandal. but widowed daughter of Umar (another companion Unsure of his wife’s fidelity, Muhammad ceased having who would become caliph after Abu Bakar). Hafsah and revelations from Allah. A’isha returned to her parents’ A’isha became good friends. These two wives and their house. It seems that a rival faction led by Abd Allah ibn Sunni infl uential fathers formed the basis of the Sunni group Ubayy made the most of the rumour to discredit the the majority that would go on to create Islamic orthodoxy. variant of Islam family of Muhammad. Even as a prophet, Muhammad Muhammad’s fi fth marriage to Umm Salama in 626 CE still had to face political challenges. After seeking Shi’ite (or Shi’a) challenged all this. She tended to represent the interests the second largest advice and questioning A’isha, Muhammad at last of the household of Ali, Muhammad’s adopted son and Islamic group, Shi’ite received a revelation now found in the Qur’an, sura 24, Muslims believe the man who married Muhammad’s daughter Fatima. verses 11–19: that Muhammad’s The group around Ali and Fatima would develop into descendants are best the Shi’a sect of Islam. Thus the eventual split of the 11. Verily those who brought forth the slander [against suited to lead the A’isha] are a group among you . . . Unto every man Muslim community Islamic world into two camps originally stemmed from among them will be paid that which he had earned of the Prophet’s own household. the sin, and as for him among them who had the greater Although Muhammad continued to marry other share therein, his will be a great torment. 12. Why then, did not the believers, men and women, women over the next seven years, he became increasingly when you heard [the slander] think good of their own attracted to A’isha’s wit and vivacity. Near the end of his people and say: ‘This is surely an obvious lie?’ life, when Muhammad fell sick, he began asking what day 13. Why did they not produce four witnesses? Since they [the slanderers] have not produced witnesses! it was. His wives realised he wanted to know when it would Then with Allah they are liars! be his turn to be with A’isha. All his wives agreed in the end to let the Prophet spend his last days in A’isha’s room, In this way A’isha’s innocence was proclaimed. The and he died in her arms. These events have impressed on reference here to ‘four witnesses’ was subsequently used as Muslims the role that love plays in a marriage. A’isha’s a precedent by Islamic jurists in Shari’a law. No adultery Shari’a law charming, forthright and vibrant nature forms an ideal to can be proved unless four witnesses can be found. legal code of Islam which many Islamic women aspire. based on the teaching of the Qur’an and other Muhammad and A’isha were only married for nine Islamic sources or ten years. She was a widow at 19. A’isha spent the rest Mosque in Medina of her life single, under the special designation of ‘Mother of the believers’. The scandal of the slander An example of how A’isha was the catalyst for Qur’anic revelation comes from early in her marriage and concerns the matter of ‘the slander’. In the Islamic year 4 (626 CE), A’isha and Umm Salamah accompanied the Prophet on his war campaign against the Banu Mustaliq. Their campaign was successful. On the return march, A’isha strayed from the campsite; she reported that she had been looking for some lost beads. Back at the camp, the man assigned to A’isha’s care picked up her curtained litter and attached it to the camel, thinking she was inside it, and set off. Discovering that the caravan had gone without her, A’isha sat and waited for someone to come back and fetch her. 226 cambridge studies of religion

The battle of the camel A’isha’s move into politics and her failure lie at the heart of Islamic ideas of the place of women in public life. After A’isha's father died (and was buried with the One hadith or saying of the Prophet seems to confi rm Prophet in A’isha's apartments), Umar ruled as caliph this. It says, ‘Those who place their affairs in the hands of (634–644). Umar was the father of A’isha’s co-wife, Hafsa. women will never know prosperity’. This hadith was During his reign, Islamic armies helped convert thousands collected by al-Bukhari (810–870 CE), one of the most and added new territories to the Muslim world including famous collectors and verifi ers of hadith. Muslim scholars Jerusalem and parts of Persia. This expansion led to such as Muhammad Arafa (The rights of women in Islam, great tensions. 1980) use A’isha’s example to show that women in Islam These tensions came to a head during the reign of should have no political rights: the third caliph, Uthman. He was from the Umayyad tribe which had aristocratic pretensions. Uthman It is true that A’isha fought [at the battle of the camel] … it must not be forgotten that this individual act by A’isha appointed his relatives to many important posts. A’isha, was denounced as an error by the greatest of the like many others, became critical of Uthman’s nepotism. companions and condemned by other wives of the Men poured in from the new provinces to Medina to list Prophet. And in any case, A’isha regretted her act. It is thus not acceptable to base claims on A’isha’s experience, their complaints. Uthman tried to calm these complaints, which was considered to be an act of bid’a. bid’a but it was too late. A crowd invaded his house and Uthman ‘innovation’; this term Analysing A’isha’s infl uence is used against those was assassinated. accused of besmirching At this point the disenchanted followers of Ali, the A’isha provided many examples of what the Prophet did the sacred traditions of Prophet’s son-in-law, raced into Medina and had Ali and said, and her hadith have been quoted by Muslim Islam by changing them into something new proclaimed caliph. A’isha was out of Medina making the scholars ever since. The Prophet was generally seen as a pilgrimage to Mecca. Once she heard of Uthman’s death, stern and successful military leader (which he obviously she hurried to the Ka’ba and began speaking to the crowd, was) or as the terrifying mouthpiece for Allah (which all telling them to revenge the death of Uthman. A large Muslims accept). A’isha’s hadith remind the world that army of volunteers gathered around her, and she led this Muhammad was a kind and loving man. Muhammad is army towards Basra. Unfortunately, some who were at the ideal man for many Muslims, and A’isha’s hadith fi rst enthusiastic left her group, while other men planned show the faithful of Islam a complete man, not just a to use her army to make themselves caliph. A’isha’s army public religious leader. began to break into factions. The Shi’ite variant of Islam, followed by those Outside Basra, A’isha’s army met the army of the dedicated to the heritage of the caliph Ali, can be partly caliph Ali. Fighting broke out and this is called ‘the battle excused for despising her. She attacked in battle the son- of the camel’ (656 CE) from A’isha’s entry into the battle in-law of the Prophet. A’isha herself claimed special mounted on her camel. She became the rallying point for status in the Islamic world. She was more privileged as a her army and Muslims slaughtered each other in her wife because: defence. Ali, seeing the viciousness of the fi ghting, had 1 she was the only virgin wife of the prophet the camel cut down. This confused A’isha’s troops and 2 both her parents fl ed Mecca because they were ended the battle. Estimates suggest 10 000 men died in persecuted for being Muslim the confl ict. Caliph Ali had A’isha escorted back to 3 Gabriel showed her likeness to Muhammad and told Medina. But his victory was short lived; Ali was killed in the prophet to marry her battle in 661 CE fi ghting Muawiyah, one of Uthman’s 4 in the affair of the slander, Allah declared her relatives. Muawiyah founded a hereditary caliphate (the innocent hereditary Umayyad Dynasty) that controlled the Muslim world passed down 5 she had washed in the same vessel as Muhammad within a family until 750 CE. 6 Muhammad had prayed in her company A’isha returned to Medina and lived out her life in 7 Muhammad received some of his revelations in her Umayyad relative seclusion. She died in 678 CE. She left over 2000 the fi rst caliph presence dynasty, reigning hadith or reports of what the Prophet Muhammad had 8 he died in her arms from 660–750 CE done and said. Only around 200 of these have been 9 he died on the night of the harem roster allotted to included in accepted Hadith collections. A’isha 10 he was buried in her apartments in the Medina mosque. A’isha remains today one of the most prominent, argued-about women in the history of Islam. chapter 11 islam depth study (hsc) 227

sufi sm – a signifi cant exercise 11.1 school of thought 1 How was A’isha a good wife to Muhammad? Sufi sm is the mystical branch of Islam that began about a 2 What evidence is there to suggest A’isha hundred years after the death of Muhammad. Both Sunni was Muhammad’s favourite wife? and Shi’ite Muslims are drawn to it, but some Muslims do 3 How has A’isha been viewed as a controversial not view it favourably. Sufi sm is an attractive doctrine of person in the history of Islam? love that has also entranced many non-Muslims. Some believe its doctrine is so universal that one does not have to be Muslim to be Sufi . Sufi sm, however, has a long activity 11.1 tradition within, and a close connection to, Islam. Sufi 1 A’isha had a signifi cant impact on Muhammad, doctrine has been passed down from master to disciple his life and his ideas. That seems to contradict for over 1300 years. the popular image of the place of women Because Sufi sm has this master–disciple in Islam today. What can you discover relationship at its core, many famous lineages of about the role of women in Islam? Two masters and disciples have developed. Some have contemporary examples are Silma Ihram in become the well-known orders of Sufi sm. It is the Australia and Amina Wadud in the USA. master’s job to encourage his or her disciple to engage self-effacement more emotionally with Allah. This is achieved through making oneself 2 Research the companions of the Prophet. self-effacement. Once the disciple has fallen in love inconspicuous, through Many of their biographies can be found on modesty or timidity with Allah, he or she moves into an ecstatic state the Cambridge Studies of Religion website. where the world comes alive in a new way. Sufi sm has ecstatic state Construct a table with relevant information. a state of connection inspired some of the greatest poets, singers, musicians with Allah, achieved 3 Debate the topic – ‘A’isha represents the and dancers in the Islamic world. using body movement and music ideal model for the Muslim woman.’

The Whirling Dervishes are part of the Mevlevi Order of Sufi s. These Dervishes spin because they are full of love for Allah 228 cambridge studies of religion

At the personal level Sufism has the ability to Every verse in the Qur’an, the Prophet said, has an path submission to the will deepen a believer’s faith profoundly. The path of a Sufi inner (esoteric) meaning (in Arabic ‘batin’) and an outer of God and recognition disciple leads through a number of stages or stations. (exoteric) meaning (‘zahir’). This makes more sense of Muhammad as the The goal is a loving relationship with Allah. The when you understand how Arabic is written without messenger of God process of moving into this relationship is through self- vowels and in such beautiful and interlaced ways. stations effacement. One should do everything possible to rid It is natural that poets have been inspired to use a Sufi term referring to stages along the spiritual the mind of the self. The manifestations of the ego – beautifully evocative words to pass on their own path of self-knowledge selfishness, self-obsession and inability to see the experiences of being a Sufi . world from outside one’s point of view – are identified nafs There is a polish for everything that taketh away rust: self; in Sufi teachings, by Sufis as nafs. The ideal for a Sufi is to control these and the polish of the heart is the invocation of Allah. nafs refer to a sort nafs. This is done with the guidance of one’s Sufi Relax the mind and learn to swim, said Shayk Ali-Al- of false ego Jamal, let go of your mind so that your soul, now out master, who passes to his or her disciple a key term. 99 names of Allah of its depths, may experience the spontaneous stirrings This might be one of the 99 names of Allah, the the names used in the of intuition. shahada or a verse from the Qur’an. One recites this Qur’an to refer to Allah We are like lutes once held by God. Being away from phrase to shut out selfish and earthly thoughts. In this shahada his warm body fully explains this constant yearning. way, a Sufi tries to dedicate his or her entire life to the fi rst pillar of Islam, Allah. In response, Allah gives the Sufi a series of gifts, For Sufi s, one of the most interesting points of the statement of belief that ‘There is no God but insights or emotional charges that occasionally come Islamic history is the night fl ight of the Prophet (Qur’an Allah and Muhammad from the reciting of phrases. This recitation is called 17: 1). He was transported magically one night across the is his prophet’ zekhr; it also involves the recitation of prayer and an Earth to Jerusalem and then vertically into the heavens to insights increasing sense of devotion to Allah. witness paradise for himself. Much has been made of this understandings journey in the Hadith and other Islamic works, especially or revelations art. It is a journey that many Sufi s like to meditate on, zekhr (or dhikr) hoping that they too will one day have a mi’raj or ecstatic ritual utterance of God’s name or God’s praise A Muslim Friday mass prayer rising up to heaven. esoteric intended to be understood by few people; private knowledge

exoteric available to ordinary people; public knowledge chapter 11 islam depth study (hsc) 229

This illustration of people, Sufi sm is the most attractive side of Islam, and the Prophet’s night many convert to Islam by fi rst becoming interested in fl ight to heaven is from Shiraz in Persia circa Sufi sm. Sufi sm is also a great challenge to Islam. It 1560 CE. Muhammad undermines the exoteric or ritual side of the religion. is guided by the Sufi sm constantly struggles against those Muslims who Archangel Gabriel and six other angels. seek to reduce Islam to a religion that is simply legalistic He rides al-Buraq, and literalist. a mystical steed. Moreover, Sufi orders have proved to be places for As is convention, the Prophet’s face both social misfi ts and daring thinkers. Many Sufi s who is not shown entered into orders have turned their backs on normal society. They also shun the powerful Islamic injunction that everyone should marry. Some great Sufi s Al Ghazali and the poet Hafi z are described in detail on the Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM. Rabia (717–801 CE) Celebrated as one of the fi rst great Sufi s, Rabia gave Sufi sm defi nition with her overwhelming sense of love for Allah. She was eccentric and never married. The most famous story about her concerns a fl aming torch and a bucket of water she was said to have carried through the town of Basra. To those who asked what she was doing, legalistic she replied: rigid adherence to the law I want to put out the fi res of hell, and burn the rewards of paradise. They block the way to Allah. I don’t want to literalist Sufi sm’s infl uence on Islam worship him from fear of punishment or for the promise a strict, exact approach of reward, but simply for the love of Allah itself. to understanding religion It is likely that the term ‘Sufi ’ comes from the Arabic root and religious writing word for ‘wool’. This refers to the white woollen robes Although Rabia is a signifi cant fi gure to study in her khirqa worn by Islamic wandering holy men. Over time their own right in the syllabus, sadly there remains very little woollen robe associated woollen garment (khirqa) came to be synonymous with scholarship on her life. Access the Cambridge Studies of with Sufi s; can also refer Religion website for a link to what knowledge there is. to initiation of a Sufi those who dedicated themselves to mystical pursuits, and so the name Sufi . tasawwuf Rumi (1207–1273 CE) making a profession Tasawwuf could be linked to the same root word as of Sufi sm Sufi . Sufi may also be an Arabic rendering of the Greek There is something profound in the way Sufi s address word sophos meaning ‘wisdom’. If this is true, then Sufi sm Allah as their love. Rumi does this better than most. 2007 Gnostic was declared International Year of Rumi. He was closely from the Greek word links Islam with the Gnostic and Neo-Platonic traditions ‘gnosis’ meaning wisdom; found around the Mediterranean. Whether this is the connected to the Mevlevi Order of Sufi s, which was Gnostic doctrines hold case or not, Sufi sm has been infl uenced by other traditions founded by Rumi’s followers after his death. This is the that the world and most famous order of Sufi s, because of their spectacular humanity are corrupt and and has, in turn, helped Islamic mysticism infl uence only wisdom of secret Jewish Kabbalah and Christian mysticism. whirling dervishes. Rumi was connected to this order matters allows humans This openness to infl uence allows some to suggest because of his mystical friendship with Shams Tabrizi. to connect with the small As master and disciple, the two became inseparable. spark of the divine within that one need not be Muslim to be Sufi . They say that them. Gnosticism was Sufi sm connects with these wider knowledge traditions Rumi’s major theme was tawhid – or how he was unifi ed widespread in Persia in to such an extent that it speaks more universally than with Allah. His ability to put into words the struggle of the years before Islam spiritual development and the growth of a personal conquered that region Islam. It is true that Sufi masters are venerated by people who are not Muslim. Hindus and Sikhs are just as likely relationship with Allah sets him apart as the greatest of Neo-Platonic poets. His six-volume poem, the Masnavi-ye, can be a movement that to visit some Sufi tombs as are Muslims. developed the theories Regular prayers and the reciting of the Qur’an are found in several English translations. of the Greek philosopher required parts of being a Muslim. Sufi sm adds deep Plato into a religious and mystic system meaning and emotion to these requirements. For some 230 cambridge studies of religion

Sufi sm’s impact on society and analysing Sufi sm’s infl uence Sufi sm’s infl uence is profound, not only in the mystical parts of Islam, but also in its arts: music, painting, poetry and literature. Sufi s established orders and houses which welcomed pilgrims from all religious groups. Sufi sm The Qur’an was continues to be responsible for attracting many non- the fi rst extended work of prose in Muslims to the Islamic faith. Some of the most famous in Arabic. Calligraphy in the twentieth century have been the Frenchman Henry Arabic often exploits Corbin and the Russian mystic Gurdjieff. Students will the form of writing to make meaning be fascinated with the biographies of these men, which even more mystical can be found on the internet. Summary The Qur’an and Sufi sm Sufi sm has had a signifi cant infl uence on the development There are passages in the Qur’an that seem to encourage of spirituality in Islam. Islam in its simplest form asks a deep and mystical reading. One of the most famous is believers to do a number of things. The religion can seem sura 3, verse 7: little more than a series of mandated actions: prayers, It is he who sent down upon thee the book, pilgrimage, fasting. These requirements can turn into Wherein are verses clear that are the essence meaningless rules that are followed automatically. One of of the book, the fi rst great movements in Islam was to develop a law And others ambiguous … none knows its interpretation Save only Allah. And those fi rmly rooted in knowledge code. This also seemed to emphasise the rule-bound say, ‘We believe in it; all is from our Lord’. nature of Islam as both a religion and a system of governance. Against this legalism and literalism, Sufi sm This seems clear – only Allah can interpret the emphasises personal piety and the heart. Sufi sm not only inner meanings of the Qur’an. Yet the full stop after Allah introduced a tradition of mysticism into Islam, but also is contested. This passage could say ‘none knows its changed how Islam can be understood. Sufi sm allows interpretation save only Allah and those fi rmly rooted in Muslims to explore the emotional depths of their religious knowledge . . .’ meaning that those who are wise can seek nature. Sufi sm also allows believers to turn their faith the hidden meaning of the Qur’an. As mentioned above, into an intimate and personal act of devotion to Allah. the nature of the Arabic language contributes to the Sufi sm allows Islam to appeal to many more dimensions multiple meanings in the Qur’an. of the human spirit. The developments of Sufi sm have allowed expansion of the Islamic arts and Islamic INVESTIGATE civilisation, especially during the years when Islam Check some of these other sources of information on Sufi sm: seemed to stagnate. Hazrat Inayat Khan: The heart of Sufi sm, London, Shambala, 1999. Martin Lings: What is Sufi sm? London, Allen & Unwin, 1975. exercise 11.2 W. Montgomery Watt: Islamic philosophy and theology, Edinburgh University Press, 1985. 1 Describe Sufi sm as a school of thought. 2 Detail the life of one famous Sufi mystic. FURTHERMORE 3 What are the key principles of Sufi sm? It is important to note that not all Muslims agree with Sufi concepts. Some conservative Islamic scholars deride Sufi sm as a activity 11.2 challenge rather than a compliment to Islam. From your understanding of Islam, discuss why this might be the case. 1 ‘Anyone can be a Sufi , no matter what their religious background.’ Discuss. 2 Research and write a paragraph about how to become a Sufi . 3 Talk to a Muslim, or search the internet. Analyse the infl uence of Sufi sm on Islam in Australia. chapter 11 islam depth study (hsc) 231 Ethics

Islamic ethics are closely related to the concept of tawhid environmental ethics – the oneness of Allah. Ethics relate to the need to fulfi l Allah’s will. It is assumed in Islam that all human beings Middle Eastern origins infl uence Islamic ethics on the have a moral inclination and, because of the greatness of environment. Three concepts are important: Allah, people are expected to obey his commands, • tahwid (unity) – the concept of the uniqueness of Allah contained in the Qur’an, and express their obedience in and the integrity of his creation behaviour as well as belief. • khalifa (stewardship) – Muslims respect and care for creation bioethics • akrah (accountability) – Muslims are accountable for their use and abuse of creation. The importance of human life and the belief that only The Qur’an has many verses that speak about the Allah can decide issues of life and death are key created world. The implications are that animal slaughter principles. Trust in Allah is also a central concept. must be humane, and washing before prayer must be Abortion is permitted in some cases, while contraception done in a way that conserves water. Modern environmental is discouraged as it suggests lack of trust in Allah. initiatives seek to correct environmental damage in many Artifi cial insemination and IVF are only permitted parts of the world. within the marriage relationship, that is, there must be no suggestion of adultery. Euthanasia is not acceptable. sexual ethics Organ transplantation is acceptable where the donor is dead, although there are some issues related to respect CONSIDER for the human body. Modern Muslim countries often insist that women veil themselves. Check the Qur’an and see if you can fi nd specifi c references to the veiling of women. What about the Hadith?

The Muslim veil 232 cambridge studies of religion

In Islam, it is often difficult to separate ethical When Muslim women leave the family space to transgressions from the laws of Islamic governments enter public space, they must cover themselves and/or based on proscriptions found in the Qur’an. A Muslim’s be chaperoned. An unchaperoned woman should chaperone main concern is not to act ethically as we understand avoid the presence of unfamiliar men. A hadith of older guardian who accompanies young the term in Western countries, but to remain pure Muhammad (recorded in al-Tirmidhi 1091) says that, women in public through prayer and ritual and not disobey the whenever two strangers of the opposite sex meet, Satan to ensure that they restrictions of the Qur’an, that is, the word of Allah. is also present. By keeping men and women apart, restrict their behaviour (particularly with Thus sexual acts in Islam can be divided into lawful except for supervised courting before marriage, many the opposite sex) (halal) and unlawful (haraam) activities. What are Muslim societies try to exercise complete control over halal and haram is determined first by the Qur’an and contact between men and women. then by the Hadith and the Shari’a law. In many Marriage (nikah) is a legally binding contract in the nikah countries with a majority of Muslims, some adoption of Qur’an and is a central pillar of Shari’a law. A marriage complex term often translated as marriage, Western law has taken place, particularly in those must be publicly announced. Thus the line between but has connotations countries that were once part of the British or French illegal sex and legal marriage is the feasts and shouts that of embracing and sex empires. A major way of studying attitudes to issues accompany the wedding. Marriage is a confi rmation of such as premarital and extramarital sex can be through male and female togetherness in the wider context of the examining the law systems of Islamic states. Attitudes Islamic community. To have sex outside this bond is seen can differ significantly. as an attack on the community itself. Thus some of the statements against zina in the Qur’an also mention non- Premarital and extramarital sex Islamic activity such as paganism, and also prostitution For a free woman or a man, sex before marriage (sura 24: 3). (premarital sex) falls into the category of fornication To maintain the distinction between the home and (in Arabic ‘zina’). Fornication includes any illegal sex the outside world, the Qur’an makes a number of things act such as premarital sex and adultery. In Australia very clear. Firstly it outlines who can and cannot be before the 1970s, adultery supplied grounds for defi ned as a family member. Passages in the Qur’an, such divorce. Since then, adultery has had little to do with as sura 4: 23, explain in detail whom a man can and the law. But in Islamic law it remains, in the very cannot marry. It also delineates the possible sexual least, a breach of the marriage contract. Premarital relationships that can occur between a man and those sex, however, is not as severe a crime as adultery. Acts women legally bound to him through marriage and other of premarital sex are to be punished by whipping, contracts and who live in this family unit. This is made according to sura 24, verse 2: clear in the fi rst six verses of sura 23: The woman and the man guilty of illegal sexual 1. Successful indeed are the believers … intercourse, fl og each of them with a hundred stripes 5. . . . who guard their chastity (i.e. private parts from (of the whip). Let not pity withhold you in their case, illegal sexual acts) in a punishment proscribed by Allah, if you believe in 6. Except from their wives or (the slaves) that their right Allah and the Last Day. And let a party of believers hands possess – for then they are free of blame. witness their punishment.

Elsewhere in the Qur’an (sura 17: 32), believers These sentiments are repeated almost exactly in are admonished to keep away from the possibility of sura 70, verses 29–30. Here the Qur’an grants to the male fornication ‘and do not come near to unlawful sexual householder the right to have sex with any woman he has intercourse’. This statement is used to justify the married (up to four) and any female slaves he might cultural norm in the Middle East of keeping men and legally own. Sura 4, verse 3 reads, ‘. . . marry women of women segregated. Just as mosques have areas for your choice, two or three, or four; but if you fear that you women and for men, so do other areas of society. Thus shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one Islamic society does all it can to prevent women and or (the slaves) that your right hands possess (i.e. female men from coming into contact outside the home. In slaves possessed legally)’. Muslims contrast this verse some Islamic countries, being alone with a stranger of with 4: 129, which explains how hard it is to be fair to the opposite sex is considered as bad as having sex each wife: ‘You will never be able to do perfect justice with them. between wives’. Some argue that this verse countermands chapter 11 islam depth study (hsc) 233

4: 3 and men should only have one wife. Others suggest In an extreme counterexample, Saudi Arabia operates that 4: 3 only referred to the time of the Prophet when, under the full force of Shari’a law. To enact Islamic ethical Mutawwa'in because of battles, many women and their children were laws there is a Mutawwa'in or religious police force. This Muslim religious police left without a husband and father. Although a passage in force can arrest men and women who are not related and the Qur’an advises believers not to make prostitutes out are alone together. The United States Department of of their slaves, male slave owners who have sexual State’s 2004 report on human-rights abuses makes clear relations with their female slaves are not condemned. that people were punished for fornication in Saudi Arabia. It follows that, in a society that permitted the There are a number of theories that discuss how ownership of female slaves, pre- or extra-marital sex that sexuality in the Islamic world is controlled. Author Fatima was forced upon a female slave by her legitimate male Mernissi in her book The veil and the male elite (1987) owner (which today would be considered rape) was not examines Islam in the time of the Prophet. She claims that considered fornication in Islam. This seems to be the one many men, citizens, scholars and judges invented or twisted exception to premarital sex. Today, however, slavery is a number of hadith to increase the status of men far above universally condemned. It has been declared illegal in what the Prophet or the Qur’an proposed. She focuses on most Muslim nations. accounts of the early life of Islam, when men and women The ethics of premarital and extramarital sex interacted more in public life. This is not to say that across the Islamic world can be interpreted by punishment for premarital sex did not exist, but in Mernissi’s adherents in numerous ways, and usually manifest as a account the segregation of men and women was less strict part of the legal system. Islamic countries that maintain than it is in traditional Islamic communities today. Shari’a law follow the Qur’an and other religious writings such as the Hadith and judgements by Islamic INVESTIGATE scholars. Sunna punishments under Shari’a law include In the Qur’an the following suras concern themselves in some way flogging, amputation of limbs and various forms of with zina: 4: 19, 4: 24, 23: 1–6, 24: 3–11, 24: 23, 24: 33, 25: 68– execution such as stoning to death or having walls 70, 33: 50, 60: 12, 70: 22–30. In the Hadith see e.g. al-Tirmidhi toppled upon those declared guilty. Trials tend to be 1091. See also Mernissi’s book on the Hadith. instantaneous, the defendants are not allowed legal representation and the judgements are not publicised. Summary Human-rights groups such as Amnesty International do as much as they can to research and condemn these Attitudes to premarital sex in Islam can be harsh. activities, which are serious abuses of human rights. Premarital sex is categorised as an act of zina, that is, Some countries that are predominantly Muslim fornication or an illegal sex act. Not only is it illegal but, as have adopted legal codes based on Western systems of Boudhiba suggests, it can be seen as a challenge to the law, including Turkey, Morocco and Indonesia. These whole Islamic community. The Qur’an prohibits zina in codes may be influenced by Shari’a law, but open trials many verses. There are levels of punishment for acts of and punishment by prison terms rather than corporal zina. For fornication as premarital sex, both partners (physical) punishment are expected. The influence of unmarried, the Qur’an demands whipping. For Islam can still be seen in the moral choices made by fornication by those who are married, death is required. the population. For example, Turkey is predominantly Homosexuality a Muslim country but it has secular laws and many of these are quite liberal. Nevertheless, the Qur’an still Western views of homosexuality contrast signifi cantly with exerts an influence. The Turkish marriage rate is high, Muslim ideas. In the West over the last 50 years, and men and women get married much earlier than in homosexuality has evolved from being seen as a deviant, Australia. One survey suggested that 55 per cent of criminal and punishable act to being an accepted lifestyle in women have their first sexual experience with their which the ultimate goal is not only sex, but forming a loving husbands. This figure, if true, suggests that under half relationship. The word ’homosexual’ relates to people who of the women of Turkey engaged in premarital sex. are sexually attracted to their own gender, men to men (gay) This is quite a small number when compared with the and women to women (lesbian). A recent focus in the West United States or Australia. has been the acceptance of gay and lesbian marriages as a major step in the integration of non-heterosexuals as family units that are legal in every respect. 234 cambridge studies of religion

In the Islamic world, these ideas are far from being And (remember) Lut (Lot), when he said to his people: accepted. Male–female marriage and the birth of children ‘Do you commit the worst sin such as none preceding you has committed in the Alamin [the realms of man]’. are central to Islamic life, and most men and women do get married, even though they might also engage in 81. ‘Verily, you practise your lusts on men instead of women. Nay but you are a people transgressing beyond homosexual acts. Homosexuality is perceived in the bounds (by committing great sins)’. 84. And we rained Islamic world as an illicit sex act between men (sodomy). down on them a rain (of stones). Then see what was the Lesbians in the Islamic world are harder to trace, but do end of the Mujrimun (criminals, polytheists and sinners.) exist. Some groups such as Asawat are emerging to represent Muslim lesbians, but this group operates in Here it seems the practising of lusts on men was a Israel, which is outside of an Islamic legal system. In 1998 crime of the whole city of Sodom, and so the city was the group Al Fatiha was established to support gay and punished by raining stones. There is no individual lesbian Muslims. Like Asawat, it operates mainly in proscription against sodomy, but Allah destroyed cities Western countries such as Canada, the United States and where immoral acts occurred. the United Kingdom. There seems to be an oblique reference to lesbian behaviour (lutiyya) in the Qur’an in sura 4: 15: lutiyya The Qur’an and the city of Sodom a term that relates And those of your women who commit illegal sexual to lesbianism The Qur’an is more indirect in prescribing punishments intercourse, take the evidence of four witnesses from for acts of homosexuality (liwat). In sura 7, verse 80 we amongst you against them; and if they testify, confi ne liwat them to houses until death comes to them or Allah homosexual acts are reminded of the story of Lut (Lot or Lout), a figure ordains for them some other way. from the Hebrew Bible. In Judaism it is not certain whether the city of Sodom has any connection with the Here the suggestion of confi nement could include sex act that it gave its name to, sodomy, but in the withholding water and food from the women until they Qur’an the link is clear. The Qur’an reminds Muslims died. The stipulation that four witnesses need to be found (sura 7: 80–84): would make it harder for a case of lesbianism to be proved if it took place in private.

Members of the Al-Fahita Foundation march in a gay pride parade in San Francisco chapter 11 islam depth study (hsc) 235

Homosexuality in the Hadith Summary When the Qur’an speaks of homosexuality, it mainly There is no doubt that Islam considers homosexual acts does so in reference to the city of Sodom and its as a sexual deviation from the ideal of heterosexual punishment by Allah. No punishments are prescribed marriage and family. There is much debate in Islamic by the Qur’an. Male Muslim scholars who lived after legal circles about appropriate punishments for an act of the Prophet discovered sayings by him that interpreted homosexuality, from no action through to execution. the above references in the worst possible light. In the There are a number of legislative responses to homosexual Hadith collected by Tirmidhi, we read the Prophet acts in Muslim countries. These range from tolerance saying, ‘Kill the one who sodomises and the one who lets under secular-style Western laws (Turkey) to prohibition it be done to him’. In the Hadith collected by Tabarani, under secular-Western laws (Morocco), moral ‘Sex by women is adultery between them’. Adultery condemnation generally without punishment (Saudi requires stoning to death. Arabia) through to active persecution of anyone suspected A number of law traditions developed over the of homosexual behaviour (Iran). Most Islamic societies centuries in Islam. Some of these are stricter than others, refuse to see homosexuality as a personal identity and a depending on how they have interpreted the Qur’an and lifestyle choice, rather than a deviant act committed by the Hadith. Some schools of Islam are harsher in their those who are ‘really’ heterosexual. Those support groups penalties than others. The range of responses who help Muslim homosexuals and lesbians tend to demonstrates the highly interpretive nature of the remain outside the Muslim world. Qur’an. The Hadith is much less ambiguous. Some Muslims think that execution of those found committing homosexual acts is the most appropriate exercise 11.3 punishment. Iran, which has a constitution and law code 1 What are the main ideas contained in inspired by the Qur’an and Hadith, is eager to execute Muslim sexual ethics? anyone caught in a homosexual act. Whippings, imprisonment and executions also take place in nations 2 How is sexual fi delity enforced in Islam? such as Saudi Arabia. In secular Turkey there are no laws 3 Is homosexuality ever possible in Islam? against homosexuality, but codes on public decency can be used (although rarely are) to prosecute people committing homosexual acts. activity 11.3 Because of social restrictions on the contact Muslim 1 Debate the following topic – ‘Muslim men and women have with each other, men are often in sexual ethics favour men over women.’ the company of men and women with women. Thus in many Islamic societies men and women engage in furtive 2 Taking on the role of a Muslim, make homosexual acts. In the Islamic nations of north Africa a speech describing Islamic ethics and elsewhere, men, both married and looking to marry, as they relate to sexual ethics. engage in sex with other men. The authorities in countries 3 Research and fi nd out about the like Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Saudi Arabia often turn major issues in Islamic sexual ethics. a blind eye to this sort of homosexual behaviour. These Discuss how they can be resolved. men continue to live their lives as good Muslims and good family members without realising that their acts could be considered homosexual. 236 cambridge studies of religion Signifi cant practices in the lives of adherents

funerals Salat ul Jumu’ah (or simply Jumu’ah) is the name given to Friday prayers at the mosque. They are Death is not to be feared. Considerable respect is shown congregational prayers held each Friday just after noon, to the human body. Funerals are held as soon as possible replacing the second daily prayer (zuhr or dhuhr) for that after death. Burials are usually simple, attended only by day. All Muslim males are expected to attend Jumu’ah. men. The body is buried on the right side, facing Mecca, Women have the option of performing their daily prayers touching the ground. Simple graves and headstones are either privately or at the mosque. Only those who are sick the norm, and money given to the poor instead. or have serious hardship in attending are excused from A deceased person leaves three things: Friday prayers at the mosque. The Jumu’ah is signifi cant because it is the time set • charity that will help others apart by Allah for all Muslims to meet, review their • knowledge shared with others spiritual growth and affi rm the Muslim community, and • a righteous child to pray for him or her. is an indicator of a Muslim’s willingness to give Allah precedence over all other aspects of life. hajj (pilgrimage) The prayer used at Friday prayers is shorter than that normally used, and follows a sermon (khutba) delivered khutba The fi fth pillar of Islam commands all Muslims, where the message at the by the speaker (khutb), usually the imam (prayer leader). possible, to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in mosque, delivered by The sermon replaces the shortened parts of the normal the khutb (speaker) their lifetimes; this is called the Hajj. The Qur’an has zuhr and is usually a practical message on how to apply specifi c instructions for the Hajj, and a particular Muslim teaching to everyday life. In some cases, these ritualised plan of pilgrimage is enacted. The Hajj is a sermons can have a political or communal role. chance to have sins forgiven and presents new opportunities for Muslims. The Hajj re-enacts signifi cant FURTHERMORE events and beliefs in Islam. The Hajj is a time for simplicity, self-renewal, rededication and generosity. Sometimes the Muslim community is accused of using the Friday sermon (khutba) to incite acts of terrorism. Investigate these friday prayers at accusations and determine whether they are justifi ed or not. the mosque Friday prayers also affi rm the importance of salat, prayer, the second pillar of Islam. Prayer is extremely Muslims are called to Friday important in the life of a Muslim. All Muslims are called prayer by the Qur’an: to pray fi ve times each day: All you who believe! When the call is proclaimed to • at dawn (fajr) prayer on Friday (the day of assembly), hasten to the remembrance of Allah, and leave off business (and • noon (zuhr or dhuhr) traffi c): that is best for you if you but know! • late afternoon (’asr) sura 62: 9 • after sunset (maghrib) The mosque is the centre of the Muslim community. • at night (isha). The Arabic word for mosque is masjid which means Life revolves around these times of prayer. There are ‘place of prostration’, signifying the way Muslims pray. special rituals associated with prayer called rak’at. Each rak’at While prayer is also an individual act, it fi nds its greatest Muslim is required to perform ritual washing (wudu) the rituals associated with daily prayer expression in the Friday prayers at the mosque, the before prayer. This includes washing the hands and arms communal celebration of the devotional life of a Muslim. to the elbows, rinsing the mouth, nose and ears, wiping the wudu ritual washing of arms, hair and washing the feet. Some purifi cation rituals include face and feet before INVESTIGATE washing the whole body, including the hair. Where no the daily prayers Visit a mosque in your area and talk to people involved in attending water is available, washing can be done symbolically using the mosque. Find out how important it is for Muslims to gather sand. The purpose of washing is to signify inner spiritual each week. What happens in a service? purity and also to distinguish the time of prayer from the routines of daily life. While Muslims usually pray in a mosque, they also must observe private times of prayer that correspond to the formal public times. chapter 11 islam depth study (hsc) 237

INVESTIGATE the mosque Look up the internet and fi nd out about the times for prayer and the rituals associated with prayers. Make a note of when these times ‘Mosque’ is the name given to the religious meeting are and the signifi cance of these actions. place in Islam, and it is the focal point for the Muslim community as well as a place of worship. The Arabic name is masjid, and sometimes they are called muezzin The times of prayer are announced by a muezzin the one who calls who calls people to prayer from a minaret at the mosque. Markaz al Islami, which means ‘Islamic centre’. Muslims to prayer When they pray, Muslims use a prayer mat and face Among the events held in a mosque are community minaret Mecca, or more specifi cally the Ka’ba in Mecca. Muslims dinners, weddings, weekend schools and meetings a tower at a mosque are required to dress modestly. Men should be covered of Muslim community organisations. where the muezzin As a place of worship, a mosque features prayer calls Muslims from the navel to the knees, while for women, the whole body apart from the face and hands is to be covered. and teaching. The Friday sermon is attended by most The ritual actions used, rak’at, signify the unity of Muslims. It is called salat ul-Jumu’ah or khutba. Islam across the world. It is the common experience of all A mosque is usually simply furnished. The major Muslims that prayer is undertaken at particular times, features are: facing Mecca, and actions are common the world over. • a prayer hall (musallah) No matter where a Muslim is in the world, they can share • a tall tower from which the muezzin calls people to in prayer and be at one with those around them. prayer, fi ve times each day Private prayers can be said at any time and are not • an area where people wash before prayers (wudu) necessarily associated with the ritual of rak’at, although • a small niche in the wall indicating the direction many Muslims do follow the same rituals. Personal prayer of Mecca is quite distinct from ritual prayer. Sometimes Muslims • a raised pulpit (minbar) tasbih use prayer beads, called tasbih, masbahas or subha. • a dome over the meeting hall the action of using prayer These beads are on a string like a necklace and comprise beads, rather than the • separate areas for men and women to pray ninety-nine beads, representing the 99 names of Allah, beads themselves • sometimes there are separate offi ces or rooms for with three larger beads every thirty-three. These larger subha schooling and administration. another name for a beads allow a pause to say, ‘Glory be to Allah, thanks be string of prayer beads to Allah, Allah is greater’. The beads are often fi nished The mosque can include places to eat and sleep as with a tassel. Prayer beads are particularly popular well as educational facilities. Mosques do not feature among Sufi Muslims. statues or paintings; the main form of decorative art is Prayer is a vital part of the daily life of every Muslim. calligraphy. The leader of a mosque is called an imam. In many parts of the world, facilities have been built to He is not ordained but is an educated Muslim chosen by cater for the needs of Muslims in prayer. It is not possible the community, usually for his knowledge of Islam. to be a Muslim and neglect prayer. Most mosques are open to visitors and welcome all who can respect Islam and follow guidelines that call for appropriate dress and behaviour.

The mosque in Morocco in Northern Africa: note the minaret 238 cambridge studies of religion

exercise 11.4 end of chapter

1 Describe Friday prayer at the mosque. summary 2 Explain how this practice expresses • A’isha was Muhammad’s favourite wife. the beliefs of Islam. • A’isha infl uenced Muhammad’s ideas 3 Explain how Friday prayer at the mosque is and the development of Islam. both an individual and a community event. • Some of the Qur’an reveals this infl uence. activity 11.4 • A’isha is not well accepted by Shi’ite Muslims. • Sufi sm is an important Muslim 1 Draw or make a model of a mosque, school of thought. noting the major features. • Sufi s emphasise a mystical form of Islam. 2 Visit a mosque, talk to a Muslim and discuss the diffi culty of Muslim prayer in modern Australia. • There are many signifi cant Sufi individuals who have infl uenced Islam, 3 Debate the following topic – ‘Friday prayer such as Rabia and Al-Gazali. at the mosque is primarily a communal action rather than an individual action.’ • Sexual ethics include issues such as premarital sex, homosexuality and gender roles. • Islam generally holds a view that is typifi ed by loving relationships within particular restrictions. • Islam differs greatly in its views on the acceptability of certain relationships. • Islam often views marriage as a contractual arrangement. • Friday prayers are an obligation for Muslims, commanded by the Qur’an. • Friday prayers include readings from the Qur’an as well as sermons. • There are signifi cant rituals associated with Friday prayers. • Friday prayers are both a corporate and an individual action. chapter 11 islam depth study (hsc) 239 HSC examination-style questions

In the HSC examination, students will be required to answer either a THREE part, 15-mark question, or a ONE part extended essay of 20 marks. section ii

Question 4 Islam (15 marks) marks a) Describe the contribution of ONE signifi cant person or school of thought in Islam 3 b) Analyse the signifi cance of ONE of the following signifi cant practices in the life of an individual Muslim: • Friday prayer at the mosque • funeral ceremony • Hajj 6 c) Explain the importance of Islamic ethical teachings in ONE of the following areas: • bioethics • environmental ethics • sexual ethics 6 section iii

Question 4 Islam (20 marks)

Explain the contribution of ONE signifi cant person or school of thought in Islam and evaluate the effect of the person or school of thought on Islam today. chapter 12

Judaism: The basic facts 242 cambridge studies of religion

If we were forced to choose just one, there would be no way to deny that Judaism is the most important development in human history david gelernter, yale university professor chapter summary

This chapter discusses:

• The signifi cance of Abraham and • The importance of the sacred the major aspects of his life texts and writings of Judaism » The Hebrew Bible • The meaning and importance » The Talmud of ‘covenant’ • Sections of these sacred texts that • The story of the Exodus and the highlight principal beliefs of Judaism giving of the law at Sinai • The principal ethical • The rise of the different teachings of Judaism variants of Judaism » The commandments of the Torah » • The principal beliefs of Judaism The prophetic vision – social » The belief in one God justice and tikkun olam » » The concept of a divinely The Book of Proverbs inspired moral law • The importance of ethical » The importance of ‘covenant’ teachings to Jewish people

• The importance of Shabbat.

Artist’s rendition of the ark of the covenant chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 243

Timeline introduction circa 1250 BCE Possible existence of a fi gure later Judaism is a small religious tradition in numbers, but is identifi ed in Jewish scriptures as Moses signifi cant in its infl uence on the world and its history. circa 1000 BCE King David conquers Jerusalem and The Hebrew Bible is largely retained as the Old Testament makes it his capital of the Christian Bible and is referred to extensively in the Qur’an. The belief in one god has also been retained in circa 950 BCE Solomon, David’s successor, builds the Christianity and Islam, and the ethics of Judaism have fi rst Jewish temple as the residence of the Jewish god infl uenced the laws of modern Western society. Jewish 922 BCE Northern kingdom separated from south after people themselves have also been of considerable Solomon’s death infl uence in the world’s history. The creation of the modern state of Israel was signifi cant, and much modern 722 BCE Assyrians conquer the northern kingdom confl ict in the world is related to the reactions of other 586 BCE Babylonians conquer Jerusalem and deport groups to the Jewish people. many Jews; they also destroy the fi rst Jewish temple built by Solomon INVESTIGATE 538 BCE Persians conquer Babylonia and allow exiles If you want to learn more about Judaism, access the internet sites to return on the Cambridge Studies of Religion website. 164 BCE Rededication of the Temple after Maccabean uprising gives Jerusalem its freedom The commonly accepted symbol for Judaism is the Magen David or ‘Star of David’. The origins of the 70 CE Roman siege of Jerusalem; the Temple is symbol are unknown and possibly very ancient. The destroyed Magen David appears on the fl ag of Israel. circa 200 CE Codifi cation and canonisation of central texts such as the Mishnah Star of David 1204 CE Death of Moses Maimonides, codifi er of the principles of Judaism 1305 CE Death of Moses of Lyon, central fi gure in Jewish mysticism 1492 CE Expulsion of Jews from Spain 1666 CE Sabbatai Zevi is thought to be the Jewish messiah, but he converts to Islam 1700s CE Rise of the Hassidic movement and life of Baal Shem Tov 1808 CE Napoleon, Emperor of France, grants European Jews citizenship for the fi rst time 1881 CE Persecution of Jews in Russia leads to large- scale migration, particularly to the USA 1897 CE Theodore Hertzl, promoter of Zionism, holds fi rst major conference 1938 CE Germans vandalise synagogues as prelude to the Final Solution of the Nazis, leading to the extermination of 6 million Jews 1948 CE Israel made a state and homeland for the Jewish people 244 cambridge studies of religion Origins

abraham and If the Biblical chronology is accepted, around 1750 BCE a person called Abraham left Mesopotamia the covenant and travelled to Canaan. Abraham lived at Ur in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and first travelled to Abraham Haran in modern southern Turkey. There he received What distinguishes the Hebrews in the biblical record the promises contained in the Covenant, of land, Covenant is their mobility. The Hebrews lacked a place of their descendents and his status as a blessing to other a promise or agreement between two parties own. The account of Abraham begins with the words: peoples (Genesis 12: 1–3). The Bible tells that, at the ‘Leave your country, your family and your father’s age of 75, he took his extended family, including his house, for the land I will show you will make you a wife Sarah, to settle in Canaan. He was recognised as great nation’ (Genesis 12: 1–2). The restlessness of a tribal chief by the Canaanites and was involved in Abraham met with the idea that time is strongly several battles, including the rescue of his nephew Lot directional. Many religious systems of the Near East, from the city of Sodom. He was a wealthy man with in Babylonia and Mesopotamia, maintained that time servants and provisions. Canaan was the land that was was cyclical. The Hebrews differed from their promised to Abraham’s offspring (Genesis 12: 7). neighbours on this point, and their views of time and Abraham was very old, yet God promised that he space are the key to ancient Israelite religion and would be the father of many descendents. He had Judaism. The idea of space is the land promised by already had a son, Ishmael, by his wife’s maidservant, God. The passage to this land is through God’s Hagar, when he was 86. When his previously barren guidance in time. Of all the books in the Hebrew Bible, wife, Sarah, gave birth to Isaac when he was 100, Genesis is the one that seems to have captured the Abraham felt the promise was fulfilled. Despite this, world’s imagination: the point at which time, the world God demanded that Abraham sacrifice his legitimate and the cosmos began, according to this world view. son, Isaac. In a dramatic demonstration of loyalty to Note: All scripture quotes in this section are God, Abraham prepared his son for death. At the last taken from the Tanak (or Tanach), Stone edition, moment, God told him to sacrifice an animal instead. Brooklyn, 2003. Students are warned against quoting Abraham is described with many characteristics from the Old Testament in a Christian Bible. The Jews should emulate: he obeys God, even when God Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament are not asks for his son, and he is a good warrior, compassionate the same; the translations are different and the chapter and hospitable. He is an ideal to live up to. and verse numbering systems can also be different. The Covenant: a people, a land, a blessing The Italian artist, Caravaggio, depicted The term ‘covenant’ (‘brit’ in Hebrew) is used to Abraham’s sacrifice in 1603 describe a mutually beneficial agreement that the individuals swear to uphold. In Judaism, this refers particularly to the agreement made between God and the people of Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses. But the Covenant begins with God’s original promise to make a great nation of Abraham’s family (Genesis 17). There are many hints as to how Abraham worshipped God and sealed this fi rst Covenant. Genesis (15: 9–21) outlines an ancient Covenant-making ceremony. Abraham takes several animals, cuts them in half, and separates the pieces while God passes as a fi rebrand between the halves. And [God] said to him, ‘Take to me three heifers, three goats, three rams, a turtle dove, and a young dove’. He took all of these to Him: he cut them in the centre, and placed each piece opposite its counterpart. The birds, however, he did not cut up . . . genesis 15: 9 chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 245

Here God is asking Abraham to carry out a ritual to covenant: the ensure God’s support for Abraham, his family and his descendants, even though, as God predicts in the next people and the land, passage, Abraham’s descendants will be enslaved in the importance Egypt in the future. of the patriarchs And He said to Abraham, ‘Know with certainty that your offspring shall be aliens in a land not their own in early judaism – and they will serve them, and they will oppress them – for 400 years. But also, the nation they will serve, I will judge, and afterwards, they will leave As the passage from Genesis demonstrates, a special with great wealth’. agreement, or Covenant, was believed to have existed genesis 15: 13 between God and the early Patriarchs. These included God completes this promise by manifesting in this Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the twelve sons of Jacob. ritual space of animal sacrifi ce. Finally, he confi rms to God promised land and protection for this great family, Abraham that his descendants will possess the land of Israel. and in return the members of Isaac’s clan had to honour This Covenant ceremony reflects similar and respect God. Biblical chronicles suggest a date of ceremonies found in the records of the Hittites, a group about 1750 BCE for Abraham, but for various reasons that lived nearby. the Patriarchal Age is more realistically placed circa 1500 BCE. The time these people existed was probably It is a popular belief that the tribes of Abraham enslaved in Egypt helped to build the pyramids. There is no evidence for this; in fact, up to fi ve hundred years previous to the time these it is more likely that the Egyptians themselves built the pyramids events were recorded in scripture. 246 cambridge studies of religion

Abraham was succeeded by Isaac and Jacob, whose priests in the Temple. Their father Jacob (Israel) is thus name was changed to Israel. During a famine Jacob and a personifi cation of the nation and Jews are referred to his family migrated to Egypt, and were eventually as B’nei Yisrael, the children of Israel. B’nei Yisrael enslaved. But there remained a special connection The stories associated with Abraham, Isaac, Ishmael the children of Israel between the children of Israel and God: (Isaac’s half-brother), Esau and Jacob belong to different God heard their moaning and God remembered his regions of Canaan, perhaps indicating localised origins. Covenant with Abraham, with Isaac and with Jacob. Uniting the stories in one larger tale brought these regions God saw the children of Israel; and God knew. exodus 2: 24 together as a nation. These events, including that of Joseph and his coat of many colours, make powerful, YHWH the ‘tetragrammaton’, the The twelve tribes dramatic stories. four letters that are the The Patriarchs also referred to God by many names, name of God revealed to The story of Moses begins in Egypt where the YHWH and also El, the head of the gods of the Moses; often translated descendents of Jacob/Israel were enslaved. The twelve as LORD or Yahweh (or Canaanites. The Canaanite tradition had much in in the past Jehovah) sons of Jacob are probably personifi cations of the twelve common with the other civilisations in this area, such as El tribes of Israel, or the tribes were named after the twelve the Babylonians and Mesopotamians. So the stories of sons. Each tribe was known for its special contributions a Jewish word the Patriarchs also suggest that a mixing of religious ideas meaning ‘God’ to the state, and each occupied a different part of the was taking place at this time. land of Israel, except for the tribe of Levi who served as

Mindmap of the Jewish nation Genesis family tree Adam line of descent marriage Eve

unspecifi ed line of descent Cain Abel Seth

Noah

Shem Ham Japeth

Terah Canaan Egypt Cush

Abraham Nahor Haran

Keturah Hagar Sarah Milca Lot

Ishmael Isaac Bethuel Moab Ammon (Ben-ammi)

Rebekah

Jacob Esau

Rachel Leah Bilhah Zilpah

Joseph Benjamin Dan Naphtali Gad Asher Ephraim Manasseh

Reuben Simeon Levi Judah Issachar Zebulun chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 247

Pentateuch The Pentateuch also speaks often of God as the god So the early figures or Patriarchs of Judaism the fi rst fi ve books of of a group, clan or lineage. Often he is the ‘god of Abraham, arrived with a specific god who was fused with the the Hebrew bible, also called the Torah the god of Isaac, the god of Jacob’ (Exodus 3: 6) or ‘the god sky-god of the pre-existing peoples of Canaan. It was of my father’ (Genesis 31: 5). Occasionally he is ‘the fear perhaps only after settlement and the influence of El [kinsman] of Isaac’ (Genesis 31: 42, 53) or ‘the mighty one that the Israelite god began to develop his supreme and [Bull] of Jacob’ (Genesis 49: 24). God here is not a universal form. universal God, as Jews, Christians and Muslims understand him today, but the god of a localised group moses, the exodus linked through kinship. and the torah The story of Exodus and the giving of the law Moses is the greatest person in Judaism and its great prophet. He is also understood by Jews to be the writer of the Torah. It was Moses who mediated the renewed Covenant between YHWH and the Israelite people. In Exodus 1: 8, a new pharaoh of Egypt was concerned about the number of Jews in his kingdom, so he decreed that Jewish fi rst-born children should be killed. Moses, a baby at this time, was hidden by his mother in a small boat made of rushes and sealed with tar, which made its way downriver to the palace of the pharaoh. Moses was saved and brought up in the pharaoh’s court. This meant that he learned to read and write, and developed leadership, management and organisational skills. As an adult, Moses was accused of murder when he attacked a member of the pharaoh’s staff, whom he found beating a Jewish person. Moses fled into the desert and made contact with other Semitic tribespeople. Guarding sheep one day, he was led away from the flock and encountered a burning bush, which was not consumed by the flames. A voice, which Moses took to be that of the god of Abraham and the Patriarchs, said to him: I am the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob . . . I have indeed seen the affl iction of my people that is in Egypt and I have heard its outcry because of its taskmasters, for I have known of its sufferings. I shall descend to rescue it from the hand of Egypt and to bring it up from that land to a good and spacious land, to a land fl owing with milk and honey. exodus 3: 6–9

Michelangelo’s statue of Moses 248 cambridge studies of religion

Moses was encouraged by this voice to seek the It is also said that on the mountain Moses received release from slavery of the Jewish people and lead them and developed a complex code that covered many areas of out of Egypt. He returned to the court of the pharaoh and life, ranging from ethical and moral imperatives, to a battle of magic then took place. But the Egyptians did dietary laws, ritual procedures and a complex set of not listen to him. Ten plagues sent by God eventually religious principles that eventually emerged as Judaism. convinced the pharaoh to release the Jewish people. The At the end of the forty years, Moses took the Jews to the last plague was the most serious, killing the pharaoh’s land promised to them by God. Israel ceased to be a fi rst-born son. Only then did the pharaoh let the Jews wandering clan and became a nation. The Ten leave Egypt. Despite the plagues and his agreement, the Commandments will be discussed in the Sacred texts pharaoh pursued them with his army. Moses parted the and writings section of this chapter. Red Sea and allowed the Jewish people to pass through safely. When the pharaoh’s army tried to pass, it was drowned by the surging waters. INVESTIGATE The part of the Moses story set in Egypt is tied There are several movies that may be helpful in understanding closely to the Passover ceremony (or Pesach). This is the Judaism in modern society. These include The Chosen (1981) Passover or Pesach most signifi cant ritual in the Jewish calendar, and and Schindler’s List (1993), which are more serious films, the feast that celebrates the Exodus represents the salvation of the people of Israel. This while The Hebrew Hammer (2003) has become a modern cult and related events festival involves slaughtering of lambs, smearing the lintel comedy classic. of the front door with blood and eating unleavened bread for seven days. The ritual is woven around the story of liberation from Egypt. There is also some evidence to suggest that Passover was originally a harvest festival. exercise 12.1 The story of the Exodus, the journey from Egypt to Exodus the land of Israel, is contained in the last four books of the literally, ‘departure’; it 1 Defi ne ‘Covenant’. refers to the event where, Pentateuch. The Exodus was not simply a journey; it was 2 Outline the life of Abraham. led by Moses, the people a pilgrimage and also the opportunity to develop a of Israel left Egypt for national identity. 3 Describe the events that led to the the promised land This story describes how Moses led the Jews for establishment of the people of Israel. forty years in the desert. During this time, God gave him the laws of the Covenant, the Ten Commandments. Ten Commandments activity 12.1 the summary of the These were the laws to be kept by the Jewish people for law given to Moses the Covenant to remain valid. During the Exodus, Moses 1 Construct a table or timeline outlining the key brought the people to the foot of the mountain of God, features of the origins of the people of Israel. identifi ed as Sinai or Horeb. Moses ascended the mountain and the people waited forty days for his return. 2 Find a story in the Hebrew Bible that During that time they began to worship an idol and describes some aspects of God. List the rebelled against Moses’ leadership. Moses returned attributes of God within the story. carrying the tablets of stone on which the Ten 3 Write a paragraph about why Moses is Commandments (or Decalogue) were written. In anger, Decalogue considered the greatest individual in Judaism. literally, ‘ten words’; the Moses destroyed those tablets and they were eventually term used to refer to the replaced by another set of tablets. Ten Commandments chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 249 Modern Judaism – its major divisions

As Judaism grew, several signifi cant subgroups conservative judaism developed. Several, such as the Sephardim and Ashkenazim, are primarily cultural or regional. The This variant of Judaism is more a reaction to Reform other three discussed here, Conservative, Orthodox and Judaism than to Orthodoxy. Unlike the early reform Progressive Judaism, are variants of Judaism. movements, Conservative Judaism was quick to support Zionism, the idea that Jews must have their own homeland sephardim and self-determination. Jews realised that Judaism had to adapt to the times, but did not need to go as far as the The Hebrew word for Spain is ‘Sefarad’ and so nineteenth-century reformers. Conservative Judaism took Sephardim Sephardim are the Jews who lived in Spain. From the on some reforms, such as men and women sitting together Jews originally from mid-700s CE and for the next seven centuries, Muslims during worship, but rejected others, such as insisting that around the Middle East Jewish law is binding but should change and adapt. and North Africa ruled Spain. This became a golden age for the three monotheistic faiths, particularly Judaism. Many of the Muslim rulers demonstrated extreme tolerance orthodox judaism towards the other religions. Ideas were freely shared and debated between faiths. This led to a great Orthodox Judaism is a traditional variant of Judaism. flourishing of philosophy and religious thinking, and Orthodox Jews believe God gave Moses the whole Torah also poetry and the sciences. Many Jews flocked into (written and oral law) at Mount Sinai. The Torah has the area, and one, Moses Miamonides, attempted to survived unchanged since then and is still authoritative codify the law and what it means to be Jewish. His today. Worship takes conservative forms, such as men work is one of the most significant contributions to and women sitting separately. Only men are allowed to rabbi Judaism ever. His 13-point formula is the basis of be rabbis. Community leaders such as Seligmann a community leader Judaism for most believers today. Bamberger (1807–1878), a rabbi in Germany, actively schooled in the intricacies of Jewish law The Sephardim became the Jewish people of worked against the reform movement and found and ritual; a rabbi often the Mediterranean basin. They speak Hebrew but ’orthodoxy’ a convenient label. Many Orthodox Jews do leads Jewish worship are more likely to talk to each other in Arabic or not like being labelled Orthodox; they would rather just Ladino – an old form of Spanish. Their practices be called Jews, considering the other forms of Judaism to differ a little from those of the Ashkenazim. It is in be not completely Jewish. this group that later we find the Orthodox, Reform and Conservative movements. progressive/ ashkenazim reform judaism ‘Progressive Judaism’ is a term applied to the branch of Originally the name of a people identifi ed in Genesis Judaism often called ‘Reform Judaism’. Its origins go back 10:3, this term was applied to Jews living in Germany to nineteenth-century Europe. Napoleon Bonaparte Crusades from the ninth century CE. After the Crusades (circa a series of attacks by confi rmed French Jews as citizens in 1807–1808; 1200 CE) they were united by Yiddish which, like Ladino European Christians European nations had denied most rights of citizenship to to recapture the Holy for the Sephardim, is a language made up of words from Jews before this time. A number of Jewish laymen, mostly Land, which was held by other languages, in this case German and Hebrew. The Islam, in the eleventh to German, wanted to modernise Judaism. They built small Ashkenazim were more inward looking than their thirteenth centuries CE synagogues whose communities worshipped in shorter southern co-religionists around the Mediterranean. They services and in their local language, not Hebrew. Some Ashkenazim developed a strong folk culture and treated the philosophy Jews originally from synagogues put in organs and other religious features of the Sephardim with suspicion. northern Europe then more at home in Christian churches. In the nineteenth century, the Ashkenazim were These reforms were also taken up in America, the largest Jewish group in the world, making up nine where the Jewish population was growing strongly. Isaac and a half million of the eleven and a half million Jews. Mayer Wise established the Union of American Hebrew The Sephardim had lost their intellectual dynamism, Congregations (1873), the Hebrew Union College (1875) and many Ashkenazi Jews began pushing Jewish thought and the Central Conference of American Rabbis (1889). into the modern world. This led to the development of These institutions established the means for developing a Reform Judaism. new approach to Judaism that allowed for its externals (non-essential rites) to be altered to strengthen its eternals (essential rites). 250 cambridge studies of religion

INVESTIGATE Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and follow the links to sites that give a more detailed understanding of the groups discussed on page 249.

exercise 12.2

1 Outline the unique features of Conservative Judaism. 2 Outline the unique features of Orthodox Judaism. 3 Outline the unique features of Progressive/Reform Judaism. activity 12.2

1 Construct a table highlighting the similarities and differences between Sephardim and Ashkenazim. 2 Construct a table highlighting the similarities and differences between Conservative, Orthodox and Progressive/Reform Judaism. 3 Develop a multimedia presentation outlining the origins of Judaism.

The Berlin synagogue chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 251 Principal beliefs

belief in one god El is another word meaning ‘god’ and was perhaps used by different writers to those who used YHWH. The Great Shema is the statement that Jews proclaim These names refer to different aspects of the one god, for each day. It is a pledge of allegiance taken from example, El Elyon (‘God most high’, Genesis 14: 18 and Deuteronomy 6:4: following), El Shaddai (‘God Almighty’, Genesis 17: 1ff), Listen Israel, the Lord is God, the Lord is One. El Olam (‘God everlasting’, Genesis 21: 33), El Roi (‘God of seeing’, Genesis 16: 13) and El Bethel (‘God of Bethel’, This is the great statement of Jewish monotheism. It Genesis 31: 13; 35: 37). is refl ected in many passages from the Tanak that refer to the oneness of God, and also ‘otherness’. Distinctive to FURTHERMORE Judaism is the complete otherness of God. This is why Many Jews today will not use the name YHWH, or even the term the second commandment prohibits the worship or ‘God’ (following an interpretation of Leviticus 24: 16). You will manufacture of idols or images. God cannot be indicated sometimes see the word written as ‘G_d’ or as ‘Hashem’ (which by worldly things. The fi rst commandment, as noted simply means ‘the name’). above, decrees the need to worship YHWH before all other gods. This suggests that other gods may exist. There has been a slow growth in Judaism, over the centuries, to a point where monotheism has developed. Although there divinely inspired are hints in the Torah of other gods, these become lost in moral law time. Under the infl uence of Zoroastrianism, with its strong sense of a single god and a Satan of evil, Judaism Judaism looks to the sacred texts to discover the way to developed a strong monotheistic character. live, moral law. Jews consider their sacred texts divinely inspired. Thus Judaism considers the moral codes by which Jews live to be divinely inspired. It does not expect the attributes of god people to live according to every one of the 613 commandments contained in the sacred writings, but God in Hebrew scripture is understood in at least three some commandments apply to everyone. These are called major ways. the Noahide Laws and are recorded in the Talmud • as the clan god of Abraham and his descendants (Sanhedrin 56). • as the city god of Jerusalem; in this guise, he competed The Noahide Laws include: with other city gods in the wider Mesopotamian area, 1 Prohibition of idolatry – worship only one god and rituals at his temple addressed him as ‘god of the 2 Prohibition of murder – you shall not murder Jews’, that is, as a national god 3 Prohibition of theft – you shall not steal • as a universal god, the creator of the universe 4 Prohibition of sexual promiscuity – you shall not In each of these guises, the Jews have chosen to commit adultery avoid any material representation of their god. This 5 Prohibition of blasphemy – honour God and do not blaspheme omnipotent suggests his omnipotence (all-powerfulness), all powerful omnipresence (being everywhere at all times), 6 Prohibition of cruelty to animals – do not eat the fl esh of an animal while it is still alive omnipresent omniscience (knowing everything) and his ultimate all present justice. God is also identifi ed, in contrast to many concepts 7 Requirement for just laws – set up an effective government to enforce the preceding six laws. omniscient of God in the ancient world, as ‘personal’, an essential all knowing component of the image of God (Genesis 1: 26). While these seven laws are considered to be binding God is known in the Hebrew Bible by a range of on all people, some groups such as Christians accept the Noahide Laws Ten Commandments and consider the Noahide Laws a the laws that apply to all names. The most important is represented by the Hebrew people, not only Jews letters that transpose into English as YHWH. This word subset of the Ten Commandments. Tetragrammaton is the Tetragrammaton, literally, Greek for ‘four letter the four letter name word’. This is often translated into English as the of God: YHWH capitalised word ‘LORD’. Jewish people, out of respect to God, never added the vowels to this name. Later, Christians added vowels to make the name of God ‘Yahweh’. In the past this was translated as ‘Jehovah’. 252 cambridge studies of religion

The eighth-century prophets summarised the The Covenant’s importance Covenant relationship between God and the people of to the Jewish people Israel in terms of social justice. One of the most signifi cant statements comes from Micah: The Covenant is important to Jewish people because it expresses the essence of the laws. In Leviticus, there are What God demands of you is this: act justly, to show mercy, and walk humbly with your God. numerous prescriptions to follow to be a practising Jew. micah 6:8 The Covenant from Sinai summarises these complex Others have sought to summarise the moral law in laws into an easily understandable set of indicators. succinct forms. A fi rst-century rabbi, Hillel, summarised Behind these ten clear points lies an enormous amount of the law this way: detail. The dietary, behavioural and other prescriptions That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. in the Torah codify an entire way of life. The maintenance This is the whole Torah; the rest is explanation. of the Covenant by following these laws ensures that babylonian talmud shabbat 31a Jewish tradition will be maintained. The moral law revealed by God is expected to apply to all people, while some aspects are applicable to the exercise 12.3 Covenant people of God, the Jews. Certainly the law that was delivered at Sinai is a divine moral law. 1 Describe Jewish beliefs about God. 2 Explain the concept of a divinely inspired the covenant moral law. at sinai: a divine 3 Outline the importance of the Covenant moral law for the Jewish people. The story of Moses on Mount Sinai is linked to the activity 12.3 ritual of Covenant renewal. While it is often considered a new Covenant, it is in fact a renewal of the Covenant 1 Debate the following topic – ‘Judaism between God and Abraham and a step along the way is not a monotheistic religion.’ to the fulfilment of that original Covenant. The form 2 Research the concept of ‘Covenant’ and note and structure of the Covenant has much in common how it has been used outside Judaism. with Hittite treaties and, if not a direct influence, is at least a treaty pattern familiar to all societies in the 3 Write a paragraph about the concept ancient Near East. of a universal law applying to all There is little we can say of Moses with certainty. people, with particular reference But whether he was real or a mythological amalgam, to the idea of law in Judaism. the Mosaic period saw the rise of the cult of YHWH associated with the Covenant. The essence of the Covenant is a new vision of God, separating him from all others. chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 253 Sacred texts and writings

There are a number of writings that can be considered If this was so, then to understand early Israelite sacred texts of Judaism. These include the Tanak (Tanach religion we would simply read the Biblical books or Tanakh) or the Hebrew Bible, interpretative texts such describing the early period and construct our view as Midrash, Mishnah and Talmud, and later codes such as accordingly. But textual analysis suggests that traditional the Mishnah Torah written by Moses Miamonides. Here understandings present some diffi culties. At an obvious emphasis will be given to the Tanak and the Talmud. level, the Pentateuch records the death of Moses and so at least one post-Mosaic writer was involved. Thematic the hebrew bible, examination reveals a host of inconsistencies which suggest the work emanates from several hands. For the tanak example, in Genesis there are two different accounts of how God created the world (1 and 2: 5–25) and two Jews call the Hebrew Bible the Tanak, a word formed versions of the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20; from the fi rst letters of the three section names: Deuteronomy 5). There are also smaller details that vary; • Torah (law) – the fi rst fi ve books of the Bible the sacred mountain is Horeb or Sinai, and Moses’ father- • Neviim (prophets) – the writings of those called by in-law is Reuel or Jethro. God as his spokespeople The most signifi cant textual disagreement, however, • Kethuvim (writings) – the collected writings refl ecting is the name of the deity. In one view, YHWH only various genres of literature that were important in the revealed his name in the time of Moses. In others, God is life of Israel. known as YHWH soon after Adam and Eve. In some passages of Genesis, God’s name is avoided and he is This text was largely written in Hebrew and referred to as Elohim, ‘the god’ (Hebrew ‘elohim’ = Arabic comprises 24 books, which are similar to the 39 books of ilah, whence al-ilah = ‘the God’ or Allah). the Christian Old Testament. A signifi cant translation of To explain these discrepancies, many scholars Septuagent the Tanak into Greek called the Septuagent was maintain that three or four writers or schools of writers a Greek translation important in the development of Judaism during the of the Hebrew Bible, are represented in the fi rst fi ve books: done about 250 BCE diaspora. Jewish and Christian traditions maintain that the books of the Hebrew Bible faithfully present historical events and were written in the order of events related, often soon after the events. For example, the Pentateuch (from the Greek ‘fi ve scrolls’) or Torah, which covers the period from Genesis to Moses, is said to have been revealed by God to Moses himself.

TABLE 12.1 THE DOCUMENTARY HYPOTHESIS

BOOK AUTHOR NAME FOR GOD DATE J The Yahwehistic author Consistently uses the name YHWH for God Probably dates from circa 950 BCE

E The Elohistic author Uses the term ‘Elohim’ for God These passages, often fragmentary, are dated to circa 750 BCE D Deuteronomic A different writing style entirely, concerned Probably composed after 700 BCE with legal and religious regulations P Priestly Records priestly duties and ritual observances Probably composed between 597–538 BCE 254 cambridge studies of religion

This is called the documentary hypothesis, the talmud documentary developed in the nineteenth century. While it has its hypothesis the proposition that the critics, it is generally accepted as the orthodox view of the The Talmud is essentially a collection of discussions and Torah was developed Pentateuch. Some scholars have added a fi fth book, ‘R’ comments by rabbis on the Tanak, as well as laws, from several independant (for redactor, the one who put it all together). If this customs and ethics, and is thought to have been written source documents hypothesis is accepted, the Pentateuch found its fi nal between 200 and 500 CE. There are two Talmuds, the form about 700 years after Moses. More ancient ideas Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud. The may be embedded in the material, and scholars feel J, E, Jerusalem Talmud is written in an Aramaic dialect and D and P all draw on oral traditions long predating their probably came from the region around the Jewish written form. Nonetheless, the fact that the composition intellectual centres of Tiberias, Sepphoris and Caesarea of the Torah (the fi rst fi ve books) was so long after the (roughly the area of modern Israel). There is much events depicted means care is needed when attempting to controversy about the dating of this Talmud, but it was understand the life of the Jews before King David (before probably written before 425 CE, when the emperor 1000 BCE). The Torah represents several intertwined Theodosius took fi rmer control of religion across the refl ections upon the past that validate contemporary Roman Empire. The Babylonian Talmud has a less certain understanding. While some stories and practices may be history. Tradition ascribes its beginnings to Jewish of ancient origin, the meaning, signifi cance, belief and Babylonians; however, it is thought that the text was then theology belong to the period of composition. subject to over 300 years of editing and reformation. As stated, the Tanak is thought to have been written The writings of signifi cant Jewish scholars from by many authors over many years, although tradition this era, the results of extensive discussion and exposition ascribes the Pentateuch to Moses. Others are implied, of the Tanak, have been included in what is called the such as the prophets whose books bear their names. ‘Gemara’. The Talmud has formed the basis of Jewish Others are mentioned by name, such as Baruch, the religious life since it was written. scribe of Jeremiah (Jeremiah 36: 4, 45: 1). It does seem that some writers collected or modifi ed stories that were extracts that circulating in the ancient Near East. For example, the story of the fl ood in Genesis 6 to 8 may have been drawn demonstrate from the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh and the creation principal beliefs story (Genesis 1) has similarities to the Babylonian Enuma Elish. The story of Moses in the basket on the Nile may The one god not have been an original story; Sargon, king of The concept of monotheism was discussed above in Mesopotamia who lived circa 2350–2330 BCE, was detail. Here are some references to the Tanak which purportedly set adrift in a similar manner and left an illustrate the various aspects of God. autobiography explaining this fact. Early Biblical writers may have used the best stories from the region to make God the creator of the universe Jewish scriptures as interesting as possible. The Tanak includes the three sections, the Torah, The most famous passage of God creating the universe is the Neviim and the Kethuvim. The Torah includes the the opening of Genesis, 1: 1 to 2: 3. This gives an account Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and of the seven days during which God created the world Deuteronomy) and primarily concerns the Patriarchs, (Heaven and Earth, day and night, sea and land, animals, the Covenant, the law and the establishment of Israel as a men and women, and vegetation). His ability to create the nation. The Neviim, or prophets, covers the period from world is encapsulated in 1: 31, ‘And God saw all that he the entry into the land of Israel to the Babylonian exile had made and behold, it was very good’. This creation (although Chronicles is included). The historical books story is thought to have been written by author P. The are considered the earlier prophets and the works seen as second creation story at Genesis 2: 4–25 is thought to prophetic utterances are considered the later prophets. have been written by author J, long before the fi rst story, The Kethuvim (writings) are categorised as wisdom, despite their order in the scriptures. Both stories, however, literature, poetry and the later historical works. stress the generative element of God. The Tanak was codifi ed in its current form by the Men of the Great Assembly around 450 BCE and was confi rmed by the Council of Jamnia in 70 CE. chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 255

God is one Much has been made of the fact that Judaism was the fi rst monotheism. This is to some extent a generalisation. Religions such as Zoroastrianism already had the structure that Judaism was to adopt: a duality of good and evil, represented in the former by the God of Light and the God of Darkness, and in the latter by YHWH and Satan. Certain cults such as that of Akhenaten in Egypt had also begun to venerate a single god above all others. Furthermore, Jewish scripture itself suggests that their god is not the only one in existence, but the only one who should be worshipped (see Exodus 20: 3). God the omnipotent God’s omnipotence is inferred from his creation of the world. It is also a central tenet of Judaism that all-powerful God delivers justice to those who follow his rules, and punishes those who disobey. An example is found in Exodus 14: 26– 31, where Moses uses God’s power to part the Red Sea; God is perceived as an all-knowing, all-powerful being for whom justice and obedience are all-important.

Hieronymus Bosch’s Garden of Eden, painted in 1500 CE, depicts Adam and Eve with God in the Garden before their fall from grace

This image, created during the reign of Akhenaten (circa 1377 BCE), depicts Akhenaten, his wife Nefertiti and their children. Akhenaten is considered by some to be the father of the fi rst monotheism for during his rule he made all Egyptians worship a single deity: the sun disk Aton 256 cambridge studies of religion

The Covenant – the Ten Commandments exodus 20: 2–17 There are two main extracts which deal with the Ten Commandments. Note – the numbers in the text are the 1 I am Hashem, your God, who brought you out of numbers of the commandments according to the Jewish the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery. form, not the verse numbers. Note also the use of the 2 You shall not recognise the gods of others in My term ‘Hashem’, which is a way of referring to God presence. You shall not make yourself a carved without using any name. Hashem became a term of image, nor any likeness of that which is in the convenience in more modern forms of Judaism to avoid heavens above or on the earth below or in the blasphemy. In Leviticus 24: 11, there is a story indicating water beneath the earth. You shall not prostrate that people who said a name of God outside of prayer yourself to them, nor worship them, for I am your could be stoned to death. God – a jealous God, who visits the sins of fathers There are two texts in which these commandments upon children to the third and fourth generations, are explained, usually summarised as follows: for My enemies, but who shows kindness for thousands of generations to those who love Me 1 Thou shalt have no other gods before me. and observe My commandments. 2 Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image. 3 You shall not take the name of your God in vain, 3 Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy for He will not absolve anyone who takes His God in vain. name in vain. 4 Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. 4 Remember the Sabbath day to sanctify it. Six 5 Honour thy father and thy mother. days shall you work and accomplish all your work; 6 Thou shalt not kill. but the Seventh day is Sabbath to your God; you 7 Thou shalt not commit adultery. shall not do any work – you, your son, your 8 Thou shalt not steal. daughter, your slave, your maidservant, your 9 Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour. animal, and your convert within your gates – for 10 Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s house, nor in six days God made the heavens and the earth, anything that is thy neighbour’s. the sea and all that is in them, and he rested on the seventh day. Therefore, God blessed the CONSIDER Sabbath day and sanctifi ed it. Look carefully at the two versions of the Ten Commandments. Are 5 Honour your father and mother, so that your days there any differences? Do you think they were written by different will be lengthened upon the land that your God individuals? Why might that be signifi cant? gives you. 6 You shall not kill. 7 You shall not commit adultery. 8 You shall not steal. 9 You shall not bear false witness against your fellow. 10 And you shall not covet your fellow’s house, and you shall not covet your fellow’s wife, his manservant, his maidservant, his ox, his donkey, or anything else that belongs to your fellow.

The Siddur, a Jewish prayer book containing a set order of daily prayers chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 257

deuteronomy 5: 6–21 Death and the afterlife Older expressions of the faith of Israel made little 1 I am Hashem, your God, who has taken you out of distinction between the fate of body and soul. Both were the land of Egypt, from the house of slavery. thought to be fi nite. Through the Greek infl uence in the 2 You shall not recognise the gods of others in My later writings of the period after exile, there came an Presence. You shall not make yourself a carved emphasis on the immortality of the soul. The Tanak has a image of any likeness of that which is in the very matter-of-fact attitude towards death. People are heavens above or on the earth below or in the born, life is hard, people try to live a good life and then water beneath the earth. You shall not prostrate they die. Sometimes there is an overtone of creative yourself to them nor worship them, for I am pessimism as in Ecclesiastes 3: 19: Hashem, your God – a jealous God, Who visits The fate of man and beast is identical; one dies, the the sins of the fathers upon children to the third other too, and both have the selfsame breath; man has and fourth generations, for My enemies; but no advantage over the beast . . . Both go to the same Who shows kindness for thousands [of place; both originate from dust and to dust return. generations], to those who love Me and observe The mourning rituals of Israel were similar to those My commandments. of other religions in the area. These seem to indicate 3 You shall not take the Name of Hashem, your concern for the fate of the dead. However, mentions of the God in vain, for Hashem will not absolve anyone afterlife in the Jewish scriptures are not explicit. Saul who takes His Name in vain. does conjure up Samuel’s spirit, even though 4 Safeguard the Sabbath day to sanctify it, as necromancy is forbidden (Deuteronomy 18: 11), and this Hashem, your God, has commanded you. Six indicates some continuing quality of the spirit after the days shall you labour and accomplish all your death of the body. It is said that the spirits of the dead go work, but the seventh day is Sabbath to Hashem, to Sheol, which is read as ‘the grave’, ‘pit’ and ‘dust’. your God; you shall not do any work – you, your Indications of Sheol are dimly sketched, for it is dark, son, your daughter, your slave … And you shall shadowy, below the earth, a place of no return. remember that you were a slave in the land of In some early passages there is a faint hope of God Egypt and Hashem, your God has taken you out saving people from Sheol: from there … therefore, Hashem, your God, has God will ransom my soul from the powers of Sheol commanded you to make the Sabbath day. For he will receive me 5 Honour your father and your mother, as Hashem, psalm 49: 15 your God, commanded you, so that your days will How God will save people from Sheol is not be lengthened and so that it will be good for you explained. The hope of salvation creates an environment upon the land that your God gives you. for resurrection of the dead; Hosea 6: 12 states: 6 You shall not kill. 7 You shall not commit adultery. Come, let us return to Yahweh He has torn us to pieces, but he will lead us; 8 You shall not steal. He has struck us down, but he will bandage 9 You shall not bear vain witness against your our wounds fellow. After a day or two he will bring us back to life On the third day he will raise us and we shall live 10 And you shall not covet your fellow’s wife, and in his presence. you shall not desire your fellow’s house, his fi eld, his slave, his maidservant, his ox, his donkey, or When the Jews returned from exile in Babylonia in anything else that belongs to your fellow. the 500s BCE, Zoroastrian (Persian) ideas began to infi ltrate Judaic traditions. This is why, later in the Tanak, the idea of the resurrection of the dead begins to develop. The view is that Yahweh’s dominion, which extends to Sheol, will raise the spirits up. 258 cambridge studies of religion

Towards the end of the Tanak, apocalyptic apocalyptic literature emerges. These writings reveal details of the a genre of literature, highly symbolic and end of time (apocalypse means ‘uncovered’ or ‘revealed’). mystical; it is usually This is best illustrated by the Book of Daniel, possibly written to discuss composed shortly after the Maccabaean revolt, but the ‘end of time’ alleged to have been written at the time of Nebuchadnezzar and so prophesising future events. Because it is actually written after the events, it gets the prophecies right, but some contemporary facts (for example, the year Nebuchadnezzar took Israel) are wrong. This indicates the author lived at a later date. Daniel’s retrospective prophecies are intended to give credence to his fi nal revelation: that God’s will (fate) is consistent and inevitable. Apocalyptic authors saw history coming to an end, and Daniel associated this with resurrection of the dead (12:1). Moreover, ever since the destruction of the monarchy there had been hope of its renewal and the arrival of a new ‘anointed one’ or messiah. It was only in the period after the Tanak was complete that messiah became a technical term for ‘saviour’. exercise 12.4

1 Identify the Jewish sacred writings. 2 Outline the composition of the Tanak. 3 Explain the role of the Talmud. activity 12.4

1 Write a paragraph about the development of the Talmud and explain why it was necessary to have another sacred text in Judaism. 2 Construct a table of key Jewish beliefs and link these to references from the sacred writings. 3 Prepare an outline for a ten-minute talk on the following – ‘The Tanak is simply a compilation of writings from other cultures and traditions and not the inspired revelation of God.’

The prophet Daniel from Michaelangelo’s Sistine Chapel ceiling chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 259 Core ethical teachings

The ethical teachings of Judaism are based on the This last rule is a famous dietary law that dictates purported revelations of God in the sacred writings and how Jews cook. Many Jewish houses have two sets of texts. Jews frequently refer to these writings and base kitchen utensils, even two separate kitchens. One is for their principles on discussion or examination of the sacred cooking milk dishes, the other for cooking meat dishes. texts. The divine origin of the commandments of God A suitable period of time must elapse after a milk-based and the Covenant mould Jewish ethics. Jews use the term meal before a meat meal can be eaten. halachah halachah for the way they are to live, based on the 613 Jewish people make much effort to keep to these literally, ‘the going commandments of the Torah. extensive laws, but what do they mean? One writer, Mary or the way to live’; refers to Jewish Douglas in her book Purity and danger, has suggested ethics and morality the commandments that Jewish life is divided between pure and impure of the torah actions, and explains the proscriptions of Leviticus as a series of categories, defi ned sometimes by common sense There are 613 commandments throughout the Hebrew (fathers should not have sex with their children) but Bible, most in Leviticus. These commandments must be sometimes random (only fi sh with scales can be eaten). obeyed by all faithful Jews. Anything that cannot fi t into these categories (chaste fathers and fi sh with scales do fi t) is unclean or forbidden. INVESTIGATE That which is dirty or unclean has become that which is out of place. Douglas’ argument runs against those that Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website for a link to a many of the commandments on eating are based on listing of all 613 commandments. sanitary evidence. With the dietary commandments, she suggests in the end that: The ten most famous commandments are divided . . . by these rules of avoidance holiness was given a between those concerning relationships with fellow humans physical expression in every encounter with the animal and those describing people’s relationship with God. The kingdom and at every meal. Observance of the dietary fi rst four commandments concern the human relationship rules would have been a meaningful part of the great liturgical act of recognition and worship which with God, while the other six detail how humans should culminated in the sacrifi ce in the temple. behave towards one another; the fi fth commandment, of honouring one’s mother and father, can be seen as a point of The 613 commandments are of great importance to the Jewish people, providing a way that society can keep connection between the two types of relationship. itself in order. They ensure that people behave ethically The remaining 603 commandments are rules for towards each other. Most importantly, they ensure that how Jews should live, and touch on every aspect of life. Jews remain mindful of God in every part of their day, These commandments show that Judaism is not simply a especially meal times. weekend faith, but a plan for every moment of life. The 603 commandments focus on issues such as what kings the prophetic vision must do, how priests and rabbis must act, how one should farm, what one should wear, and ethical and dietary laws. A prophet passes God’s message on to the rest of the Some of the more interesting rules include: community, and lives an exemplary life of holiness and • Do not embarrass another (Leviticus 19: 17) wisdom based on the information he or she has received • Do not bear a grudge (Leviticus 19: 18) from God. There may have been prophets whose lives • Do not mate with animals or different species and teachings were not recorded in the scriptures. The (Leviticus 19: 19) scriptures record 55 prophets of Israel, seven of whom • Do not plant a field with two or more crops were women. This does not include those prophets who (Leviticus 19: 19) were not Israelite, although Jews believe that they, too, had a special relationship with God. • Do not wear clothes that contain a combination There is evidence of a Jewish wariness of false of fi bres (Leviticus 19: 19) prophets. In Deuteronomy, a warning is given to those who • Do not eat the fruit of a tree during its fi rst three years might be tempted to give false messages to the people: (Leviticus 19: 23) • You shall not cook a kid in the milk of its mother God says, ‘I will establish a prophet for them among their brethren, like [Moses], and I will place My words (Exodus 23: 19). in his mouth; he shall speak to them everything that I will command him … But the prophet who wilfully shall speak a word in My Name, that which I have not commanded him to speak, or who shall speak in the name of the gods of others – that prophet shall die’. deuteronomy 18: 18–20 260 cambridge studies of religion

The most important prophets of Israel are The Book of Proverbs Abraham (Genesis 11–25), Sarah (Genesis 11–23), Isaac (Genesis 21–35), Jacob (Genesis 25–49), Moses (Exodus The Book of Proverbs is described in the fi rst verse as 2ff), Aaron (Exodus 4ff), Miriam (12, 20), King David (I having been written by Solomon, son of David and King Samuel 16–I Kings 2: 11) and King Solomon (I Kings of Israel. If so, the Book of Proverbs was written in the 1–11). Moses is the most prominent of all. 900s BCE. This book is not a series of laws, but a series of It is believed that prophets were occasionally given short statements that encourage good behaviour in Jewish the gift of prophecy by God to help their community, but men. It is a collection of moral and ethical instructions predicting the future was not their main function. It was related to practical living and everyday concerns. not a hereditary role either. Their role was to act as an Wisdom intermediary between God and the people, to maintain the relationship and sustain their community with faith In Proverbs 1: 7 it says: and wise counsel. The most signifi cant aspect of a The fear of Hashem is the beginning of knowledge; prophet’s message was the maintenance and protection of foolish ones scorn wisdom and discipline. the Covenant. During the last days before the exile, the Here, wisdom is equated with reverence for the eighth-century prophets reminded the people of their message of God. In the next few verses, Proverbs also breaking of the Covenant and their lack of social justice. encourages children to listen carefully to their mothers The mistreatment of foreigners, widows and orphans is and fathers – this suggests that wisdom is also to be found part of their message and a reminder that the people have in respect for the natural system of status. forgotten the Covenant (Isaiah 1: 17–23, Jeremiah 22: 3, In 2: 6, wisdom is seen as something granted by God, Ezekiel 22: 7, Zechariah 7: 10). and one knows wisdom from his statements, particularly Tikkun olam through the Torah. If this book was written by Solomon to his son, it is in part a guide for good rulership. Tikkun olam is a central infl uence in Judaism. Roughly, it In 3: 3, the book suggests that kindness and truth tikkun olam means ‘the repairing of the world’. The idea, despite its are always important. By upholding kindness and truth, the Jewish concept of the centrality, is quite vague. In the Talmud, it is used for the repair of the world; the an individual will fi nd further good wisdom in ‘the eyes need for social justice avoidance of negative social change. In mystical forms of of God and man’. Judaism, however, the concept becomes a little clearer. This believes that the cosmos God created was too unstable Righteousness to contain his brilliance and it shattered like glass. Adhering In Chapter 9, Proverbs suggests that wise and righteous to Jewish religious laws, especially the commandments, men will only add to their learning. contributes to the gradual healing of the cosmos. Thus, the In 10: 20 it states, pious Jewish individual is assisting God in the repair of his The tongue of a righteous person is choice silver, but creation through their good deeds. the heart of the wicked is minute. Orthodox Jews, however, dispense with this mythology and suggest that tikkun olam is an attempt to Righteousness, the book suggests, leads to wealth right the wrongs of the world by behaving responsibly and long life, whereas the wicked will die from lacking an towards mankind. The ‘repairing of the world’ is not seen understanding heart. literally, but as a realistic gesture enabling the improvement Purity of the world’s social relationships. For mainstream Jews, tikkun olam is manifested through charity, supporting Purity is discussed in the Book of Proverbs from the social-justice issues and behaving with compassion. perspective of a man speaking to another man. Chapter 5 Orthodox Jews believe that performing mitzvot is a is concerned with the temptation of women and warns that mitzvot form of tikkun olam and will hasten the coming of the being lured astray by women will lead to a bitter death. keeping the commandments of God messianic age. Among non-Orthodox Jews, tikkun olam Similarly, chapters 7 and 11 advise men to keep away from is a political term used to refer to social justice. female prostitutes and the wives of other men. Generosity of spirit INVESTIGATE Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website to discover more A fool is one who is not generous in consideration of about prophets and tikkun olam. others, and people are encouraged to consider the needs of others (17: 5, 13, 17; 19: 17; 22: 9). chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 261

importance of principal ethical exercise 12.5 1 Outline the principle ethical teachings teachings in from the Torah. jewish life 2 Outline the principal ethical teachings In any society, ethics are vital for the enduring success from the Prophets. and peace of the community. Proverbs divides its message 3 Explain the concept of tikkun olam. between the good actions required of a king and those required of a good Jew. At times, the concepts of king and good Jew are interchangeable. Kindness and loyalty activity 12.5 within the community are the important aspects of the 1 Taking the role of a Jewish adherent, ethics of Judaism, and wisdom and right behaviour are make a speech about the importance of celebrated. This is not knowledge for its own sake, but ethical teachings in the life of a believer. knowledge inspired by fear and reverence of God, wisdom that is focused on his words and the teachings of his 2 Read the Book of Proverbs in the Hebrew Bible prophets. and construct a table identifying its teachings The goodwill towards others promoted by the on wisdom, righteousness, purity and ethical teachings of Judaism, as contained in the Torah, generosity of spirit. the prophetic vision, the tikkun olam and the Book of 3 Write a paragraph about Jewish ethics Proverbs, ensures a safe and protective Jewish community in modern Australia. and a place in the world where common laws and ideals encourage close bonds between individuals.

A modern synagogue 262 cambridge studies of religion Observance: Shabbat

Shabbat is an important ritual observance for Jews. It Shabbat (or Sabbath) represents the day God rested after he created the world, an important ritual observance for Jews, the seventh day of creation. This day extends from sunset it represents the day on Friday to sunset on Saturday. It is not a day of great God rested after he religious restriction, but is a day of relaxation which is a created the world, that is, the seventh day of gesture of respect to God, and also a gift from him. It is creation as recorded in specifi ed in the Ten Commandments, and so one of the Genesis; shabbat literally central duties of the dutiful Jew. While praying is an means ‘to cease’ and refers primarily to the important activity, feasting and spending time with one’s seventh day of the week family is considered just as important. It could be argued that sitting down and conversing with family members at a weekly meal helps in the social development of Jews of all ages. The tendency for Jews to choose sophisticated professions such as law, medicine and scholarship is closely connected to Jewish family togetherness. While Shabbat refers primarily to the seventh day of the week, there are also Biblical references to the seventh year, when debts are cancelled (Leviticus 25 and Deuteronomy 31: 10), and the ‘Year of Jubilee’, the fi ftieth year, after seven times seven years – see Leviticus 25). Some Jews treat the injunction to do nothing on this day with great seriousness. At synagogues, many pews have their own compartments so that people do not have to carry their Torah to worship. Some Jewish communities have negotiated with local councils to have traffi c lights change automatically, enabling Jews to cross the road without pressing the pedestrian button. Connecting an The sharing of a Seder meal is an important part of the Shabbat celebrations electric current can be considered work; in Israel, many lifts and automatic doors operate randomly on the Sabbath so that Jewish people can move about. Any action pre- programmed into a machine before the Sabbath is not considered work, so cookers on timers and timed light switches that are set before sundown on Friday do not breach the injunction against work if they click on during the Sabbath. There are elaborate rituals conducted on the Shabbat, especially the Shabbat meal in the home. In Judaism, the home is an important place of worship and often referred to as a ‘small temple’. The Shabbat is ushered in by the lighting of two candles, usually by the women of the house. A kiddush (sanctifi cation) is recited over a cup of kiddush wine, three festive meals are enjoyed featuring challah a prayer used to bless the Shabbat meal (two traditional braided loaves of bread) and pleasurable activities such as singing, eating and time with the family are enjoyed. At the end of the Shabbat, there is a havdalah havdalah (separation) ceremony. Usually Jews attend the a ceremony to mark the end of the Shabbat synagogue on the Shabbat and many study the Torah. chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 263

exercise 12.6 end of chapter

1 Explain the concept of Shabbat. summary 2 Describe the way Jews celebrate Shabbat. • Abraham is considered the founder of Judaism 3 Describe ways that Jews avoid work on • God established a Covenant with Abraham, later the Shabbat. reaffi rmed with Moses and the people of Israel • The twelve tribes of Israel became the nation activity 12.6 of Israel

1 Talk to a Jewish person and ask how they • Moses is considered the greatest individual observe the Shabbat. in Judaism 2 Debate the following topic – ‘The Shabbat was • Moses led the people from slavery in Egypt made for people, not people for the Shabbat.’ and into the promised land 3 Research the expression of Judaism in Australia • Moses mediated the Covenant and describe how modern Jews in between God and Israel Australia celebrate Shabbat. • Moses received the Torah, the law of Israel • Historical developments in the history of the Jews are discussed • The major divisions of Judaism include » Sephardim and Ashkenazim » Conservative, Orthodox and Progressive/Reform Judaism • Judaism believes in one god • Moral law is considered to be divinely inspired • The Covenant is an extremely important concept in Judaism • The Hebrew scriptures include the Hebrew Bible (Tanak) and the Talmud • Extracts from the scared writings that relate to key beliefs are discussed • Ethical teachings of Judaism are outlined, including » The commandments of the Torah » The social justice of the Prophets » The tikkun olam and the concept of the repair of the world » Several concepts in the Book of Proverbs • The importance of Shabbat is discussed 264 cambridge studies of religion End of chapter questions

multiple choice questions (10)

1 Who did Abraham marry? 6 The belief in one god is called: a Rebecca a Monotheism b Rachel b Polytheism c Leah c Deism d Sarah d Pluralism

2 What is a Covenant? 7 Which of the following is a sacred text in Judaism? a an agreement a The New Testament b a threat b The Talmud c a place where women withdraw from the world c The Book of Morman d an orphanage d The Book of Hezekiah

3 The event which saw the Hebrews released 8 Judaism draws its ethical teachings from: from Egypt is called: a The New Testament a The exile b The Book of Hezekiah b The Exodus c The Torah c The restoration d The Gospels d The Covenant 9 Who was an infl uential prophetic voice in the 4 The celebration of the release from Egypt is: formation of Jewish ethics? a the Holocaust a Adam b Yom Kippur b David c The Passover or Pesach c Judas Maccabees d The Feast of Weeks d Amos

5 Which group is most comfortable with women rabbis? 10 Why is Shabbat a signifi cant day? a Conservative Judaism a It celebrates the day of rest following creation b Orthodox Judaism b It is the day everyone gets paid more c Progressive/Reform Judaism c It is the fi rst day of the week d Regressive Judaism d It is the day that marks the end of the Exodus. chapter 12 judaism – the basic facts 265

short answer response to stimulus questions (6) question (1)

1 Construct a timeline entitled ‘The life of Abraham’.

2 Describe the Covenant, with particular reference to the promises within it.

3 Outline the unique features of one school of Judaism.

4 ‘If God is relational, then he is concerned about relationships between his people.’ Discuss.

5 Discuss the impact of the eighth-century prophets on the ethics of Judaism.

6 Describe a typical Shabbat observance. extended response questions (3) How does Judaism seek to express itself in a way relevant to modern Australian society, but also maintaining 1 ‘I will be your god and you will be my people.’ the traditions important to its history and beliefs? Discuss the implications of this statement, particularly as it relates to the Covenant.

2 Outline the sources of Jewish ethics, noting the development of ideas through the Tanak.

3 Outline the events of the Exodus, with emphasis on the giving of the law. chapter 13

Judaism depth study (HSC) 268 cambridge studies of religion

I am not an American citizen of Jewish faith. I am a Jew. I have been an American for sixty-three years, but I have been a Jew for 4000 years. rabbi stephen s wise (1874–1949)

chapter summary

This chapter discusses: • Moses Maimonides is one of the most • Sexual ethic needs to be infl uential Jewish scholars of all time expressed within the context • Living in the twelfth century, Moses of a family relationship Maimonides came to prominence • Judaism generally takes a conservative • Moses Maimonides had a diffi cult early approach to homosexuality life but showed signs of great ability • Judaism is a patriarchal religious • Moses Maimonides’ extensive writings tradition that has strong gender roles continue to infl uence Judaism today • Jewish feminism is • The Hasidim emerged in eastern challenging traditional Jewish Europe in the eighteenth century, attitudes and practices led by Ba’al Shem Tov • The synagogue has replaced • Ba’yal Shem Tov emphasised a joyful, the Temple as the place of experiential spirituality in the face worship in Judaism of dry, scholarly legalistic Judaism • The synagogue is also a meeting • The Hasidim emerged as one of place and educational centre the most signifi cant schools of • The synagogue has particular thought in the modern era architectural features • The Hasidim are distinctive in • Synagogue services follow their dress and practices the liturgy of the Siddur • The Hasidim are the commonly • Synagogue services include readings depicted form of Judaism today, from the Torah, prayers and blessings examples of Orthodox Judaism • Jewish ethics emphasise the legal requirements of Judaism chapter 13 judaism depth study (hsc) 269

introduction

In this chapter the life of a signifi cant person or the rise and development of a signifi cant idea in Judaism will be examined. In the HSC examination, students will be asked to explain how this person or school of thought contributed to the growth of Judaism and assess the impact of the idea or person on Judaism itself. To do this effectively, students will need to know something of the controversies surrounding the chosen person or school of thought. In this book two examples are provided, Moses Maimonides and the Hasidim. The Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM contains most of the ideas Lighting Hanukkah candles and people listed in the syllabus, as well as the other ethical areas and practices. Finally, students will need to describe a signifi cant Students will also need to describe a Jewish ethical practice (ritual, worship etc.) within Judaism and show, teaching in a particular area; one of sexual ethics, fi rstly, how it highlights Jewish beliefs and, secondly, how bioethical issues or environmental ethics. The HSC will it makes meaning for Jews, both individually and as a also ask for an explanation of why the particular ethical community. In this chapter synagogue services will be teaching is important in Judaism. Jewish sexual ethics discussed, while burial and mourning and marriage will will be discussed in this chapter. be discussed on the Cambridge Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM.

Hasidic Jews wearing typical clothing 270 cambridge studies of religion Signifi cant people and schools of thought

There are many signifi cant people and schools of thought schools of thought that have infl uenced Judaism and brought Jewish infl uences into the world. Those infl uences have had a Kabbalah – A mystical form of Judaism with esoteric great impact on the Western and Oriental worlds. Of beliefs and practices. It has had a popular revival in those people and schools, several are discussed in this recent years. section, and more are available on the Cambridge Studies Zionism – A religious and political movement that of Religion Teacher CD-ROM. Remember the syllabus supported the idea of a homeland for the Jews, resulting allows for ‘another person or school of thought’ to be in the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. It was studied. Also remember that, as well as discussing the life developed by Theodor Herzl in the nineteenth century. and contribution of the person or school of thought, students will need to analyse their impact on Judaism. Jewish feminism – A movement that emphasises the rights of women in Judaism and challenges its patriarchal attitudes. The feminine aspects of God are emphasised people and the role of women in the Tanak highlighted. Deborah (circa eleventh century BCE) – Fourth judge and prophetess of Israel; she assumed leadership when moses maimonides Barak refused to lead the fi ght against the Philistines. She was a legendary charismatic leader who provides a (moses ben maimon) model for female leadership. Moses Ben Maimon (1135–1204 CE) was one of the Isaiah (eighth century BCE) – Infl uential prophet during greatest Jewish thinkers of all time, who has infl uenced last days of Kingdom of Judah; he warned of the present-day Judaism as well as his own era. Moses destruction brought by the Assyrians and called people Miamonides is known as ‘the second Moses’ as he has back to the Covenant. achieved a status similar to the Moses of the Jewish scriptures, a status few have achieved in Judaism. Hillel (and Shamai) (first century BCE – first century CE) – Important Jewish scholar who helped develop the Mishnah and Talmud; modern Rabbinic Judaism has been influenced by Hillel. Shamai was a Judean contemporary who was a more rigorous interpreter of the law. Beruriah (second century CE) – Respected woman scholar who emphasised the important of context in the interpretation of texts. Rabbai Solomon Isaac (Rashi) (eleventh/twelfth century CE) – French scholar who wrote commentaries on the Talmud, Torah and Tanak; he is also associated with the ‘Rashi Script’, a style of written Hebrew. Moses Mendelssohn (eighteenth century CE) – German Jewish philosopher who infl uenced the development of the Jewish Enlightenment; often called ‘the third Moses’. Abraham Geiger (nineteenth century CE) – German Jewish scholar and rabbi who developed the ideas that became Reform (Progressive) Judaism; he fought against Jewish nationalism. Moses Maimonides Rabbi Isaac Abraham Hacohen Kook (Rav Kook) (nineteenth/twentieth century CE) – Jewish thinker and statesman who was associated with the British Mandate for Palestine; a Talmud scholar and sociologist, he was moderate in his attitude to Zionism. chapter 13 judaism depth study (hsc) 271

Moses Maimonides’ life Guide was controversial, dividing Judaism at the time, but has had a profound infl uence on the medieval world Moses Maimonides was born in 1135 CE in Cordova, and on Judaism since. He also compiled the 613 Spain, as the son of Maimon, a scholar of some commandments of Judaism in his Book of signifi cance. Maimon ensured Moses received instruction commandments. from a number of Arabic masters. When he was 13 years Moses Maimonides died in 1204 and was buried at of age, the Jewish family was forced to wander Spain in a Tiberias in Israel. His grave is visited by many today. nomadic existence as the Muslim Almohades, from Followers of Moses Maimonides often refer to him as Africa, had invaded. In 1160 they moved to Fez in rabbi with his Hebrew name – Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon northern Africa, initially trying to pass as Muslims. But (Rambam). Moses was recognised as a scholar of some note, having begun his commentary on the Mishnah. He was a well rounded scholar, having studied astronomy, law, medicine, FURTHERMORE religion and philosophy. Having been identifi ed as Jews There is a view that there is a confl ict between faith and philosophy. and in danger of execution as ‘lapsed Muslims’, his family It was said of the Guide for the perplexed that rabbis were afraid to moved to Egypt in 1165 and Maimonides helped his let Jews read it because it was so long and complex that a person brother trade gems. His brother’s early death prompted might read a section where Maimonides attacks religion using a Maimonides to study medicine, and he became private rationalist approach but fall asleep before they read his physician to the Egyptian ruler. His skill was also counterattack, and thus spend the night as a heretic! recognised in the Jewish community and he became the nagid nagid, leader of the Egyptian Jews (a post held by four Hebrew term meaning generations of his family). He served as spokesman for Contribution to the development prince or leader the Jewish community with the Muslim authorities in and expression of Judaism Egypt. Maimonides’ impact on Judaism Between 1158 and 1190 Moses Maimonides wrote many works, including a commentary on the Mishnah, Maimonides’ Jewish writings are available today and his the Code Mishnah, and a philosophical work, the Moreh philosophical Treatise on logic has been published in Nebukim. Maimonides became acknowledged as a writer many languages. He also wrote many medical texts that of note, his works ranging from the medical, including are still available, such as his works on poisons, treatises on personal hygiene and proper eating habits haemorrhoids, asthma and temperaments. and the great theological works for which he is most remembered. Maimonides was infl uenced by Greek and Muslim philosophers, as well as his own Jewish TABLE 13.1 SOME OF MAIMONIDES’ JEWISH TEXTS: background. He supported the views of Aristotle that, WORK DATE SUBJECT while there are limitations to knowing God’s attributes directly. His people have a duty, through reason, to Commentary on 1180 Codifi cation of oral law comprehend the divine mind. God is rational and so can the Mishnah be understood rationally. Book of 1190s Compilation of the Moses Maimonides is best known for his commandments 613 commandments Mishnah Torah comprehensive writing including the Mishnah Torah, Mishnah Torah 1168/1177 Comprehensive code fi rst written record which was published in 1180, having been written over of the oral law of of Jewish law the previous ten years. In the Mishnah Torah, Maimonides the Jewish people Guide for the 1190 A philosophical work codifi ed oral law in fourteen volumes, arranged topically, perplexed drawing together that could be used by Jewish judges. It is a distillation of Aristotelian philosophy the Talmud into a simple code so that all Jews could and Jewish theology understand the requirements of the law without lengthy study. It drew on ancient law as well as contemporary Letter to the 1172 To support the Jews Jews in Yemen suffering in Yemen Guide for the perplexed issues. As it was written in Hebrew, it was a clearly a theological and presented and accessible work. In 1190, Maimonides philosophical work that published the Guide for the perplexed, a great discusses issues such as the existence and nature theological and philosophical work that discussed the of God, God’s knowledge nature of God. It was deliberately written in diffi cult and the nature of evil language so that only scholars could understand it. The 272 cambridge studies of religion

Maimonides’ writing was so infl uential in the years Analysing Maimonides’ impact that followed that Jewish scholarship for centuries was divided into supporters and opponents of his ideas. Many Moses Maimonides is an extremely infl uential fi gure in largely accepted his ideas but remained suspicious where Judaism. His impact and infl uences shape much of Jewish they seemed to contradict religious tradition. His work theology today. His discussion on the idea of the was also used by Christian scholars, notably by Thomas resurrection of the dead, for example, was radical at the Aquinas who often referred in his writings to Rabbi time he wrote it and is a good example of the infl uence of Moses. He was uniquely able to draw together the ideas Aristotle’s philosophy. While his ideas were initially of the Graeco-Roman world, the Muslim and Arab world, criticised, they have now been largely accepted as and the Jewish and Western world. It is said of him that: mainstream Jewish thought. Moses Maimonides’ thirteen ‘From Moses [of the Jewish Bible] to Moses [Maimonides], principles are now published in the Jewish Prayer Book, there is none like Moses’. Maimonides’ work is still the siddur, used in private and public worship. regarded by many as the greatest Jewish writing, aside from the Torah, ever written. INVESTIGATE Moses Maimonides’ Guide for the perplexed is available from the INVESTIGATE Cambridge Studies of Religion website. His other works are Many of Moses Maimonides’ works are complex and not easy to generally also available. understand. For a discussion of his works, especially his philosophical writings, access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and look up Moses ben Maimon. exercise 13.1

Maimonides’ impact on society 1 Outline the life of Moses Maimonides. One of Maimonides’ most important developments was 2 Explain the contribution of Moses his Thirteen Precepts. These are like a creed and are Maimonides to Judaism. Thirteen Precepts Moses Maimonides’ considered to be a statement of orthodox Jewish belief. 3 Analyse the impact of Moses Maimonides principles of faith, Moses Miamonides’ Thirteen Precepts are: on the Judaism of his day. which he believed every 1 God has created the world and rules it. Jew should maintain 2 God is one and the only one. 3 God is spirit (incorporeal) and activity 13.1 cannot be represented. 1 Write a short paragraph detailing the major 4 God was the fi rst and will be the last. events in the life of Moses Maimonides. 5 Prayers should only be addressed to God. 6 The words of the prophets are true. 2 Debate the topic: ‘From Moses to 7 Moses was the greatest of all prophets. Moses, there is none like Moses’. 8 The Torah was revealed to Moses and is true. 3 Prepare a summary of one of Moses 9 The Torah cannot be changed. Maimonides’ writings and explain 10 God knows all human actions and thoughts. its signifi cance to Judaism. 11 God rewards those who keep the commandments and punishes those who do not. 12 The messiah will come. 13 The dead will be raised. chapter 13 judaism depth study (hsc) 273

the hasidim (hasidic In this context, the rise of a more experiential and less intellectual Judaism took place. This movement, led judaism, chasidim) by Israel Ben Eliezar, became known as the Hasidim (or Chasidim). Ben Eliezar was a charismatic storyteller In eighteenth-century Judaism, scholarship was greatly and healer, and it is diffi cult to distinguish reality from valued and Judaism had become, according to some and legend in discussion of his life. It has been suggested particularly in Europe, bound by law, tradition and that he could predict the future. He became known as intellectual debates. In eastern Europe, because of Ba’al Shem Tov, which means ‘master of the good name’, poverty, the need for long hours of work and isolation, and he is usually referred to by this title. Ba’al Shem Tov A Hasidic Jew there was little chance for the study of the Torah. emphasised that all Jewish people are equal and study prays at the Western Scholarship was elitist and the peasants of eastern Europe Wall in Jerusalem: of the Torah is less important than purity of heart. felt alienated from Judaism. This provided fertile ground note the curls grown Prayer and obedience to the commandments are more from his temple for the growth of the Hasidim. important than religious study. Thus the poor and illiterate were empowered to discover a form of Judaism relevant to their situations. He encouraged living a full life and said that drinking, singing and dancing were ways of growing closer to God. His sayings were initially spread orally and later written down. Among the ideas of Ba’al Shem Tov and the Hasidic tradition, the following are emphasised: • Hasidism is not a new movement, but ancient ideas are given new life. • Being truly good is more important than scholarship. • Joyfulness is found in everyday life. • An individual’s relationship with God is more important than strict observance of the law. • Prayer is more important than study of the Torah. • Giftedness is more important than scholarship. At times there was an emphasis on ecstasy in worship, which was a reaction to the formalism of traditional Judaism. Charismatic leadership, rather than intellectual leadership, became the norm in the Hasidic tradition. Other Jewish groups attacked the Hasidim because they believed its teaching would The history of the Hasidim undermine traditional Jewish orthodoxy. Ba’al Shem The Hasidim began as a reaction to this legalistic, Tov died about 1770 and the movement continued to Hasidim (or Chasidim) intellectualised Judaism. The growth of Hasidic Judaism grow. Leadership always passed to a zaddik who was pious ones is linked to the life of Israel Ben Eliezar, often called thought to be the model of Jewish behaviour. He was a

zaddik Ba’al Shem Tov, and took place around 1700 to 1760 CE. charismatic leader, rather than a scholarly one, and righteous man Israel Ben Eliezar was born in the Ukraine, at Okup, was believed to have obtained mystical union with about 1700 CE. He was greatly infl uenced by Kabbalah, God. He was seen as the mediator between God and the Jewish mystical tradition, and developed his own his followers, and was expected to use his power for mystical tradition. In some parts of eastern Europe, such the good of the community. This leader was and is the as the Ukraine and Poland, there was growing focus of intense devotion. discontentment with Judaism as taught by the rabbis. 274 cambridge studies of religion

The Hasidim grew until there were several million Lag Ba’omer pilgrims annually celebrate the followers in eastern Europe in the 1930s. During the ending of the plague described in the Talmud Holocaust most of the Hasidim were killed, but some Holocaust moved to other countries, such as the USA and Australia, The Hasidic movement has been very infl uential in the execution of the Jews during World War II where they are a recognisable form of Judaism. The modern Judaism. Some have called it ‘mysticism for the leaders of the Hasidic groups are now called Rebbe, from masses’. It is a noticeable group through the appearance of the Yiddish word for ‘master or teacher’. its adherents. It is the most missionary-minded movement in Judaism and uses technology such as the internet to seek followers, mainly aiming to draw in other Jews. CONSIDER While Hasidism began as a revolutionary form of Judaism, It now seems ironic that Hasidism began in reaction to traditional, it is now seen as a conservative, orthodox form of Judaism. conservative Judaism. Many would identify Hasidic Judaism in Its distinctive dress, refl ecting that of eastern Europe in the twenty-fi rst century as the most traditional, conservative the 1800s, its hairstyle that included ringlets in front of form of Judaism. Is that a correct observation? If so, why do you the ears, and its ultra-conservative theology are in contrast think this has happened? to its origins. The Hasidim brought a revolutionary understanding Contribution to the development to Judaism, and invite all Jews to share that enthusiasm and expression of Judaism in their worship of God. While its original emotional and experiential emphasis seems to have lessened, Hasidic The Hasidim’s impact on Judaism Judaism is an attractive option for many Jews. There was initially a negative reaction to the Hasidim, but eventually Judaism recognised that it brought a renewed emphasis to important expressions of the faith: respect for the simple Jew, spirituality, ethics, compassion for others, and the belief that true religion was the same as joy. Hasidism spread to western Europe, and then to the USA in the 1880s. Many Hasidic scholars stayed in Russia following the Soviet revolution in 1917, to preserve Judaism. chapter 13 judaism depth study (hsc) 275

Analysing the Hasidim’s impact CONSIDER Hasidism emphasises several aspects of Jewish teaching. The short Australian fi lm Jewboy (2005) examines the struggle of a These include: Jewish Hasidic young man to come to terms with his faith, his family and his community. Some suggest Hasidism has no place in • An emphasis on physical and spiritual revival; it seeks twenty-fi rst century Australia. Does it? How diffi cult would it be to to help Jews rediscover their faith live a Hasidic life in modern Australia? • An emphasis on personal piety, beyond the letter of the law • An emphasis on refi nement of character, developing Summary maturity, good habits and good manners Hasidic Judaism is one of the most recognisable forms of • An emphasis on experiential and practical Judaism; Judaism and is often identifi ed as Orthodox Judaism. In the legalism of Judaism and the mysticism of Kabbalah Australia it is often seen as the expression of Judaism in should both be made understandable. the eastern suburbs of Sydney. However one might Hasidic Jews also emphasise a number of particular interpret Hasidism in the modern context, it has certainly rituals, customs and practices, including: been the Judaism that has revitalised Judaism during the • Concentrated prayer, often lengthy and involving past two hundred years. mental concentration • Daily immersion in a ritual bath to achieve spiritual cleanliness, especially during times of ritual exercise 13.2 observation • Distinctive dress, similar to that of eastern Europe; 1 Describe the development of the Hasidim. clothes often include black suits, no necktie, long silk 2 Explain why Hasidism was such an robes and fur hats, which often have particular important development of Judaism. mystical signifi cance • Black hats are worn and often fur on the Sabbath 3 Analyse the contribution of • The sides of the face are not shaved and long sideburns Hasidism to Judaism. or ringlets called payoth are the custom • Many Hasidim speak Yiddish, a dialect developed activity 13.2 in Europe, considering Hebrew a holy language not to be used in daily life. 1 Conduct a media search on Australian Judaism. What links to Hasidism can you discover in the Australian Jewish community? The Hasidim in the modern world 2 Debate the topic – ‘Rebbe Zalman Of those who escaped from Europe, many have gone to Schneersohn is the messiah’. Israel, the USA and other countries including Australia. 3 Construct a table outlining the differences The Hasidim are recognisable by the black coats and hats between Hasidism and other schools of Judaism. they wear, and many grow long curls either side of their faces and beards. A signifi cant Hasidic community exists in New York, USA, called the Lubavitcher community. Their former leader, Rebbe Zalman Schneersohn, instituted an outreach campaign in America and was declared to be the messiah by his supporters. This caused a great deal of confl ict in the Jewish community, which was only partly resolved by his death in 1994. There are many Hasidic groups across the world. Many Hasidim have accepted Zionism and support the establishment of the state of Israel, while others believe that Israel will only be established when the messiah comes. 276 cambridge studies of religion Ethics introduction bioethics

The Jewish sacred text, the Torah, provides the basis The Torah and especially the Decalogue provide the for Judaism’s ethical system as well as the beliefs and rationale for Jewish ethics. lives of its adherents. Judaism is a religion based on the Orthodox Judaism is more conservative in bioethical divine revelation of its sacred writings, and thus the issues than Progressive/Reform Judaism. As suicide is commands and principles these contain are also not acceptable in Judaism, euthanasia is also unacceptable. considered divine in origin. Jews have a strong belief Abortion is generally acceptable, but debate remains that they are in a Covenant relationship with God, and about when the foetus becomes a human being. AI and the implication of that relationship is the requirement IVF are acceptable where the donors of the egg and to live as God has intended. sperm are husband and wife. Jews are called to be in a good relationship with God and also with other people. In Judaism the term environmental halachah is used to refer to the way Jews are to live. halachah Belief in halachah provides the basis for an ethical and ethics literally, ‘the going or the way to live’, moral way of life and provides the principles by which referring to Jewish Jews live. Halachah includes the 613 commandments The world is God’s creation and human beings are to be ethics and morality (mitzvot) that are contained in the Torah. The halachah caretakers of it. Thus Jews are commanded to care for the Earth, leading to debate about the relationships between mitzvot have been expanded through the writings of rabbis over keeping the succeeding centuries. These halachah have been the world, God and human beings. The concept of tikkun commandments of God systematised by several scholars, the most infl uential olam (‘the repairing of the world’) is important here, as being Moses Miamonides (1135–1204 CE). Halachah environmental ethics are part of the restorative process. details the principles of ethical living so that believers This is displayed in the keeping of the commandments can use their consciences in everyday life. The essential but also in social justice, which incorporates care for the basis of all Jewish ethics is the declaration that God is environment. The fulfi lment of tikkun olam, the good. If God is good, the people of God are to imitate recreation of the world, in the Messianic Age seems to be and express this goodness. part of the utopian vision. The fundamental guide to ethical behaviour is the Ten Commandments or Decalogue, recorded in Exodus sexual ethics 20: 1–17. They have become an important statement of ethical behaviour, focused on the worship of God and Sexual ethics are concerned with the behaviour of Jews in respect for other people. A number of attempts have their relationships with others. In Judaism, sexual relations been made to summarise the Ten Commandments in should be expressed within the relationship of marriage, more relevant forms. The Tanak asks, ‘What does God and they should be expressed freely. Strict codes of require of you but to do justice, love kindness and walk behaviour have been developed, known as niddah. These niddah purity rules humbly with God?’ (Micah 6: 8). are primarily rules relating to menstruation. Sanctions In interpreting the Ten Commandments today, are placed upon the practice of other expressions of guidance is given by supplementary writings and the sexuality. Abortion and contraception are debated, and teaching of the rabbis. The application of ethics to are more permissible in Reform Judaism than in Orthodox particular areas is a major focus of Jewish teaching and Judaism. Other areas such as homosexuality and gender practice. The area of sexual ethics will be discussed roles are open to debate in some forms of Judaism, but not below, while the areas of bioethics and environmental considered appropriate in others. ethics are discussed in further detail on the Cambridge Premarital and extramarital sex Studies of Religion Teacher CD-ROM. Marriage is regarded as the norm for a man and a woman. In Judaism the family is the basic unit for the expression of faith, and some ceremonies such as Shabbat take place primarily in the home rather than the synagogue. In a marriage, the husband and wife are companions in a relationship designed for procreation and mutual comfort (Genesis 1:28, 2:18). Marriage is a symbol of the relationship between God and his people, as illustrated in the book of the prophet Hosea. While marriage is the chapter 13 judaism depth study (hsc) 277

ideal, divorce is permitted. One of the main purposes for INVESTIGATE marriage is procreation, so contraception is not What are the ‘laws of family purity’? Search the internet or talk to encouraged, particularly in Orthodox Judaism, although a Jewish friend or rabbi, and discover what they are and how they Reform Judaism takes a more liberal approach. are part of Jewish sexual ethics.

Premarital and extramarital sex are generally unacceptable, because they take sexual activity outside a caring, committed relationship. Divorce is permitted in get Judaism and a divorce document is called a get. Different a Jewish bill of divorce variants of Judaism have different attitudes to divorce, and particularly to remarriage. Progressive Judaism is much more accepting of divorce and remarriage. The reference in Malachi 2: 4 is used to show that divorce is a serious breech of a holy contract.

FURTHERMORE The Patriarchs in Genesis had many wives and King Solomon had 300 wives. Throughout the history of the Jews polygamy was often practised, especially by Sephardim. Some say it was only banned because of Christian opposition. While outlawed in many countries, polygamy is commonly practised in Israel today; these are often called pilegesh relationships.

How ethics concerning premarital and extramarital sex are analysed by adherents Many Jewish people fi nd the rigour commanded in the Tanak and the teachings of Judaism can be diffi cult to maintain. However, Judaism does allow divorce as an A Jewish wedding option if needed. The family unit is considered a Jewish sexual ethics stress the importance of the necessity and, while the practice of premarital sex is not family and aspects such as respect for parents. Marriage necessarily condemned, it is not encouraged either. is to be desired and monogamy is the ideal. The family is Many young Jews see it as an acceptable practice in the important because it is the transmitter of traditions, the modern era. Nonetheless, prostitution is condemned, place to obey commandments (‘honour your father and adultery is condemned and the family unit is considered mother’) and the primary place of religious observance. the central social unit in Judaism, and any practice that kidushin Marriage is kidushin. undermines this notion is condemned. marriage that is Celibacy is considered wrong, as God told the Jewish Many modern Jews acknowledge that the gulf ‘made holy’ people to multiply (Genesis 2: 18 and Isaiah 45: 18). Sex is between Jewish values and the behaviour of many Jews a normal expression of love and should take place within a is an issue. Jewish people, like everyone else, are marriage. Premarital and extramarital sex are not infl uenced by the prevailing culture of their place and acceptable. Adultery is specifi cally mentioned in the Ten time, so in general their attitudes and practices are more Commandments (Exodus 20: 14). Adultery, incest and fl exible than suggested by orthodox Jewish doctrines homosexuality, according to some, are specifi cally and traditions. Jewish feminists in particular have prohibited by the Torah (Leviticus 18: 6–23). questioned traditional views and called for a new Underlying sexual ethics in relation to expressions perspective refl ecting the social inequalities in the outside marriage is the important principle of showing modern world. respect to oneself and to others. In Judaism there are rules associated with modesty (tznit), physical contact (negiah), menstruation (niddah) and seclusion with members of the opposite sex (yichud). 278 cambridge studies of religion

Homosexuality How ethics concerning homosexuality are analysed by adherents Traditional Judaism has prohibited homosexuality on the basis of several passages from the Torah, the most obvious In contemporary Judaism, homosexuality is considered a being Leviticus 18: 22: ‘You shall lie with another man as mat ter of per s ona l choice but i s d i sc ou raged. Homo sex ua l ly with a woman, it is an abomination’. Similar injunctions oriented people are discouraged from practising their are recorded in Leviticus 20: 13. The punishment for inclination. But in December 2006, the legal body in such acts is capital punishment. Some see the story of Conservative Judaism in America voted to ordain gay Sodom in Genesis 19 as a reference to homosexuality; rabbis and celebrate same-sex commitment ceremonies. but, even if this interpretation is accepted (and some see This was a signifi cant decision, as Conservative Jews it as a reference to nothing more than hospitality), it is a uphold Jewish law and tradition. condemnation of homosexual rape, rather than of In October 2007, Progressive Jewish rabbis in consensual homosexual sex. Proving such an act is Australia also decided to support same-sex commitment diffi cult, and there are no accounts of punishment for it ceremonies, following the lead of English Judaism. Dayenu even in Biblical times, nor in Jewish history. is a Jewish GLBT (Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender) Lesbianism is not mentioned directly in the Tanak, group based in Sydney with its own website. It was but many rabbis interpret Leviticus 18: 3 as a reference to established in 1999 and has a fl oat in the Gay and Lesbian it. There is one reference to lesbianism in the Talmud, Mardi Gras in Sydney each year. But in most Jewish day- and in Moses Maimonides where it is prohibited, but not to-day practice and in Australian Judaism, opposition is in terms as strong as the prohibition of male maintained to the expression of homosexuality. homosexuality. One reason that homosexuality is unacceptable is INVESTIGATE because procreation is not possible, in contravention to the command in Genesis 2: 18. However, procreation, Investigate Jewish attitudes to homosexuality. What is the most while important, is never seen in Judaism as the sole commonly held view in Australia today? Access the Cambridge reason for the sexual act. Homosexuality does, however, Studies of Religion website for the opinion held on the Dayenu site. undermine the concept of the family and its role in Judaism. Heterosexual relationships are the norm for the Jewish community. Homosexual relationships are not. gender roles and Progressive and Conservative Jews are more discrimination likely to accept homosexuality, and even Orthodox Jews do not persecute homosexual people. Even the Gender roles in traditional Judaism are clearly defi ned. strictly orthodox distinguish between homosexual acts Few women are specifi cally mentioned in the Jewish and homosexual orientation. Bible, although when they are they are of some signifi cance. The Matriarchs of Israel are respected. Deborah is mentioned as a judge, Huldah was a prophetess, and Ruth was a gentile convert to Judaism who was the grandmother of King David. Several of David’s wives are mentioned, and Esther became the queen of Persia and saved the Jews from destruction, an event remembered in the Feast of Purim. These women were able to fulfi l leadership roles in Israel and perform religious functions. This was in contrast to the general attitude that women’s main purpose is childbirth. There are several references to women in the rabbinic literature, but none were authors or scholars. The most notable woman of this time was Beruriah (see the Teacher CD-ROM). As time passed women became restricted to household roles, with an emphasis on modest A ‘gay pride’ rally held in Jerusalem, on 21 June 2007; dress and restriction on religious roles, especially during ultra-Orthodox Jews had threatened to stop the parade the time of menstruation. There was, however a developing emphasis on the feminine aspects of God through the infl uence of Kabbalah. chapter 13 judaism depth study (hsc) 279

In modern Judaism, the role of women is interpreted How gender roles and discrimination differently by the different variants of Judaism. Orthodox are analysed by adherents Judaism exempts women from many of the commandments and from more than a basic study of the Torah. Women are With the rise of feminism, there is now much debate in seated separately to men in Orthodox synagogues and all Jewish circles about gender issues and the rise of often discouraged from leadership roles, and are not Jewish feminism is a feature of the debate. The male- ordained as rabbis. Rules of modesty and purity are dominated minyan, the exclusion of female witnesses, enforced, and women are not allowed to be witnesses in the female inability to initiate divorce and the male- the rabbinic court. They are allowed to have women’s only commandments are all issues. Since the 1970s, the prayer groups, according to some Orthodox Jews, this Jewish feminist movement has sought to address these being an important aspect of Judaism from the past. problems. There has been signifi cant opposition from Conservative Judaism was similar to Orthodox Orthodox Judaism, but the other variants are more Judaism until the 1970s. Since then there have been amenable to change. Jewish feminists have sought to major changes, mostly on a case-by-case basis. study aspects of Judaism widely, and some signifi cant Progressive Judaism has seen more radical changes. Jewish feminist scholars include Blu Greenberg and Women have been included with men in the synagogue. Judith Plaskow (see section on Jewish feminism on the Women can participate in roles that were commonly Teacher CD-ROM). reserved for men, such as publicly reading the Torah, tallit prayer shawl wearing the tallit and tefi llin, being part of the minyan, INVESTIGATE serving as cantor and being ordained as rabbis. An What are the gender issues that are the focus of Jewish feminists? tefi llin important aspect of gender in Judaism is that it is traced leather box and straps Investigate and develop an understanding of the different points of along the line of matrilineal descent; in other words, one view. What issues are signifi cant for Australian Jews? minyan must have a Jewish mother to be a Jew. Progressive the quorum of ten Jews needed to form Judaism has accepted the patrilineal line of descent, a synagogue although this is still debated by Jewish groups. exercise 13.3

1 Outline Jewish attitudes to premarital and extramarital sex. 2 Outline Jewish attitudes to homosexuality. 3 Outline Jewish attitudes to gender issues. activity 13.3

1 Examine the teachings of the Tanak on sexual ethics. How does this relate to the modern expression of sexuality in Australia? 2 Construct a table detailing the different attitudes to sexual ethics in Judaism. 3 Explore and write a paragraph on the different views within Judaism to one aspect of sexual ethics.

Despite the tradition of Judaism, there is some blurring of traditional gender roles in Judaism 280 cambridge studies of religion Signifi cant practices in the lives of adherents

The three practices relevant to Judaism to be examined At the time of the destruction of the Temple in for the HSC are death and mourning, marriage and Jerusalem in 70 CE by the Romans, synagogues became synagogue services. More details on the fi rst two of these centres for Jewish public worship across the world as the can be found on the Cambridge Studies of Religion Jews experienced a second Diaspora. Teacher CD-ROM. Death and associated mourning Over the last two thousand years, the synagogue practices show considerable respect for the person who has remained the focus of Jewish life. It was originally a has died, and are an expression of the Jewish emphasis place to study the Torah and its design still conveys that on community. Marriage in Judaism is a unique ceremony purpose. Worship at the synagogue is now an important and its features bear signifi cant symbolism, as well as aspect of Sabbath observance. expressing the celebration of the community. The Many Jews draw a distinction between the varied synagogue and its services are also expressions of the roles of a synagogue: communal life of Judaism. • A house of prayer (Beit Teffi lah) – where the Shabbat service is held for people to learn and worship death and mourning • A house of study (Beit Midrash) – where often a school is established, or where the Torah is studied The emphasis on death in Judaism is the giving of thanks • A house of gathering and meeting (Beit Knesset) – for a faithful life, death being a natural part of life. The where Jewish people can meet for a variety of events, body is treated with respect and usually accompanied at all and feel safe and secure. times. Burial should take place as soon as possible. The Jewish Burial Society has been established to take charge The synagogue in Capernaum, Israel, probably of the ritual process for burial. The burial service is usually dates from the fourth century CE a plain affair but includes rituals such as the tearing of clothes. A week of intense mourning follows the funeral, followed by a quiet thirty days, then a year of mourning. marriage

Marriage is a great celebration in Judaism, as a man is incomplete without a wife. A ketubah (contract) is signed before the wedding and a ring is exchanged. Marriage is usually conducted under a chuppah (canopy) that symbolises the home. There are a number of symbolic rituals that take place at Jewish weddings, such as the breaking of a glass. Marriage is considered a life-long union. synagogue services The synagogue Synagogue is a Greek word that means ‘meeting place’. Synagogues have long been meeting places for Jews as places for prayer, study and gathering as a community. Synagogues probably began as places of worship during the time of the Babylonian exile, as the Jews were no synagogue longer able to worship at the Temple in Jerusalem. As Jewish place of worship the Jews returned from exile, synagogues remained community centres and places of teaching even when the Temple was rebuilt. Many Jews remained in other countries (the Diaspora) and synagogues became the centre of worship for those Jews as well. chapter 13 judaism depth study (hsc) 281

Inside the synagogue A synagogue has signifi cant architectural features that indicate aspects of Jewish worship. At the end of the building there is an elaborate compartment called the ark where the ark Torah scrolls are kept. The congregation faces the ark, which a special cabinet where is the holiest part of the synagogue, a reminder of the Holy of Torah scrolls are kept Holies from the Jerusalem Temple. The Torah scrolls are made of a special parchment, written with a special pen, and covered with ornate velvet or silk fabric. The ornate covering of these scrolls is a reminder of the ornate robes that used to be worn by priests in the Temple. A reading desk to hold the scrolls when they are read usually stands near the ark on a platform called a bimah bimah. The primary focus of worship in the synagogue is raised platform the reading of the Torah. Usually a sermon is preached, based on a section of the Torah and often an explanation or commentary on the law. Near the ark are found representations of the Ten Commandments, the menorah menorah and the ner tamid, a light. Synagogues do not have seven-branched any images, statues or icons, and especially no candlestick representations of God, as this would contravene the ner tamid Ten Commandments. Occasionally there are religious a light that represents motifs, or depictions of lions (the symbol for the tribe of the eternal fl ame that was continually Judah, the origin of the terms ‘Jew’ and ‘Judaism’). The burned in the Temple synagogue is treated with respect and kept clean and neat. The Torah is read, using a silver pointer The special character of the synagogue is shown by (yad) to protect and show respect for it

the fact that during the service men wear a yarmulke A Jewish rabbi is wearing a yarmulke, tefi llin and tallit (skull cap), tallit (prayer shawl) and tefi llin (leather box and straps), the last in fulfi lment of the command in Exodus 13: 9. In Progressive Judaism women may also be allowed to wear these. The yarmulke (sometimes called a kippah) is a form of head covering always worn by Jewish men in a synagogue or at worship as a reminder that there is a God above. The tallit is the prayer shawl referred to in Numbers 15: 37 and Deuteronomy 22: 12. The tefi llin are black leather boxes that contain verses of the Torah, including the Shema (Deuteronomy 6: 4–9), and are wrapped by leather straps on the forehead and upper arm in obedience to the instruction in Deuteronomy 6:8.

The bimah where the Torah is read and the service led. The ark is covered with a red curtain 282 cambridge studies of religion

Synagogue services On the Shabbat (the Sabbath day, Saturday), Jews go to the synagogue. Most walk if they are close enough, to avoid breaking the prohibition to work on the Shabbat. The service can only begin when there is a minyan (ten Jews) present. Each person follows the service in a siddur, a prayer book, as the rabbi leads the service. The central aspect of the service is the reading of the Torah. It is a privilege to be asked to read from the Torah and in Orthodox synagogues only men are asked to do so. Psalms are sung during the service, taken from the book of the same name in the Tanak. Usually no musical instrument is played and a cantor leads the congregation in the psalms. Prayers are also an important part of the service and include the Shema and the Amidah (or Shmoneh Esrei). There are three synagogue services each day during the week, with a fourth on the Shabbat. The service in the synagogue has the same name as the prayer book, the Siddur. The service begins with a blessing that Jews say each morning, an expression of thanks. This is followed with a list of blessings thanking God for the Torah, for sight, for clothing, for the provision of needs. The Shema is said and the congregation then stands to say the Amidah, the prayer of eighteen blessings that contains prayers of praise, requests and thanksgiving. The Torah scroll is then taken from the ark to the bimah and a portion read. A special passage from other parts of the Tanak called the haftarah are also read. Several more blessings are said and often the Torah scroll is taken through the synagogue and returned to the ark. A sermon usually follows. Synagogue services also include singing, prayers and blessings. There are many variations of the Shabbat liturgy, especially between the Jewish variants. The services can continue for several hours, but the emphasis in Jewish worship is avodah sh’belev (worship of the heart). In Orthodox Judaism, the men are seated in the main area of the synagogue while the women sit in a separate balcony. In Progressive Judaism there is no such distinction. Progressive Judaism also allows women to read the Torah and become rabbis, and allows mixed marriages. It is also less strict in maintaining the dietary laws. Orthodox Jews do not allow these things and consider themselves more authentic Jews. Bar Mitzvah at the Western Wall, Jerusalem chapter 13 judaism depth study (hsc) 283

Synagogue services – the purpose end of chapter The synagogue service has its primary emphasis on the gathering of the people. The home is an equally valid summary place of worship, but it is the synagogue that gathers the • Moses Maimonides became a respected whole Jewish community together. As well as Shabbat scholar, doctor and theologian. services, there are services held on other days during the week, as well as special festival occasions. While there is • Maimonides’ writings were infl uential some variation in the order and content of these services, in the development of Jewish thought. the primary place of the Torah is maintained, supported • Maimonides continues to by prayer and the Psalms. infl uence modern Judaism. Synagogue services are times the Jewish community can gather together in worship of God and in community. • The Hasidim were a group that emerged in They are a place to share the burdens of others, to support eastern Europe in the eighteenth century. others in prayer, and to bless others. Jewish prayers use • The Hasidim respect experience ‘we’ rather than ‘I’. The synagogue is the centre of the over scholarship. Jewish community and worship. • The Hasidic movement was a radical form of Judaism that has now INVESTIGATE become the most conservative. Visit a synagogue and talk to a Jewish person about the services. • Australian Judaism is greatly Ask him or her to explain the signifi cance of the services to them. infl uenced by Hasidism. • Jewish sexual ethics refl ect the ancient patriarchal origins of the religious tradition. exercise 13.4 • Jewish sexual ethics need to conform 1 Describe the synagogue. to the commands of the Torah and the traditions of the religion. 2 Outline the beliefs about the synagogue service for Judaism. • Judaism does not generally accept homosexuality. 3 Describe how the synagogue service is signifi cant for the individual Jew • Women generally have to fi ght to and the Jewish community. achieve equality in Judaism. • Judaism is struggling to come to terms activity 13.4 with modern expressions of sexuality.

1 Draw a plan of a synagogue, labelling its • Synagogues are community, features and explaining their signifi cance. educational and religious centres. 2 What is the signifi cance of the way • Synagogues have particular a Jewish synagogue is laid out? features that are signifi cant. 3 Prepare a graphic presentation highlighting the • Synagogue worship is the highlight features and elements of a synagogue service. of the Jewish Shabbat. • Synagogue services have many prayers, blessings and readings from the Tanak. • Synagogue worship refl ects the worship of the heart. 284 cambridge studies of religion HSC examination-style questions

In the HSC examination, students will be required to answer either a THREE part, 15-mark question, or a ONE part extended essay of 20 marks. That is, EITHER a question from Section II OR a question from Section III. section ii

Question 5 Judaism (15 marks) marks

a) Outline TWO contributions to Judaism made by ONE signifi cant person or school of thought other than Abraham or Moses. 4

b) Describe the effect of ONE significant individual or school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses, on Judaism. 5

c) Explain the importance of Jewish ethical teachings in ONE of the following areas: • bioethics • environmental ethics • sexual ethics 6 section iii

Question 5 Judaism (20 marks)

Analyse the significance of ONE Jewish practice on the individual AND the Jewish community. The practice discussed must be drawn from the following: • death and mourning • marriage • synagogue services chapter 14

Religions of ancient origin 286 cambridge studies of religion

It is so old a story, yet somehow always new. heinrich heine

chapter summary

This chapter discusses: • The concept of religions of ancient origin • Aspects of religions of ancient origin are highlighted and linked to animism • The following three religions of ancient origin are addressed in detail: » Taoism – China » Shinto – Japan » Nordic (Scandinavian religion) – northern Europe • Students are guided in their research of other religions of ancient origin.

A golden mask of the Aztecs in the museum of Tenochtitlan, Mexico chapter 14 religions of ancient origin 287 Religions of ancient origin

The syllabus requires students to study two religions of INVESTIGATE ancient origin and lists several, with a fi nal statement Religions of ancient origin are not necessarily ancient. Many tribal that gives students a great deal of fl exibility – an groups, recently discovered, demonstrate this. Watch the movie The indigenous religion from outside Australia. The syllabus Emerald Forest (1985), based on a true story from the mid-twentieth specifi cally excludes the fi ve major world religions that century, and note the features of the Amazonian tribe that captures are included in the Religious Traditions studies and, from animism Tomee. Which of the features of animism are evident? primitive or tribal the statement above, Aboriginal spiritualities. Three religion; the belief religions of ancient origin are discussed here, of which that spirits inhabit CONSIDER all objects and have students should choose to study two. infl uence on people Students are to focus on the response of these These features of religions of ancient origin are very similar to the and natural events ancient religious traditions to the major questions of life, characteristics of religion discussed in Chapter One. Yet ‘animism’ and the aspects of the religion that relate to its expression and ‘primal religion’ are terms often used to suggest that something in society. These questions and aspects relate to: better has arrived with other religious traditions. Are all religions • the origins of the universe simply a development of religions of ancient origin? • principal beliefs • supernatural powers and deities • rituals • infl uence in society • the human search for meaning. Ancient or indigenous religions generally can be considered animistic (sometimes called tribal or primal religions). As well as those listed here, they include a range of tribal religions throughout the world, including the religions of Egypt, early Rome and Greece, native North American religions, Polynesian religions, Zulu and African religions, even Zoroastrianism. Animistic religions usually have several features that can also be identifi ed in these ancient religions, including: • Belief in spiritual forces behind natural phenomena • Oral rather than written stories or texts • Reverence for ancestors • Shaman, or religious spokesperson, who has special powers or abilities • Dreams, visions or experiences of the spirits, possibly through the shaman • Rituals, often offerings and sacrifices, to appease or invoke the spirits • Strong social system that is held together by the tribal myths. 288 cambridge studies of religion Religion 1: Taoism

Timeline circa 500 BCE Mystical fi gure Lao Tzu/Lao Zi was said to have lived. circa 300 BCE Chuang Tzu/Zhuang Zi wrote his work, known only as The Chuang Tzu, one of the funniest and most thought-provoking books ever written in China; although Taoist sources suggest the Tao Te Ching/Dao De Jing was written around 500 BCE, evidence confi rms this book’s existence in the 300s BCE. 221 BCE Chi Shi Huang De (Great Emperor Chin) unifi es China and its writing system; also practised Taoist alchemy – the cause of his death. circa 200 CE Taoism develops as the major religion at the Imperial Court. 300–400 CE Early Buddhism is understood as a branch The yin/yang symbol of Taoism represents the of ‘Neo-Taoism’. cosmic balance between female (darkness, water) and male (light, air) elements in the cosmos 618–907 CE Tang Dynasty makes Taoism the fi rst offi cial religion of China. the nature of taoism 1366 CE Foundation of Ming Dynasty in China; Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism are recognised as Taoism (pronounced Daoism) is one of China’s three the three great religious teachings of China. traditional religions, the other two being Confucianism 1644 CE Qing Dynasty is established by the (foreign) and Buddhism. The Chinese are able to follow all three Manchurians; their power is based on upholding Chinese faith systems at once. Taoism is the religion most closely tradition. The dynasty fails to control European colonial connected to Chinese folk religion and the worship of incursion into China; the nation descends into chaos. natural phenomena in China, such as sacred mountains. Taoism starts, however, with a series of provocative 1911 CE Chinese Republic is established under Dr Sun philosophical texts, before mutating into a more religious, Yat Sen. Taoism is in a depleted state. mystical and superstitious system. 1949 CE Establishment of (communist) People’s Republic of China; religious groups such as Taoism must hand over FURTHERMORE control of their groups to the government, go underground There are at least two systems of representing Chinese words in or go offshore. English. One method, invented by English speakers, is called Wade- Giles – it gives the Chinese word ཤas ‘Tao’; this system is the most well known in the West. The Chinese invented a similar system, Pinyin, which is not as well known but better organised, and transliterates this word as ‘Dao’. The spelling in English is different; the word in Chinese is the same. chapter 14 religions of ancient origin 289

The origins of the universe Chuang Tzu, Taoism’s other great early philosopher, constantly delighted in the paradoxes of life. He had a Chapter 42 of Taoism’s most famous book, the Tao Te famous dream in which he was a butterfl y. When he Ching, says: woke, he could not decide whether he was Chuang Tzu The way begets one; one begets two; two begets three; who had dreamt of being a butterfl y, or a butterfl y three begets the myriad creatures. The myriad creatures carry on their backs the yin and embrace in dreaming that he was Chuang Tzu. An offi cial from the their arms the yang and are the blending of the emperor of China once visited a famous Taoist. The generative forces of the two. offi cial went into his house and found the Taoist naked. The Tao (‘way’), or the natural course of existence, ‘This is no way to receive guests!’ the offi cial shouted in is said to be the origin of all things. The Tao Te Ching, The horror. ‘Where are your trousers?’ The Taoist replied that Way, is also referred to as the ‘nameless mother’. From the world was like his trousers; his house was like his alchemy this nameless and mysterious point of origin, the forces of underpants. He then asked the offi cial to get out of his early form of scientifi c yin and yang manifest. ‘Yang’ is an ancient Chinese term underpants! and philosophical referring to the southern or sunny side of a mountain; by investigations, As a religion particularly involving extension it represents upwardness, dryness and warmth. chemistry, metallurgy ‘Yin’ is the balancing opposites of these things. It From its early philosophical and anti-Confucian base, and mysticism represents cold, damp and downwardness. Overall, yang Taoism developed into a religion. The principal belief of is associated with the active masculine, while yin Taoism in this form was the longevity of the believer. A represents the passive feminine. number of Taoist texts such as the Book of the yellow In Taoism, this feminine principle of passivity forms emperor’s court focused on health and longevity. In a basic paradox, which existed many years before Taoism religious Taoism, eternal life was the quest. Alchemy or became a religious system. This paradox suggests that the mixing of transformative potions became part of its the greatest strength lies in passivity, and water is often secret tradition. We do not know if they found the elixir used to demonstrate this. Water gives way when one steps of life, but Taoists did invent gunpowder and other into it, and seems totally passive, but when it fl ows chemicals as they experimented. Additionally, it was through the land – following the way, or the lowest points believed that immortality could be discovered by – it is strong enough to carve canyons. Thus, water is a appealing to other deities and immortals who had already very apt metaphor for the Tao. discovered the secret of eternal life. Today Taoism is closely related to meditation, longevity and following the Principal beliefs Tao, the natural way of life. As a philosophy Early Taoism supported a turning away from cultivation and education, and often acted as an counterbalance to Confucianism. Confucianism is a philosophical and religious system that promotes education, tight family control by the chief male and traditional imperial power structures. The Tao Te Ching, which is in part an instruction manual for emperors (and also a work of comedy and mysticism), constantly advises inaction. It shows the ruler that the best way to eradicate criminals is to get rid of laws, the best way to rule is to keep people stupid and well-fed, and the best way to travel is to ‘let your wheels move only along old ruts’.

A Taoist searching for the elixir of immortality 290 cambridge studies of religion

Supernatural powers and deities as not eating grain, or meditation and breathing techniques. One of these is called ‘Breathing to one’s feet’, There is often confusion between local, folk and Taoist in which one tries to draw ch’i essence as deeply through deities in China. The most famous Taoist deities are the the lungs and into the body as possible. Ch’i originally Eight Immortals. This group, headed by Li Tie Guai, meant ‘steam’, ‘cloud’ or ‘mist’ and is understood by the keep to themselves the secret of immortality. They Chinese as the air that separates the maleness of the sky disguise themselves and regularly appear in people’s lives from the femaleness of the earth. Through Taoist rituals, to trick them, especially if they are being unethical. ch’i can be turned into spiritual energy which can Shopkeepers and traders who adjust their scales in their transform the body and lead to immortality. Thus a focus own favour, and corrupt scholars and offi cials usually on breathing practice in Taoism is very important. fi nd themselves being tricked by these Immortals. We The second ritual form in Taoism relates to the might say that the Eight Immortals of China are superhero spacing out of the wider cosmos. Taoists comprehend fi gures who protect the average person and the just, while their body as an internal landscape with rivers, mountains, punishing the amoral and the corrupt. They also represent fi elds and deities watching over aspects of this landscape. the ultimate development of a follower of the Tao in a Praying to these deities and performing rituals can religious sense, as fi gures who are just and live forever. change the structure of this internal landscape. Through Rituals the hope of sympathetic magic, Taoists also perform intricate ritual dances that trace out models of the cosmos Taoist rituals take two main forms. The fi rst is intimately in Taoist temples, mountain caves and so on. Religious connected with the brewing of alchemical potions and Taoism can thus be understood as an imagining of the quest for personal immortality. These personal rituals microcosms within the body and macrocosms in ritual are aimed at inverting the normal processes of the body, spaces that can help make transformations that lead to in the hope that the ageing process will be reversed. the immortality of the participants. These rituals can include strict dietary proscriptions such

The Eight Immortals chapter 14 religions of ancient origin 291

Infl uence in society FURTHERMORE Taoism was a counterbalance to the strict and There are a few Taoist centres in Sydney, the main one in Redfern. conservative nature of China’s other great religion, These centres specifi cally promote Taoist teachings and should not Confucianism. Through its alchemical practices, Taoism be confused with older Chinese temples which are linked more also aided in the development of chemical innovations closely to general Chinese folk-religion practices and have been in and Chinese medicine. From Taoism, for example, came Sydney since the late nineteenth century. not only the invention of gunpowder, but also the process of acupuncture. Taoism accustomed the Chinese to breathing and meditation practices that were further developed by Buddhism. Buddhism may not have become exercise 14.1 popular in China without Taoism, for Buddhism was 1 Describe the relationship between initially considered by the Chinese as a school of Taoism. the two elements of Taoism. Later, when Buddhism established itself as a Chinese religion in its own right, Taoism gave Chinese Buddhism 2 Outline some of the main concerns of Taoism. its own unique fl avour. The rise of Ch’an, or Zen, 3 Describe Taoist rituals. Buddhism was strongly infl uenced by Taoism. With its emphasis on naturalness, rather than education, Taoism also inspired some of the greatest activity 14.1 works of art and poetry in China. The Tao Te Ching’s 1 Debate the topic – ‘Taoism is a emphasis on spontaneity added a living dimension to philosophy, not a religion’. Chinese society, whereas Confucianism focused on the conservative traditions of China’s dead ancestors. 2 Conduct some research on Taoism and explain how it has infl uenced the The human search for meaning lives of individual adherents. From 1000 CE, Taoism aided in the Chinese 3 Research alchemy and describe its understanding of a heavenly emperor in a heavenly place in Taoism and other religions. court. Reaching this heaven, however, was not an ultimate aim in Taoism. The focus remained on immortality. Human life was explained as a quest to live forever. At first, this quest was pursued through religious crude, chemical means, and later by more metaphorical relating to religion: a understandings of what immortality could comprise. set of common beliefs held by a group of people Despite the rise of religious Taoism, philosophical which may include Taoism continued to inspire those Chinese fascinated a system of prayers by paradoxy in life. As a philosophy, Taoism illustrates and religious laws the absurdities of life and the paradoxes inherent in philosophical attempting to define reality. In either case, following relating to the realm The Way provided the Chinese with an alternative of philosophy, the study of the general vision of life outside the strict traditionalism of principles of knowledge Confucianism. 292 cambridge studies of religion Religion 2: Shinto

Timeline 250 CE Shintoist shrine of Ise is founded. 550 CE Term ‘Shinto’ is introduced to differentiate the native religion from Buddhism and Confucianism. 1549 CE Catholic missionary Frances Xavier reaches Japan. 1614 CE Ieyasu bans Christianity from Japan. 1790 CE Neo-Confucianism becomes the offi cial state philosophy. 1868 CE The emperor (‘mikado’) Meiji is restored, but with the capital in Edo/Tokyo and divine attributes given to the emperor; Shinto is made the offi cial state religion. 1894 CE Japan invades China (fi rst Sino-Japanese war). 1905 CE In naval battle of the Tsushima Straits, Japan destroys Russian fl eet. 1940 CE Italy, Germany and Japan sign the Axis pact. 1941 CE Japan attacks the US fl eet at Pearl Harbor. 1945 CE USA drops two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and Emperor Hirohito surrenders. 1960 CE Japan begins spectacular economic growth that will turn it into the second economic power of the world after the USA. the nature of shinto

Japan has long been infl uenced by China. Confucianism and Buddhism both moved from China to Japan. Shinto, Brother and Sister create Japan. however, is Japan’s own indigenous religion. Shinto means ‘way of the Kami’ and kami is a term for ‘god’. Shinto is based on the worship of the kami, who are spirits involved in the development and maintenance of Japan. Kami created the islands of the nation and pervade the land at every level. Every region has its own kami and they are recognised in certain parts of the landscape. Yama-no-kami are mountain deities, ta-no-kami are fi eld deities, and umi-no-kami are sea deities. Until recently, the Emperor of Japan, his ancestors and outstanding Japanese heroes were all understood as kami. chapter 14 religions of ancient origin 293

The origins of the universe Supernatural powers and deities The two ancient texts of Japan, Kojiki (‘Record of ancient Shinto can be described as a form of animism. The whole things’ – 712 CE) and Nihongi (‘Chronicles of Japan’ – 720 environment is seen as being alive with spirits. A CE) contain a clear origin tale. The primordial man and mountain such as Mount Fuji can have a powerful and woman, Izanagi-no-Mikoto and his wife and sister impressive kami associated with it. Similarly the sun and Izanami-no-Mikoto, are associated with the creation of other important phenomena such as fi re can have Japan. Coming down from heaven, they gave birth to the powerful kami. Small things such as sheets of paper and Japanese islands and to certain kami, the most important bolts of silk can also have kami. The Japanese art of of whom was Amerasu, the goddess of the sun. Her kimono (robe) folding and the paper folding art of origami grandson, Ninigi-no-Mikoto, married the daughter of the are based on the principle that the kami of these items kami of Mount Fuji and their son, Jimmu, became the could be disturbed through cutting, so folding becomes fi rst emperor of Japan. In this way the Japanese imperial necessary. Another way of thinking of supernatural family are understood as descendants of the sun goddess. powers in Japan is the idea of a thing having a presence or being able to inspire awe; these feelings are connected to Principal beliefs the spirit of the kami. Outside of mythology, Shinto has few beliefs. One Rituals example could be highlighted in the following way. When Izanagi and Izanami meet it is Izanami, the woman, who In Shinto, rituals can be examined from a household, speaks fi rst. This proves unacceptable to Izanagi and the local and national level: couple separate, and then meet again. This time Izanagi • Jinja Shinto takes place at shrines and is domestic speaks fi rst. This part of the myth suggests that women and local. in Japanese life should follow a man before acting. • Minzoku Shinto relates to folk religion in Japan. Similarly, another dimension to the creation myth • Koshitsu Shinto is practised at a national level and explains Japanese attitudes to death and cleanliness. relates to the emperor and his family. When Izanami gives birth to the kami of fi re, Kagi- Homes contain a Shinto shine called a kamidana, Tsuchi, she is burnt and dies. Izanami then proceeds to and at this level Shinto can be seen as the way a family seek his sister-wife in the land of the dead – Yomi-no- worships their ancestors. The shrine is often in the form Kuni. In the underworld, a fi lthy, lightless realm, he fi nds of a mirror covered by a door. A mirror was one of the her. Wanting to return to life with her husband-brother, possessions of Ninigi-no-Mikoto given to him by his Izanami goes to speak with Yomi, the overlord of hell. As grandmother, the goddess of the sun. A major set of rituals she takes too long in returning, Izanagi goes looking for are done at the home altar on Shogatsu or Japanese new her. This time he fi nds her rotting with worms festering year. At this time it is believed that Toshigami, the year within her. He fl ees from the realm of Yomi and bathes in god, visits every home. the salt waters of the oceans. This part of the myth Local shrines are where regional kami are explains how the Japanese explain the pollution of death. worshipped. This allows local communities and other Salt and washing are used in Japanese rituals to cleanse groups to affi rm their togetherness in the presence of houses and spaces to ensure their purity from the chaos of their local kami. tori (or torii) uncontrollable events such as death. Shinto shrines are accessed through a tori, a special a gate of two columns gate that separates the shrine from the world outside. At a and two beams that national level, shrines dedicated to the Imperial family separates the sacred INVESTIGATE area of the shrine help Japan celebrate its unity as a nation. The most from the ordinary Read more of this creation story involving Izanagi and Izanami at important of these is the shrine at Ise. This building, world outside the Cambridge Studies of Religion website. which is pulled down and rebuilt on the empty lot next to it every twenty years, is dedicated to the sun goddess, Respecting the Amaterasu. The most important ritual carried out here is kami of paper – an the Kanname festival, where the fi rst crops harvested origami crane every year are dedicated to the sun goddess. 294 cambridge studies of religion

Infl uence in society exercise 14.2 Shinto pervades Japanese life at every level. Its infl uence is not directed at making people act ethically; it has 1 Describe the creation of the mythologies, but no scriptures with prescriptions on world according to Shinto. how to live. It is a religion that is very good at inspiring 2 Outline the rituals of Shinto, noting people in the home to follow the examples of their the difference between individual ancestors. At a local level, Shinto is very good at using and communal aspects. festivals to reaffi rm society. Shinto also plays a strong role in reminding people to be aware of their environment 3 Explain the purpose of Shinto rituals. and their place in society. At a national level, Shinto has had varying degrees activity 14.2 of infl uence. From the 700s CE Buddhism was introduced to Japan from China and Korea. Buddhism, with its 1 Debate the following topic – ‘Shinto scripture and philosophy, came to be very infl uential in is simply a form of animism’. the lives of the Japanese. Often at funerals Shinto and 2 Write a paragraph about the infl uence of Buddhist rites were carried out simultaneously, and this Shinto in the life and culture of Japan. is still the case today. For many centuries Buddhism pushed Shinto into the background. 3 Research Shinto on the internet and This all changed with the Meiji Restoration. In discuss whether it is an ancient religion 1867–1869 a new power balance placed a new focus on or a religion that is still an important the power of the emperor. With this came an increase in part of Japanese society today. Shinto’s infl uence in society and a rejection of Buddhism. Slowly the whole of Japan modernised and industrialised, and worship of the emperor as a great kami led to a The fl oating torii gate outside Itsukushima shrine at Miyajima massive increase in national fervour and military action. In this period Japan built itself a signifi cant empire by invading Taiwan, China and Korea. Eventually, the people inspired by the national kami, Japan joined World War II in 1941 by bombing the US Navy in Hawaii. They invaded the nations of South-East Asia and even bombed parts of Australia. Shinto had become a state religion that helped justify the war. When the war ended and Japan was defeated in 1945, Shinto had lost most of its prestige. Today Shinto has returned to its pre-Meiji status as the indigenous religion of Japan. The human search for meaning Shinto provides meaning by placing its followers within a world full of spirits who, if worshipped correctly, can turn away the evil forces of the world. Shinto connects the people of Japan closely with their country at every level. It also provides them with a way of refl ecting on the talents of their ancestors. Shinto justifi es the structure and order of Japanese society. chapter 14 religions of ancient origin 295 Religion 3: Nordic

Timeline the nature of 150–100 BCE The practice of sacrifi cing/executing nordic religion people in bogs is carried out regularly in Scandinavia, especially Denmark. Norse or Scandinavian religions are still very much part of today’s world. The names of Norse deities name 325–400 CE The Goths are converted to Arian the days of our week: Tiuw – Tuesday, Woden – Christianity. Wednesday, Thor – Thursday, Frigga – Friday. Recent 406–407 CE A coalition of Germanic tribes cross the religions such as Wicca and Paganism claim to have Rhine into Roman territories and take land for some connection to those gods of Europe who existed settlement. before Europeans converted to the Middle-Eastern religion of Christianity. These pre-Christian deities 410 CE Alaric, king of the Visigoths, conquers Rome. are mainly from the Norse religion. 639 CE Date of the Sutton-Hoo ship-burial, a rich Norse religion also formed the backbone of Viking Germanic grave containing artefacts of Swedish culture. As this naval society travelled in their boats as far manufacture. as North America and Russia, their name drove fear into the hearts of the inhabitants of these lands as they raped 793 CE Norse sea-raiders sack the Anglo-Celtic and pillaged. More recently, a number of novels in the monastery at Lindisfarne. fantasy genre have relied heavily on the heroic tales and 795 CE Norse raids on Ireland begin. brave exploits of the gods and heroes of Norse mythology. 845 CE Norse raids on Spain begin. The origins of the universe 852 CE The Swedish Rus begin to create modern Russia. The Norse creation myth begins with Ginnungagap, a magical void between the two realms of Nifl heim (the 860s CE The Norse discovery of Iceland. realm of ice to the north) and Muspelheim (the realm of 922 CE Ibn-Fadlan, an Arab ambassador to the Rus, fi re to the south). The rivers of Nifl heim and the fi res of writes his account of their customs, including a full Muspelheim fl owed into the gap and solidifi ed. This description of a ship/cremation funeral. resulted in the birth of the ice giant Ymir and the 930 CE First Althing (democratic parliament) held at Audhumla, the primordial cow, who existed to give milk Thingvellir in Iceland. for Ymir’s sustenance. Ymir slept, and from his sweat were born three other giants, two male and one female. 930–1011 CE Life of Njal of Berthorsknoll (hero of Audhumla licked away at the ice of Nifl heim and revealed Njal’s saga). the frozen Buri, bringing him to life. Buri’s son Bor 900s CE Demark and Norway adopt Christianity. produced three sons, Odin, Vili and Ve. They decided to war with the ice giants, who had multiplied, and they 986 CE Settlement of Greenland. killed Ymir. Ymir’s blood caused fl ooding which drowned 1000 CE Iceland offi cially converts to Christianity. the other ice giants. The sons of Bor threw Ymir’s body into Ginnungagap and created Midgard (the human 1000–1005 CE Leifr Eiriksson makes his voyages to realm), Asgard (the realm of the gods) and Hel (the realm Vinland (America). of the dead) from Ymir’s corpse. These realms are 1066 CE Haraldr Hardrada, king of Norway, is killed arranged in levels connected by various magical pathways during an attempted invasion of England. around the universal tree, Yggdrasil. Later they used an ash tree to create the fi rst man and an elm tree to create 1200–1450 CE The Icelandic sagas are written. the fi rst woman. circa 1220 CE Snorri Sturluson writes the Prose Edda. 296 cambridge studies of religion

Yggdrasil, the great tree that supported all the realms, the three most signifi cant being Asgard, Midgard and Hel Principal beliefs Nordic beliefs are an amalgam of indigenous pre- Christian beliefs and the beliefs of the Scandinavians, and are probably also related to a much older Indo- European religion. Because of the tribal structure of the Germanic and Scandinavian people who shared this religion, there is no one doctrine or set of beliefs. The religion was transmitted orally until the Christian period, and so there is little evidence for the original forms of Nordic beliefs and folklore. However, in works like the Prose Edda, Poetic Edda and the Sagas, strong ideas of clan honour, righteous revenge and respect for the gods demonstrate a solid foundation for Nordic religion. Differences in beliefs between tribes tended to involve less important aspects of the religion, while the essential beliefs and religious standing of the Nordic peoples were more universal. Another widespread belief was that of the fall of the Norse gods to another species living in the shade of Yggdrasil. It was believed that chaos would overturn order and those who maintained order, both divine and mortal, would be destroyed. This return to the chaos represented in the creation myth by Ginnungagap does not represent an ending of the world, however, but a renewal, since it was believed that another, more enlightened order would be established after a period of chaos. There was also the Nordic belief in the afterlife. They believed that warriors who died bravely in battle would be escorted to Valhalla, the Hall of the Slain. This noble death was the end which most German and Scandinavian men would have desired, since it ensured not only respect amongst the living, but also a place of honour among the dead. The alternative afterlife was found in Hel, the realm of the dead. Hel is also, confusingly, the name of the goddess of the dead. It was said that disease entered the world when she was born, and all those who died of illness, old age or criminal punishment were sent into her hands. Gotterdammerung means ‘twilight of the gods’ in German. It refers to the cataclysmic battle of the Norse gods. This battle has inspired great European artists such as the opera composer Richard Wagner to tell this story again and again chapter 14 religions of ancient origin 297

Supernatural powers and deities TABLE 14.1 THE MAJOR NORSE GODS, THEIR POWERS AND SYMBOLS

NAME SIGNIFICANCE SPECIAL POWERS COMMON VARIATIONS SYMBOL ON NAMES Odin God of wisdom, war, He assisted in the shaping Woden, Wotan Raven the hunt and magic. He of the world. He was also was also known for his famous for surrendering one association with the runes of his eyes for a sip from (the letters of the alphabet the Well of Knowledge. His which were also used for name was often invoked magic and divination). for occult purposes. Freya Goddess of fertility, love She was called upon to Freyja, Gefn, Vanadis Cat (her chariot is and beauty. Also, as the ensure the fruitfulness of (there is some drawn by two cats) mother of the Valkyries and the fi elds, and was also speculation that wife to Odin, she received invoked by warriors. Freya and Fregg [the some of the slain warriors goddess of marriage] into her halls, and was are different aspects known as a goddess of of the same goddess) death, prophecy and magic. Loki God/Giant of fi re. He was Loki’s cunning was often Loge, Loke – known most commonly called upon by people as the trickster god who, needing to solve complex despite being a blood problems. While he was an brother of Odin, was ambivalent character with destined to play a role in regards to the gods, he was the destruction of the gods often portrayed as friendly and their divine order. to humans. He could take the shape of any animal, and change his gender at will. Thor God of thunder. He Thor possessed a war- Porr, Punor, Donar Goat (his chariot was was the protector of hammer that magically drawn by two goats, Asgard and Midgard. returned to the thrower who could be slain and when it had found its target, eaten if necessary, and had the power to throw but would regenerate lightning bolts. He also and draw the chariot possessed a belt which gave again when Thor had him immense strength. fi nished his meal) The Minor deities, the daughters The Valkyries are capable of –– Valkyries of Odin and Freya who chose bestowing victory upon one and escorted the bravest side in human battles and slain warriors from the also decide who amongst battle fi eld to Valhalla. the warriors will die. 298 cambridge studies of religion

Rituals Infl uence in society The rituals of the Nordic peoples are rarely described in Nordic religions seemed to be a martial religion for a contemporary sources and have been pieced together martial race. The Norse were obsessed with war and from other sources, such as archaeological evidence. victory. The great tree at the centre of the world enabled them to speak of lower realms of infamy and higher realms of reward and glory. The highest realm for humans was Valhalla – the resting place of noble warriors. As access to this realm was through glory in battle, the Scandinavian peoples were encouraged to support war. Thus aspects of the religion emphasised Viking talent for travel and raiding. This propensity to raid led the Vikings to set up successful rule not only over their own lands of Denmark, Sweden and Norway, but also in England, Ireland and through the river systems of Russia in Moscow, Kiev and even Sicily. The Vikings were also able to settle new lands to the west, Greenland and Iceland and even settlements in North America. The religion, promoting the quest for glory as it did, always encouraged the Norse to travel as far as they could. Their quest for knowledge, like Odin’s, was worth the threat of death. The human search for meaning We know from writings and grave sites that much emphasis was placed on the rituals of burial in Nordic religion. In these societies human meaning occurred at two levels. At the fi rst level a man or woman needed to protect the good standing of his or her name. In stories such as Njal’s saga, based on the Viking settlement in Iceland, people tried to protect their reputations, just as the gods fought to do so. When an insult, imagined or real, was directed at someone, it was their duty to revenge the insult. This meant that in Njal’s saga retributive killing was a common element of Norse life. To die leaving a good name was more important than to keep living. At A reconstruction of a Viking ship a higher level, Norse religion explained how, if one did die for glory, one could get access to the heavens where One outstanding ritual that is recorded by several one would be welcomed for dying in a good way. contemporary authors, most notably Ibn Fadlan, was the ritual sacrifi ce of a slave girl at the funeral of her master. Ibn Fadlan was a tenth-century CE Arab diplomat travelling in the direction of Kiev, a city in Russia that Vikings had founded. It is believed that this was a fairly widespread ritual, by which the woman who was sacrifi ced would become the handmaiden of the dead man in the afterlife. Adam of Bremen records the ritual sacrifi ce of slaves once every nine years at Uppsala, and modern archaeologists believe that the Tollund man discovered in a bog in Denmark was sacrifi ced in a similar ritual, possibly connected with the god Odin, who was said to have hanged himself from Yggdrasil in order to gain knowledge about death. chapter 14 religions of ancient origin 299

exercise 14.3 INVESTIGATE ANOTHER RELIGION OF ANCIENT ORIGIN 1 Describe the creation of the world If you wish to choose another religion of ancient origin from those according to Norse mythology. discussed here, the syllabus allows you to do so. You would be wise 2 Explain the role of the gods in Nordic religion. to discuss your choice with your teacher fi rst. Ensure you cover the areas that are highlighted in the syllabus (and in the sections 3 Describe the rituals of Nordic religion. above). Access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website for a list of sites that contain helpful information to help you start activity 14.3 researching other ancient religions.

1 Debate the following topic – ‘Nordic religion has infl uenced European society and its infl uence is still obvious today’. 2 Research the Nordic concepts of heaven and hell and explain them in a visual or table form. 3 Explain how Nordic beliefs infl uenced their quest for conquest.

Temple of the Sun, Palenque archeological site, Mexico 300 cambridge studies of religion

Conclusion end of chapter summary

Religions of ancient origin reveal much about the way • The syllabus requirements for this human beings think and how they seek to relate to the section of the course were discussed supernatural aspects of life. The supernatural has been • Features of animism and primal infl uential since the beginnings of the human race, as religion were highlighted humankind has searched for the signifi cance and meaning of human existence. All religious traditions have • Three religions of ancient origin were discussed: elements in common with the most ancient of religions. » Taoism Indeed, even modern expressions of the basic religions » Shinto bear great similarities to these ancient religions. » Nordic religion Understanding religions of ancient origin helps to • For each of these religions the understand the religious inclinations that seem to defi ne following aspects were discussed: human beings. » The origins of the universe » Principal beliefs » Supernatural powers and deities exercise 14.4 » Rituals » Infl uence in society 1 Select your religion of ancient origin and » The human search for meaning outline the principal beliefs of the religion. • Other options for study have been highlighted 2 Describe the roles of the supernatural powers in a religion you have studied. 3 Identify the rituals of a religion you have studied. activity 14.4

1 Construct a table of your two religions of ancient origin, using the headings through the text/syllabus to clarify the main features of each religion, identifying the major aspects. 2 Research a story from a religion you have studied and draw out aspects of the story that relate to the sacred spaces and the beliefs of that religion. 3 Prepare a ten-minute speech about one of your religions of ancient origin. Take the role of a believer in that religion and explain how the religion provides a response to the search for meaning. chapter 14 religions of ancient origin 301 End of chapter questions

Note: multiple choice/short answer/ extended response questions These questions are not included as there is such a variety of options in this topic. This section of the course, that is, religions of ancient origin, would be the ideal place for a student-based research task such as an interest study project. response to stimulus

Those who followed religions of ancient origin often worshipped nature spirits. Explain how the followers of ancient religions sought to draw meaning and signifi cance from their natural surroundings. Choose ONE religion of ancient origin and explain specifi cally how it sought meaning and signifi cance from the world around its adherents. chapter 15

Religion and peace 304 cambridge studies of religion

Many of us saw religion as harmless nonsense. Beliefs might lack all supporting evidence but, we thought, if people needed a crutch for consolation, where's the harm? September 11th changed all that. richard dawkins chapter summary

In this chapter the understanding of the concept of peace in THREE religions will be investigated – Christianity, Hinduism and Islam. Buddhism and Judaism will also be discussed broadly. Students should choose TWO religions to study in detail.

the fi ve religions Buddhism Christianity • Buddhism seeks to end suffering at a personal and global level. • The understanding of peace • As the Dhammapada states, ‘Hatreds do not cease in • How the understanding of peace is informed through this world by hating, but by love’ (1.5) and ‘Cease to do signifi cant sacred writings evil. Learn to do good’ (17.3). » The New Testament • Peace begins with personal transformation, the • The principal teachings about peace in Christianity seeking of enlightenment. • How Christianity guides the individual in achieving • Peace is a central concept in the Four Noble Truths, the inner peace Noble Eightfold Path and the Five and Ten Precepts. • How Christianity contributes to world peace • World peace can be achieved through the efforts of Hinduism people seeking peace. • The understanding of peace Judaism • How the understanding of peace is informed through • ‘Shalom’, the daily greeting, means ‘peace’ – an signifi cant sacred writings expression of the hope to achieve peace. » The Bhagavad Gita • The Jewish Bible has many examples of war, often • The principal teachings about peace in Hinduism conducted in the name of God (see Joshua 1: 1–9). • How Hinduism guides the individual in achieving • Commands to seek peace include Proverbs 25: 21 and inner peace Psalms 34: 15. • How Hinduism contributes to world peace • Jews distinguish between michhemet mitzvah, Islam obligatory war, and michhemet reshut, optional war. • Diplomacy is seen as the fi rst step in achieving peace, • The understanding of peace and war as the last resort. Jews wish to fi ght only to • How the understanding of peace is informed through defend themselves. signifi cant sacred writings • The Holocaust has had a profound effect on modern » The Qur’an Jewish attitudes to peace. • The principal teachings about peace in Islam • How Islam guides the individual in achieving inner peace • How Islam contributes to world peace chapter 15 religion and peace 305 Religion and peace

Atomic Dome in Hiroshima, Japan; the ruins of a building serving as a memorial

An Israeli soldier It is undeniable that a strong tension resides in religious prays at the Western Wall in Jerusalem practice. Religions lead their followers to peace. They suggest ways of acting ethically to secure a peaceful world and inner peace; a peace where the individual mind is calm and the community functions peacefully. But religions are at the same time promoters of violence. This is especially so when members of the religion or the religion itself are in danger. Christianity, Hinduism and Islam all promote peace; however, they all also advocate the need for violence when their faith is attacked. It is necessary to understand how religious believers become violent in order to see how important religion’s message of peace is. The Christian theologian and world religions scholar John Bowker noted that religion, as well as inspiring great art and architecture and seeking to address the big questions of life, has proved dangerous in human history: it has been used as the justifi cation for many wars and acts of violence. There is a tendency for religious people to deny that their religion has any connection to violence and to believe that it is only ‘bad’ Christians, Muslims or Hindus who use their religion as an instrument for violence. The Catholic theologian, Hans Kung, said, ‘Religion often is misused for purely power-political goals, including war’. This is partly true, but to deny a connection between religion, politics, war and violence is to take a very simple view of life. 306 cambridge studies of religion

There is no doubt that religion brings inner peace. peace As Nobel Prize winning scientist Alexis Carrel noted, ‘Religion brings to man an inner strength, spiritual light Peace is a diffi cult concept to defi ne. Peace includes the lack and ineffable peace’. The question is, how can religions of war, but it is more than simply the absence of war and infl uence our future so that the peaceful sides of their confl ict. Peace also refers to inner peace and the lack of doctrines prevail? Moreover, would the banning of war personal confl ict within oneself and one’s community. and violence make the world a better place? Are war and Each religious tradition has its own perspective and violence sometimes acceptable in a world where injustice understanding of peace. ‘Shalom’ in Judaism means peace, and oppression still exist? but is also a term of greeting. The word ‘islam’ in the Muslim Two contradictory ideas underlie the study of faith is connected with the word salm, which has the root religion and peace. One is the idea of warfare, the human meaning of ‘peace’, and also with the word slm, which desire to fi ght with others, especially in the sophisticated means ‘submission’ (that is, submission to God’s will). arena of international warfare. Often, this has been ‘Peace’ will be used in two ways in this chapter. It carried out in the name of religion. Yet there has also refers to absence of war but, more than that, to the absence been a desire to seek inner peace, especially in the face of of preparation for war, the tranquillity of the social order. confl ict or inner turmoil, again often sought through Peace will also be used to refer to inner peace within the religion. The offi cial teaching of most religious traditions soul or mind of a person, that is often typifi ed as quietness is to encourage peace on Earth. of heart, the absence of a troubled mind, or an The desire for peace is one of the identifi able understanding of the mind or heart of God. teachings of all religious traditions and peace, despite the This chapter discusses the three religious traditions of history of the great Indian wars, the Israelite conquest of Christianity, Hinduism and Islam. Buddhism and Judaism Palestine, the Christian Crusades, the events of 9/11 and are discussed further on the Cambridge Studies of Religion the Buddhist Thai freedom fi ghters, is the aim of most Teacher CD-ROM. In the HSC examination, students will truly religious people. be required to answer a question in relation to TWO religious traditions, so students must study two religious traditions and their teachings about peace.

Religious experience, meditation or prayer can be ways of discovering inner peace and transferring that inner peace to the world chapter 15 religion and peace 307 Christianity and peace

Christianity has sought to present itself as a religious how the tradition that champions peace. Its language often refl ects the desire for peace. A salutation between the understanding of priest and the congregation in the Catholic mass is peace is informed ‘Peace be with you’ and the reply is ‘And also with you!’ Christians see Jesus as the prince of peace. Yet even a through sacred superfi cial examination of human history can identify writings many wars fought in the name of Christianity: the Crusades of the eleventh to thirteenth centuries; the The Bible is the sacred text used by Christians to formulate confl ict in Northern Ireland between Catholics and their doctrines, their ideas of peace and their theology of Protestants; and the ongoing liberation struggles in war. This is supplemented by the refl ections of other Uganda conducted by the Lord’s Resistance Army, to theologians and the decisions of Church councils. The name a very few. The section on religion in Australia Bible is made up of the Old Testament (the Jewish Bible) pre-1945 in this book also examines the role religion and the New Testament (which is used to understand the played in events surrounding Australia’s involvement in life and teachings of Jesus and the early Church). World War I. Old Testament background the christian While Christians emphasise the importance of the New Testament, they also regard the Jewish Bible as part of understanding their scriptures. For a more detailed explanation of Old of peace Testament teachings on peace, see the section on Judaism and peace on the Teacher CD-ROM. However, some Within Christianity, both aspects of peace are important observations are appropriate here: – world peace and inner peace. Over the years, however, • The Old Testament has many stories of war and differing interpretations and emphases have occurred. confl ict, often commanded by God or done in his name Christians draw from the teaching of the Bible and (see Joshua 1: 1–9, 8: 1–2, 10: 32). The Order of interpretations of it by the Church, as well as the views of Trappist Monks, who • Israel experienced many attacks and great suffering, began the quest for Christian theologians, to develop a more complex often by nations who were considered under the complete peace in 1644 understanding of peace. authority and control of God (2 Kings 24: 1–4; 2 Chronicles 36: 17). • God sought peace for his people, but that depended on their obedience to him (Jeremiah 14:19; Isaiah 32: 17). • Peace will be possible under the reign of the Messiah, the ‘Prince of Peace’ (Isaiah 9: 2–7). The New Testament The Christian New Testament sees Jesus as the Messiah of the Jews, the promised deliverer of peace to God’s people. Thus the title ‘Prince of Peace’ is applied to Jesus, as well as other Messianic titles that are mentioned in the Old Testament. The ultimate expression of peace in the New Testament is the peace that is achieved in the relationship between God and human beings in the forgiveness of sins. Thus peace is ultimately a reference to the death of Jesus, the most signifi cant work of Christ (see Romans 5:1–11). The inference here is that the peace of Jesus will come to all who follow him. The idea of peace for those who do not follow Jesus is left unmentioned. 308 cambridge studies of religion

healed the wound and stated, ‘Those who live by the sword will die by the sword’ (Matthew 26: 52), which is taken by many Christians as a prohibition of weapons. Jesus recognised that his disciples would face diffi culties and persecution, and left them with his peace, which would empower and guide his followers in the years ahead (John 14: 27–31). This peace is different from the commonly understood human concept of peace. This idea is developed further in the New Testament where, for example in Philippians 4: 7, it is the basis for relationships and called ‘peace beyond understanding’. Christians are to live at peace with everyone (Hebrews 12: 14), particularly in the Christian community (Ephesians 4: 3), and this idea is expressed in Paul’s greeting as he begins his letters: ‘May God our father give you grace and peace’ (Col 1: 2; see also 1 Timothy 1: 2; 2 Timothy 1: 2; and 1 Thessalonians 1: 1). Jesus and the early Christians encountered Roman soldiers but, except on one signifi cant occasion, did not condemn or try to dissuade them from being soldiers. Jesus also advised his followers to follow the laws and pay the taxes of the Romans: ‘Give to Caesar that which belongs to Caesar’ (Matthew 22: 21). After Jesus’ crucifi xion, Paul suggested that Christians should accept Roman authority and pray for the civil authorities (Romans 13: 1–7, 1). As Jesus was crucifi ed by the Romans, the crucifi x (cross) is a symbol of redemption and peace for Christians Religions encourage both peace and violence at the same time, and Jesus had a militant message as well. Jesus militant combative, aggressive did not carry a weapon, but advised his followers to sell INVESTIGATE their cloaks and buy swords (Luke 22: 36). Jesus also It seems strange that the cross, an instrument of cruelty and caused social disruption by violently driving merchants torture, has become the recognised symbol for Christianity. from the Temple (Luke 19: 45–48; Mark 11: 15–17). It was Research and discover why such a controversial object has become probably this act of social disobedience that led to his arrest the religious symbol for the Christian faith. and execution by the Romans. Jesus recognised that his words would bring confl ict, even turning family member It is from that forgiveness of all sins, won by Jesus on against family member: ‘I did not come to bring peace, but the cross, that Christians can achieve peace, and then a sword’ (Matthew 10: 34). spread that peace to others. Peace is one of the ‘fruits of the spirit’ that are to be displayed in Christian lives FURTHERMORE (Galatians 5: 22). In the New Testament, peace is a As pointed out in Chapter Six on Christianity, although it was the personal quality to be developed and shown in Romans who executed Jesus, Christians were quick to blame his relationships with others. execution on the Jewish people. This has led to a long and violent In the Gospels, peace is a recurrent theme in the tradition in Western Christianity of the persecution and murder of teachings of Jesus. Major references include the Beatitude: Jews. This is called anti-Semitism. ‘Blessed are the peacemakers, for they are the children of God’ (Matthew 5: 9). Jesus developed this in what is possibly the most radical thing he said: he told his followers The New Testament is primarily focused on the to ‘love your enemies’ (Matthew 5: 38–40). He also linked idea of inner peace, but the idea of world peace underlies the idea of peace with universal love: ‘A new commandment many of the teachings of the Bible. While there are many I give unto you: love one another. As I have loved you, so references in the Old Testament to war and warfare, most you must love one another’ (John 13: 34). New Testament references come back to the idea of inner Jesus suggested that there was real danger in confl ict. Christian teachings on war have developed resorting to violence. In the context of his arrest, when through theological study, Greek philosophy and the Peter cut off the ear of the high priest’s servant, Jesus application of Biblical principles. chapter 15 religion and peace 309

the principal CONSIDER teachings about Try to think of a recent war where forces that are predominantly peace in christianity Christian have adhered to these principles. Do you think Saint Augustine was being too optimistic? What rules of war would you St Augustine’s doctrine for ‘just war’ institute? Is it possible to have a ‘just war’? By the fi fth century CE, the Roman Empire had become mostly Christian. At that time, however, forces from Christian pacifi sm: The Quakers northern Europe began attacking Italy and the fall of Rome was close at hand. Against this background Saint Saint Augustine devised his theory to mediate between Augustine, one of the great thinkers of the early Catholic the message of Jesus (in many respects a pacifi st approach) Church, came up with the idea of the morally just war, in and the practical need to defend the Roman Empire his massive work Civitas Dei (The city of God). Augustine (which was turning Christian and seriously under threat). divided his theory into Jus ad Bellum (The right to go to His theory of the just war was only haphazardly applied war) and Jus in Bello (Correct behaviour while at war). by the Christians who came after him, but there are other Taking a practical approach, Augustine suggested interpretations of Jesus’ message for peace. that certain conditions must be met before a war is After the break up of the Catholic Church in the started. It must have a justifi able cause, that is, it cannot 1500s, many Protestant Christian groups emerged. One be aggressive – for more land or power – but to right a of these was the Society of Friends, founded by George serious injustice. In fact, the grounds for a war have to be Fox in 1648. This group underlines its approach to obvious to all. A war must be carried out by a legitimate personal peace in its worship. Quiet contemplation is the government, not just any rebellious group. The right basis of ritual. Friends sit in quiet groups waiting for the intention must be held throughout the war; that is, all ‘inner light’ of Jesus to move them. Some members efforts must be directed at correcting the injustice that shudder or quake in these peaceful meetings and so their caused the war. A war should only be started if the killing nickname arose: Quakers. This group has no priests and of people is not futile and there will be a clear outcome. manages its organisation through the consensus of Finally, war should only be entered into as the last resort. members. The peace of worship transfers to the Quaker There are three main directives as to how a war attitude to war. Quakers hold to a ‘Testimony to Peace’ should be waged by Christians. It should be directed and refuse to participate in war. against those who caused the wrong – that is, a Quakers have refused to fi ght and have sometimes government or an army – and not against civilians. The been imprisoned by governments for refusing military A Quaker meeting use of force should be in relation to the wrong caused service. Many Quakers have also died on battlefi elds, house: silence, working in non-combatant positions. In World War I togetherness and and, fi nally, the minimum amount of force needed to inner peace win should be used. many Quakers lost their lives serving as ambulance drivers and medical offi cers.

INVESTIGATE See if you can you find a Quaker meeting house near you. Most congregations organise open days for visitors, so why not visit them and discover what their attitude to peace is? Also, access the Cambridge Studies of Religion website and follow the link to Quaker sites. 310 cambridge studies of religion

how christianity Christian involvement in movements for peace includes many different groups. Many work on an guides the individual ecumenical basis and others at a denominational level, ecumenism movement towards unity in achieving inner while still others are involved in interfaith dialogue. within Christian churches Some are formal groups; others are informal working between different peace relationships. Some of these organisations include: Christian denominations • Pax Christi (Catholic) Inner peace is central to the teachings of the Christian interfaith dialogue • Justice and International Mission of the Uniting move to greater church. World peace can only come from the desire of Church of Australia cooperation and harmony individuals to be at peace with God and each other, and between different • Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) that can only come from the inner peace of the religious traditions • Australian Student Christian Movement individual. • National Council of Churches in Australia – Decade to The New Testament links the idea of peace with Overcome Violence others with the inner battle that human beings face • Ecumenical and Interfaith Commission. (James 1: 1–3). Relationships with other people are said to be linked with individual relationships with God. The Two Great Commandments make this clear: ‘Love the exercise 15.1 Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength’ and 1 Detail the New Testament’s ‘Love your neighbour as yourself’ (Mark 12: 30–31). comments about peace. Inner peace is peace with God, as expressed in 2 Outline the principal teachings relationships with others and ultimately in world peace. about peace in Christianity. how christianity 3 Describe a Christian understanding contributes to of inner peace and world peace. world peace activity 15.1

Christians aim to express their inner peace in their 1 Interview a Christian minister, or an attitudes to the world. Christians are part of a spiritual active Christian layperson, and discuss kingdom that is expressed in peace (Romans 14:17); the his/her understanding of peace. command to Christians is to live at peace with others 2 Prepare a ten-minute talk on the Christian (Hebrews 12:14). Christians use a variety of means to understanding of inner peace. achieve and maintain inner peace. Some of these are conducted by ordinary Christians, such as prayer and 3 Check the websites of the Christian meditation; others seek retreats and monasticism as organisations that are involved in promoting special forms of achieving God’s peace. world peace. Detail their contributions The Christian concept of peace has been interpreted and assess their effectiveness. in many different ways over time. It has included the early Christians who accepted the persecution of the Roman Empire, the aggression of the Christian state- sponsored religious wars of the Middle Ages, the chaplains of the armed forces in the World Wars and the pacifi sm of the Quakers. chapter 15 religion and peace 311 Hinduism and peace

Hinduism has a twofold strand to its beliefs. Popular the hindu concepts of Hinduism portray both the non-violence of Mahatma Gandhi and the violent events in the writings. understanding The Mahabharata is essentially a war epic, and the of peace varna Ramayana concludes with an epic battle. the concept commonly known as ‘caste’; the The stories of the gods often involve confl ict Hinduism has an ongoing violent aspect. Confl ict exists four varna form the between them for supremacy. Some gods, such as Kali, between the gods, and between the gods and human basis of Hindu society are depictions of violence and their devotees express their beings. Even the creation of the world comes from moksha devotion through violence. violence, the result of a human sacrifi ce and release from the cycle of dismemberment (Rig Veda 10: 90). There are stories of rebirth; reunifi cation of confl ict between the gods for supremacy, particularly the atman with Brahman between the three gods of the Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu samsara and Shiva. Shiva, by defi nition, is involved in a cycle of the cycle of rebirth, or reincarnation destruction and creation. Kali is a particularly fearsome goddess who is often identifi ed with violence. She wears a ahimsa non-violence garland of skulls and a skirt of human hands, is armed with a sword and a noose, sucks blood, eats fl esh and is Ten Commitments often pictured standing on the near-dead body of Shiva. ten actions that express Hindu ethical behaviour Followers of Kali can also be extremely violent.

atman the Hindu ‘self’, similar INVESTIGATE to the concept of the individual soul Hinduism seems to emphasise peace, especially inner peace. Why

dharma then the violence of Kali? Investigate the Hindu goddess Kali. Why the right way of living, is she so violent? Why are her followers violent? How does this righteousness relate to the peaceful aims of Hinduism?

The goddess Kali, The concept of varna in Hinduism also suggests in a characteristically violent pose, standing acceptance of war, as the second highest varna, the on the near-dead Kshatriya, is the warrior caste. The Bhagavad Gita body of Shiva advocates the fulfi lment of the duty required of A statue of Krishna Kshatriyas. This acceptance of war implies that Hinduism and Arjuna in the does not advocate peace in the face of evil and injustice. chariot before the great battle of the In Hinduism, the ultimate expression of peace is Mahabharata the achievement of moksha, freedom from samsara. In achieving moksha, one truly fi nds peace. Ahimsa is one of the Ten Commitments. Mahatma Gandhi is well known as an advocate of non-violence and sought to live according to the principle of ahimsa. Gandhi suggested that peace, as non-violence, could be interpreted as a form of war. He also interpreted the Mahabharata as an anti-war epic; by the end of the book almost all of the major characters have been killed, and Gandhi saw this as an argument for the futility of war, the price of the folly of revenge and violence. Hinduism draws a distinction between the concepts of inner peace and world peace. It is primarily concerned with the inner spiritual life of the individual and the atman. The concept of dharma brings the idea of peace to the issue of world peace. What is peace in Hinduism? It is ultimately the achievement of moksha, through the fulfi lment of dharma and the spiritual exercises and devotion that lead to inner peace. 312 cambridge studies of religion

how the • The way to achieve peace is through discipline – BG 1: 7–9 understanding of • Wisdom and self-harmony are also ways of achieving peace is informed inner peace – BG 4: 38–39 • Peace is knowing God – BG 5: 29 through sacred • Chapter 8 contains an extensive discussion of inner writings peace, concluding with: ‘A far greater reward is attained by the Yogi who knows the truth of light and darkness: The Hindu sacred writings contain many accounts of he attains everlasting peace’ (28) warfare, particularly the great Hindu Epics. The • Everlasting peace is gained by annihilation, when Ramayana climaxes with the war between Rama and atman is incorporated into Brahman: ‘When he Ravana to rescue Sita. The Mahabharata is essentially knows me in truth he enters into my Being’ (18: 55 the story of the eighteen-day war between the Pandavas and see 11: 55). and their cousins, the Kauravas. Krishna sided with the Pandavas because their cause was right, and ensured Other writings their victory. The most recognised Hindu writing is the The Mahabharata also notes that the reason human Bhagavad Gita, a section of the Mahabharata. It consists beings are at war, and not peace, is because they are of the conversation between the god Krishna and Arjuna, ‘slaves to lust and greed’ (6.4.41). Brahma sends a goddess one of the Pandavas, on the eve of the battle, about to destroy human beings but, rather than perpetuate such Arjuna’s duty as a warrior. violence, she asks that humans be allowed to kill each The Bhagavad Gita other (12:248–250). The Rig Veda notes that the god Indra is in charge of The conversation between Arjuna and Krishna recorded war, but presides over peace when evil is destroyed. The in the Bhagavad Gita contains much about peace, both Artharva Veda calls for peace to reign: ‘May not the din of inner peace and world peace. This relates to the context frequent battle carnage arise, may the arrow not fl y when of the conversation, the impending battle that Arjuna the day of Indra has arrived!’ (7.52.2). wishes to avoid. The following sections are a sample of passages that the principal refer to the issue of war and peace: • Violence can be a way of peace – BG 2: 37–38 teachings about • As a member of the Kshatriya varna, it is Arjuna’s duty peace in hinduism to engage in battle, it is his dharma – BG 1: 31; also 18: 43, 2: 37–38 Inner peace is the ultimate aim of every Hindu and is • Arjuna suggests that war can be avoided and that his achieved through a number of ways including devotion to enemies are so overcome with greed and evil they the gods, meditation and prayer, following one’s dharma cannot escape their own destruction – BG 1: 37–39 as related to one’s varna and ashrama, and practising the • Krishna says the evil people are already dead, and virtues of life as expressed in the Ten Commitments. Arjuna is simply his instrument – BG 11: 33 As Hindus develop inner peace, this flows into Inner peace is probably the major theme developed their relationships with others. This is part of the in the Bhagavad Gita and there are many passages that dharma of everyday life. But peace is ultimately relate to it. The following are some: achieved when they experience release from the cycle • There are extensive sections in the Bhagavad Gita that of rebirth, known as moksha. relate to inner peace, many quite lengthy. One good World peace will be achieved when the cycle of example is Chapter 2, verses 55–71, an extensive existence draws to an end. The tenth avatar of Vishnu is discussion of desire, pleasure and passion. It concludes Kalki, who will come at the end of Kali Yuga (the time of with this: ‘The man who forsakes all desires and darkness, often identifi ed with the present era) to usher abandons all pride of possessions and of self reaches in an era of peace and prosperity. the goal of peace supreme’ (2: 71) • The cause of confl ict, as suggested in the previous verses, is desire – BG 3: 37 chapter 15 religion and peace 313

how hinduism guides the individual in exercise 15.2 1 Detail the Bhagavad Gita’s achieving inner peace comments about peace. The spiritual exercises and devotion related to Hindu 2 Outline the principal teachings life can lead to inner peace. Devotion to the gods, the about peace in Hinduism. fulfi lling of dharma, striving to achieve the Four Aims of life and the practice of yoga are all ways of achieving 3 Describe a Hindu understanding of inner peace. Inner peace is the central aim of every inner peace and world peace. Hindu’s existence and most Hindu practices are ways of helping to develop this. activity 15.2

1 Prepare to debate the following topic how hinduism – ‘Hinduism cannot be a peaceful contributes to religious tradition because violence is at world peace the hearts of its origins and beliefs’. 2 Prepare a ten-minute talk on the Hindu Hinduism has been involved in seeking world peace understanding of inner peace. Be prepared through a number of organisations, often in dialogue with to illustrate your talk with references other faiths. In Australia, groups such as the Hindu to the Hindu sacred writings. Council of Australia and the Hindu Heritage Society seek to develop understanding of Hinduism and peaceful 3 Search the internet for Hindu organisations and relationships with others. modern Hindu movements. Discuss whether Recent times have seen the rise of Hindu nationalism they encourage, or discourage, world peace. in India, and it has also been suggested that there is a turning away from seeking peace through the development of nuclear weapons. Gandhi Hinduism made one of the greatest contributions to the understanding of world peace through one person, Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi, who taught and practised satyagraha the doctrines of ahimsa (non-violence) and satyagraha soul force or truth force, (non-violent resistance). See Chapter Nine for a detailed interpreted by Gandhi as non-violent resistance discussion on the work of Gandhi.

INVESTIGATE Read the section in Chapter Nine on Mahatma Gandhi. Note down The rise of Hindu nationalism is a threat to his contribution to peace. Why was he so infl uential? Hindu efforts to encourage world peace

Certainly Gandhi is a signifi cant example of one individual who had a huge impact on the world in his attempts to bring peace. He was largely successful in achieving Indian independence, through peaceful civil disobedience and quelling the violence at the partitioning of India and Pakistan, and provided a model and inspiration for others such as Martin Luther King. 314 cambridge studies of religion Islam and peace

Islam began with the revelation of the Qur’an to the muslim Muhammad. There was considerable resistance to the message that Muhammad brought. In the seventh understanding century CE when Muhammad began to spread the of peace message of Islam, there were many warring tribal groups and clans in the Arabian peninsula. It is not surprising In Islam, peace is only possible when the individual then, to learn that Islam’s beginnings are surrounded by achieves inner peace, which is the result of true ‘Islam’, stories of warfare and violence. Muhammad had to fi ght that is, submission to Allah (sura 5: 15–16). This impacts to survive and for the survival of his message. Yet, Islam on relationships with others, fi rstly the family, and then sought to live at peace with all who accepted the message the community, and fi nally peace within society (sura of the new faith of Islam. 30: 21). The justice that results from such peace and The early centuries of Islam are stories of expansion, obedience to Islamic law will then result in world peace. often involving political intrigue and warfare. By the end The breakdown of nationalistic boundaries, economic of the fi rst century after the origins of Islam, it had spread injustice and racial divisions will mean there is no need through the Middle East into Northern Africa and Spain for war. The fi nal achievement of peace will be the in the west and to India in the east. Many conquered attainment of paradise, ‘the home of peace’ (sura 10: 25). peoples converted to Islam. The Qur’an speaks directly against forced conversions, such as the following verses: how the • ‘Invite all to the way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching and argue with them in ways that understanding of are best and most gracious’ (sura 16: 125) peace is informed • ‘Let there be no compulsion in religion: truth stands out clear from error’ (sura 2: 256) through sacred • ‘Will you compel mankind, against their will, to writings believe?’ (sura 10: 99) However, the alternatives to conversion were often Both the Qur’an and the Hadith contain references to less acceptable than belief in the new faith, and many did peace. As both are considered the sacred writings of Islam convert to Islam. and revelations of the will of Allah, the references contained As Islam spread into southern Europe, the Christian within them are considered signifi cant. Unfortunately, faith felt threatened and the early relationship between some passages have been misinterpreted by those who Christianity and Islam was tarnished by violence. This wish to use violence as a means of bringing Islam to the was particularly evident in the eleventh century when fore, or as a means of revenge against the West. Crusades a series of attacks by the Crusades were conducted to free the Holy Land from The Arabic words for ‘war’ are harb and qital. European Christians Islam. While early Crusades did achieve some success, War is spoken of 36 times in the Qur’an and peace is to recapture the Holy they soon became farcical events that were more a mentioned 67 times. The Qur’an is clear that Allah is Land which was held by Islam; they occurred political movement, than a truly religious war, aiming to peace; it is one of his 99 names: ‘Allah is the . . . the in the eleventh to disguise problems in the European society and Church. source of peace and perfection’ (sura 59: 23). thirteenth centuries CE Unfortunately the Crusades have spoiled congenial relationships between Christians and Muslims for the past millennium. Islam is often depicted as a religious tradition bent on conquest, but that is a misunderstanding of its desire for humanity to submit to the will of Allah. In this way it resembles many other religious traditions that seek converts in the belief that they are the true faith. Mohammad is an example of the merciful nature of Islam. While he endured the violence and opposition of others, he sought to show mercy. When he won victory over Mecca only four people were killed, and through his 23 years of struggle fewer than 200 people were killed during all the wars in which he was involved. chapter 15 religion and peace 315

The Qur’an This passage has often been used to demonstrate that Islam is a violent religion. However, this passage clearly Many references to peace in the Qur’an refer to the had a particular context in mind, the attack on concept of inner peace, which in Islam is the idea of Muhammad by the people of Mecca. Even with this submission to the will of Allah. Some passages have been knowledge, there are clear limits on the violence mentioned above, but other relevant passages include: mentioned (verse 190) and the reminder that Allah is • The greeting to men of faith is ‘Peace’ – sura 7: 46, 10: 10 forgiving and merciful (verse 192). • If an enemy inclines to peace, so should Muslims – The Qur’an clearly suggests that war should be a sura 8: 61 last resort (see sura 2: 109 and 4: 77). When Muslims • Tranquillity (peace) is given by Allah – sura 48: 4, 18, 26 were forced from their homes and had been abused, Allah The concept of greater jihad or inner struggle gave permission for them to fi ght (see sura 22: 39–41). (striving) is central to developing inner peace: War must be conducted only when there is a righteous • ‘Those who believe, and suffer exile and strive with intention, and it then becomes an obligation to defend might . . . They are the people who will achieve religious freedom (sura 22: 39–41), for self defence (sura salvation’ – sura 9: 20 2: 190) and in defending those who cannot defend • ‘Strive in his cause as you ought to strive, with sincerity themselves (sura 4: 75). When warfare is ended, treaties and under discipline’ (this passage from the chapter are to be respected (sura 16: 91–92). ‘Al Hajj’ is a reminder that the Hajj itself is a means of Passages from the Hadith include the following: striving to achieve inner peace) – sura 22: 78 • ‘Hate your enemy mildly; he may become your friend • ‘And those who strive in our cause – we will certainly one day’ guide them into our paths: for truly Allah is with those • ‘The most excellent jihad is to speak the truth in the who do right’ – sura 29: 69 face of a tyrant’ World peace is addressed in several passages in the • When Muhammad returned from one of his military Qur’an, some of which seem to advocate war. There is a campaigns, he said, ‘We have returned from the lesser lengthy section that begins with the command: ‘Fight in jihad to the greater jihad – the struggle of the individual the cause of Allah those who fi ght you . . .’ (sura 2: 190). with his own self’.

The Qur’an, the sacred text of Islam, contains many references to peace 316 cambridge studies of religion

the principal Jihad teachings about The term jihad has become well known in the media and is often applied to the violence perpetuated by Muslims peace in islam in terrorist attacks on the West. Jihad is thus interpreted As noted in the introduction, the word ‘islam’ is linked to by many as ‘holy war’, which is actually a Christian the root words salm (peace) and slm (submission). Thus concept from the Crusades. As might be expected, this is peace is part of the submission of humanity to the will of a generalisation that does not faithfully describe the Allah. Throughout Muslim history, that submission has meaning and concepts of jihad. Jihad has been used by sometimes been refl ected in attempts to impose terrorist groups to give a religious focus to their attacks conversion, despite prohibitions in the Qur’an. and it has also been misunderstood by the West, thus confusing acts of terrorism with jihad. The word jihad actually means ‘striving’ and is related to the concept of CONSIDER effort. It refers to the effort made by each Muslim in striving to serve Allah through devotion, self-sacrifi ce What images come to mind when the word jihad is mentioned? and ability, and through their love and compassion for Perhaps they are images of violence and terrorism. Jihad has a others. The Qur’an differentiates between ‘greater jihad’ better defi nition than this. Read as widely as you can to develop an and ‘lesser jihad’. understanding of greater and lesser jihad and their meanings. Greater jihad is the struggle against the desires and passions of the individual, the avoidance of selfi shness, and obedience to the commands of Allah. Greater jihad then refers to personal peace. Lesser jihad refers to the act of fi ghting, and thus refers to world peace. It is important to remember that peace in Islam is more than simply the absence of war, and jihad is only one aspect of war and peace. The word for peace is Iranian banknote showing revolutionaries with a picture of the Ayatollah Khomeni. It was considered jihad when the Shah contained in the traditional Muslim greeting, As Salamu as salamu alaykum of Iran was overthrown by Muslim revolutionaries in 1979 Alaykum, which means ‘Peace be upon you’. an Arabic greeting that means 'peace be upon you' chapter 15 religion and peace 317

how islam guides the individual in exercise 15.3 achieving inner peace 1 Detail the Qur’an’s comments about peace. 2 Outline the principal teachings The Muslim struggle for inner peace, ‘greater jihad’, has about peace in Islam. been described above. Personal peace should be developed by individual submission to Allah, expressed 3 Describe a Muslim understanding in relationships with the individual’s family and society, of inner peace and world peace. demonstrated in obedience to Islamic law and peaceful relationships with society as a whole and, fi nally, achieved activity 15.3 in the realisation of a place in paradise. 1 Visit a mosque and talk to a Muslim leader. how islam Discuss his or her understanding of peace. 2 Build up a scrapbook of media reports of contributes to Muslim terrorism. Prepare a summary world peace of the current controversy about Muslim terrorists. Ensure you link your summary Islam, as it developed, became aware that it needed to a Muslim understanding of peace. peaceful relationships with other nations. This began 3 Check the websites of the Muslim when the fi rst of the four caliphs, Abu Bakr, established organisations that are involved in promoting rules for war that drew from teachings in the Qur’an, but world peace. Detail their contributions developed them into principles that related to practical and assess their effectiveness. applications. These rules covered many aspects of war and sought to protect civilians, those who had sought monasticism, the environment and the bodies of the dead. Islam is also involved in groups seeking interfaith dialogue and the development of a greater understanding of peace in Islam that can be promoted in the wider community. This has been particularly important in the light of popular media implications that Islam promotes violence.

CONSIDER Islam is often depicted as a violent religious tradition in the media. Yet it claims to be based on the concept of peace. How has it come to be depicted this way? What evidence is there that many of the acts done in the name of Islam are in fact done in the name of Islam? How is Islam a religion of peace?

Many Muslim organisations seek to contribute to peaceful coexistence and actively promote an image of a religious tradition concerned about peace. Some of this takes the form of interfaith dialogue, while other organisations are specifically Muslim. Some of these include: • Muslim Peace Fellowship • World Assembly of Muslim Youth • Islamic Council of NSW • Islamic Friendship Association • Affi nity Intercultural Foundation. 318 cambridge studies of religion Conclusion

Peace is the often-stated aim of all world religions. However, in practice it has often been diffi cult to end of chapter separate the peace teachings of the religious traditions summary from the violent actions of their followers, leading to the comments such as that of Richard Dawkins which • Religion speaks of peace but is often introduces this chapter. associated with violence People of faith, no matter what religious tradition, • ‘Peace’ includes the concepts of have always had some diffi culty in putting their beliefs inner peace and world peace into practice in relation to peace. The inner peace that all religious people seek is usually a struggle against the • Peace is an important issue in all world religions potential within individuals to do harm or seek violence. • Christianity is a religious tradition The issue of world peace is complicated by many other that champions peace areas of life such as nationalism, economic demands and societal changes. If peace is hard to fi nd as a solitary • The Bible speaks often of peace human being, it is much more diffi cult in relationship • The New Testament has a great emphasis with others. on peace: ‘Blessed are the peacemakers’ Yet, while religion may be considered to have failed to achieve world peace, it may be helpful to consider how • In Christianity, peace with God is demonstrated the human race would be without the moderating in inner peace and that results in world peace infl uence of religious teachings. Religious traditions seek • In the face of violence, Augustine peace and, while they have diffi culty in achieving this developed a concept of ‘just war’ aim, the followers of religious traditions are among the loudest voices calling for peace in a violent world. • Some Christians, such as Quakers, are pacifi sts • Many Christian groups promote world peace • Hinduism has a thread of violence through its history and sacred writings • Non-violence is also a theme that underlies Hindu teaching • The Bhagavad Gita contains many references to peace • Hinduism has a great emphasis on inner peace • Mahatma Gandhi was a signifi cant person who has promoted peace in Hinduism • Islam expanded its faith through conquest, often portrayed as violent, yet moderated by concern to maintain peace • The Qur’an contains many passages that speak of peace • The concept of jihad includes ‘greater jihad’, the struggle with oneself, and ‘lesser jihad’, sometimes expressed in warfare • Islam seeks peaceful relationships with other faiths and world peace • Religion has been blamed for much violence in the world, but also has a moderating infl uence chapter 15 religion and peace 319 End of section question

Religion and peace will be assessed in the HSC examinations with a 20-mark extended response question. Specimen questions suggest students will need to compare some aspect of the teachings about peace in TWO religious traditions. section iv - religion and peace

Question 1 (20 marks) Explain how TWO religious traditions contribute to an understanding of both inner peace and world peace. chapter 16

Religion and non-religion 322 cambridge studies of religion

Atheism is not a proof that God does not exist. Instead it is the assertion that theism does not provide an adequate proof of the existence of God. george h smith chapter summary

This chapter discusses:

• The religious dimension in human history • Non-religious worldviews » Animism » Atheism » Polytheism » Agnosticism » Monotheism » Rational humanism » Scientifi c humanism • The place of the religious dimension to provide • The difference between religious and » Meaning and purpose non-religious worldviews for the individual » Concept of the transcendent » Social cohesion » Human person » Social transformation » Social responsibility

• Global distribution of fi ve major religious traditions » Statistical data

• New religious expressions » Reasons › Search for personal fulfi lment › Seeking ethical guidelines › Clarifying relationships with society » Infl uences › Rise of materialism › Scientifi c progress › Growth of ecological awareness › Disenchantment with traditional religions

introduction

Religion has long been part of human civilisation, but there have always been people who reject a religious world view or approach to life. The search for meaning through non-religious systems of belief will be considered here, fi rstly by consideration of the religious dimension to human history, then an examination of new religious expressions, and fi nally a consideration of non-religious world views. chapter 16 religion and non-religion 323 The religious dimension in human history

the expression of the connected through different personalities of spirits to many parts of society. Animism relates to this, believing religious dimension all of the environment is in some way animated by spirits. in human history Japanese Shinto (see Religions of ancient origin, Chapter Fourteen) is often spoken of as animistic because trees, The expression of the religious dimension in human groves, mountains, the sun, the moon and even the history is complex. It is more than simply animistic, emperor are all understood as deities. Modern pagan Roman Empire the Roman Empire, by polytheistic and monotheistic systems. The fi rst diffi culty religions (see below) also believe that aspects of the Paul’s time, controlled is that, although most societies have religion, the word universe are represented by gods and goddesses. all the lands surrounding ‘religion’ is not used by all societies. It comes from Latin the Mediterranean Sea Polytheism including Judea and and began to be used in the Roman Empire when a Jerusalem; the Romans number of different faith systems came together. It is a Polytheism means ‘many gods’ and polytheists are spoke Latin, but the word that is not always easily translatable in other, those who worship many gods. The religions of the Greek language was as important as Latin especially non-Western, societies. This is mainly because, Romans and Ancient Greeks were polytheistic, as are throughout most of history, the social, political and most early religions, including animism. The Greeks polytheism religious aspects of life were so intertwined that religion the worship of many and Romans recognised Zeus (Greece) and Jupiter (poly) gods (theos) could not be spoken of as something different from a (Rome) as the fathers of the gods, and worshipped many society’s general world view (note the introduction to this other gods as well. In the Classical Age many spirits, Classical Age the ages of the Greek and book on what religion is). Even in Western societies it is gods and goddesses were recognised. Their Pantheon Roman empires (circa diffi cult to separate culture and religion. (offi cial family of gods) had twelve gods and goddesses 300 BCE to 300 CE) From the Romans the idea developed that religion in it; the major gods are Aphrodite/Venus (love), Athena/ pantheon must incorporate belief in divine beings and that these Minerva (wisdom), Aries/Mars (war) and Apollo (the a set of all the gods in beings inspire fear, awe and reverence, and infl uence creative arts). a religious tradition people to act in the correct way. These are Western ideals Hinduism could be considered a form of polytheism, henotheism that become signifi cant in the development of what has but many Hindus describe their religion as a henotheism. the belief that one god is been called ‘the Protestant work ethic’ and related greater and is selected That is, although many gods exist, only one needs to be to worship, from among rationalistic religious expressions. But the idea that worshipped. This term was coined by the student and a number of gods religion is an inner emotion that motivates people is often teacher of religion Max Müller (1823–1900). Some forms inappropriate in other religious settings. The sociologist, of monotheism, such as Judaism, are considered a complex Emile Durkheim, suggested that religion is a tool for form of henotheism. social cohesion that manifests in the totems, laws and customs that keep a society operational. See Chapter One Monotheism monotheism (The nature of religion) for discussion of many aspects of Monotheism is the worship of one god or, more the worship of the information need for this section. only one god specifi cally, a religious system where only one god is said Animism to exist. Usually that god is understood as the creator of animism the universe. Until recently, Western scholars considered primitive or tribal religion; the belief Animism is the idea of nature revealing the divine or that monotheism was the only valid religious form and that spirits inhabit gods. Thus spirits inhabit trees, rocks and water, and polytheisms and animistic systems were nothing more all objects and have events such as earthquakes, famine and drought are than systems of superstition. Generally Judaism, infl uence on people and natural events evidence of the gods’ anger. One of the main practices of Christianity and Islam are understood as monotheisms, animism is to appease the spirits so they will stop bringing but this is not completely the case. superstition calamity and bring good things such as rain, abundant fear of the unknown or acting according to crops and a prosperous community. some unknown spiritual Durkheim based a lot of his studies on Aboriginal FURTHERMORE force or prejudice societies. In Indigenous societies, the idea of the ‘sacred’, The three religious traditions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam are ‘religious’ or ‘mystical’ is hard to separate from the always described as monotheistic. Judaism is usually described as working of society as a whole. The spiritual may be the fi rst monotheistic religion.

324 cambridge studies of religion

Of the three monotheistic religions, Islam alone the signifi cance can be said to be a system of unqualified monotheism. There was a short period when Muslims were allowed of the religious to worship the three daughters of Allah, who were dimension in human goddesses in their own right. But the ‘satanic’ verses that permitted this were revoked. Christians believe history their religion is a monotheism, but this is complicated Religion has had a signifi cant impact on the lives of by the doctrine of the Trinity which attributes Trinity human beings and human history. As well as affecting godhood to God the father, God the son (Jesus) and the concept of individuals, there has been a strong cultural and social one god and three God the Holy Spirit, which are separate persons and dimension to religious expression and experience. This persons (Father, Son also one god. This, for Christians, is a holy mystery, and Holy Spirit) can mean that religion is both a radical and a conservative but for others it muddies Christianity’s claim to being a element in society, bringing change and also maintaining pure monotheism. the status quo. Lastly, many claim that Judaism is a starkly monotheistic religion. This is not the case; it is a Meaning and purpose for the individual complex henotheism. The Hebrew Bible mentions a Religion has been defi ned as: number of deities, and significant Jewish leaders such as Solomon (circa 950 BCE, author of the Book of A system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, persuasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations . . . Proverbs) were said to worship other gods (see Hebrew by formulating conceptions of a general order of Bible 1 Kings 11.5). The Jewish god was both creator of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an all (as in Genesis) but also god of the Jewish people. aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic. The wording of the second commandment implies that clifford geertz, religion as a cultural system other gods do exist, but Jews should only follow their Religion is a set of assumptions that enables social own god. cohesion but also has an impact of the life of the individual. Perhaps the greatest influence on monotheism In Rome, for example, a god such as Jupiter Optimus was from Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism developed Maximus could be said to represent Rome itself. State in Persia (Iran) from the teachings of Zarathushtra, rituals often celebrated this god through communal who probably lived about 2000 BCE. Some people sacrifi ce. This did not mean that the ancient Romans had believe that Zoroastrianism influenced the formation no personal religion. They may also have worshipped of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. This Persian faith other gods in the offi cial pantheon to make requests and was a dualism with a good god (Ahura Mazda) and a be favoured by another god or goddess. Additionally, from bad god (Angra Mainyu), but recommended the around 200 BCE a number of more personalised religions worship of only one of these. began to develop. These were usually secretive and allowed the individual to gain secret knowledge about such things as the layout of the afterlife and how to access the more pleasant realms of that world. When Christianity arrived in Rome, it appealed to some Romans on a very personal level. Eventually, however, the god of the Christians replaced Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Throughout this period, people also had recourse to metaphysics a branch of philosophy astrology, magic, fortune tellers and other more that centres on the personal forms of connecting with the metaphysical. nature of reality chapter 16 religion and non-religion 325

Although religion is often concerned with group Totems are symbols that represent the cohesion of a group. The cross cohesion, rather than fulfi lling personal religious is a Christian symbol. The dollar sign represents money or capitalism expression, from the 1800s personal fulfi lment was increasingly emphasised. Religion came to be seen as personal. William James defi ned religion as: the feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine. Religion does have an effect on religious people’s lives, either at an intellectual level (the big questions about the meaning of life), an emotional level (the expression of love for God) or an ethical level as an infl uence on their behaviour (obedience to the commandments of God and showing love for others). In recent times, Western society has emphasised the individual. Religion has responded to this in various ways. Evangelical Christianity has stressed the idea of personal salvation, for example. Social cohesion Religion is not only concerned about the life of the individual, but is an important factor in social cohesion. A unifi ed system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden – beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them . . . [Religion is] the self-validation of a society by means of myth and ritual. emile durkheim Religion can be a very conservative infl uence on society. Religious ideas are intended to maintain order in society. The family unit is seen as a religious institution to preserve this basic foundation of human society. Religion can provide the impetus for communal action, as in the Christian Crusades or the Muslim Hajj to Mecca. Social cohesion can also be demonstrated in community celebrations such as the Christian Christmas or the Hindu Divali. Experiences of disaster are also times when religious rituals can provide cohesion, such as ecumenical or interfaith services for victims of the Bali Bombing (2002) or the mine cave-in at Beaconsfi eld in Tasmania (2006). Sometimes, religious cohesion is demonstrated in attempts to use religion to stop people from breaking away from society, such as the condemnation of new religious movements, or to support controversial actions, such as prayer support for the armed forces in times of war. 326 cambridge studies of religion

Social transformation Religion can also transform society. Religions are, in segregation the main, conservative systems that uphold tradition. any system where racial groups are kept In times of crisis, however, they can be adapted to apart from each other provide structure for movements of radical change. In the 1900s, for example, the Christian Bible was used by white American Christians to justify slavery. Despite the American Civil War (1861–1865) being fought on the issue of slavery, the status of black Americans had remained extremely low. America operated under a system of segregation. Whites and blacks kept to their own areas and buses, trains and restaurants were segregated. This was the case even after black Americans had served and sometimes died for their country in both World Wars. On 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks, a black American, refused to give up her seat for a white person on a bus, and a new stage in the civil rights movement began. Her act of civil disobedience was like Gandhi’s campaigns against the British in India earlier in the century. No violence was promoted but, following her example, black Americans across the nation began to ignore rules of segregation. Martin Luther King Jr used his Christian ethics and training as a minister to lead this new movement for black rights. He was able to use his church to gather support from people across America. He emphasised those parts of the Bible that justify the brotherhood and sisterhood of humanity, rather than those that support slavery, to seek change. King was one of those rare people, influenced by Gandhi, who are able to use a conservative religious system to bring about radical change. In Australia, black and white Christians have been at the forefront in seeking to address the rights of Indigenous Australians. People of different religious beliefs have sought to transform society in Australia and throughout the world through activity in social justice, social welfare, education, political action and campaigns to support public morality. This last case has not always been appreciated in the Australian community, where moral campaigners have earned the pejorative nickname ‘wowsers’.

These memorials to Martin Luther King Jr (1929–1968) and Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) serve to testify that they used their religious principles to effect radical change in their societies chapter 16 religion and non-religion 327 Global distribution of the major religious traditions

Religion, as a part of human expression, exists in some Charting the global distribution of major religious form in every part of the world. Animism, as the traditions can be diffi cult. Some countries do not include earliest expression of religious thought, underlies every relevant questions on their census statistics relating to religious expression through its emphasis on the spirit religion. Governments can be prevented from collecting world. The spread of religious traditions reflects the this information by a state’s constitution or because movement of peoples. Some, such as Hinduism, have people do not want a government to collect information remained in the same area, around the Indian on religion. The question about religion on the Australian subcontinent. Others, such as Buddhism, Christianity census is optional. Until the late 1980s, eastern Europe and Islam, have spread, through the evangelising work and Russia were counted as atheist states, because this of King Asoka and the popularisation of Mayahana was the offi cial position on religion for communist Buddhism, or the conquests of early Islam, or the countries. After the breakdown of the communist system colonising efforts of Christian Europe. The map below in the 1990s, these countries started being counted as charts the distribution of the major religious traditions Christian. Their populations were not all atheist before, across the modern world. and they are not suddenly Christian now.

Islam Islam, predominantly Shi'a Theravada Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism Hinduism Roman Catholicism Judaism Protestantism Chinese religions Eastern Orthodoxy (including Greek and Russian Orthodox) Japanese religions Independent Churches of Eastern Christianity Korean religions (including Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopian, East and West Syrian) Vietnamese religions Mormonism Traditional ethnic (tribal) religions Christianity, undifferentiated by branch Uninhabited (chiefly mingled Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, neither predominant) 328 cambridge studies of religion

Primal-Indigenous Hinduism Compare the following table with the pie chart above. including African traditional/diasporic 14% 6% Non-religious Chinese traditional TABLE 16.1 POPULATION OF THE CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD 16% 6% Buddhism 6% Sikhism CONTINENT POPULATION 0.36% Judaism Asia 3 957 661 498 0.22% Africa 915 722 298 Other Europe 727 656 706 North America 518 249 404

Islam Christianity South America 375 667 668 21% 33% 33 131 988

One of the major diffi culties with ‘offi cial statistics’ This gives context to the information in the pie is that they can be misleading. See, for example, the pie chart when looking at categories, distribution and chart above which indicates the number of adherents of breakdown of the information. the major world religions, expressed as percentages. A In this chapter global trends and fi gures are closer examination reveals some diffi culties. If you discussed. Australian details are discussed in Chapter count the fi gures, they add up to more than 100%, so Three, Religion in Australia post-1945. they are approximations only. Judaism and Sikhism are both signifi cant and infl uential religious traditions, the former being the source of both Christianity and Islam exercise 16.1 and consequently studied as a major religious tradition, yet together they make up less than 1% of the world’s 1 Identify the religions that could be considered population. Buddhism is indicated to be about 6% of the animistic, polytheistic and monotheistic. world population. This is only possible if the 1 billion 2 Explain how religion gives purpose people in China are considered to be atheist, the offi cial and meaning for individuals. government policy. If China is largely Buddhist, as may really be the case, Buddhism could in fact be larger than 3 How is the distribution of world religions Islam. Nonetheless, the information contained in the a refl ection of the history of the world? map, chart and table in this section does give an ‘offi cial’ indication of the religious groups in the world. activity 16.1 INVESTIGATE 1 Construct a table and fi ll in the differences between animism, polytheism and monotheism. Go to the internet and see what fi gures you can fi nd to give you a general understanding of the distribution of religions across the 2 Plan a debate with the following topic – world. Think carefully about why these religions are found where ‘Religion resists change in society’. Use they are. What factors have infl uenced their distribution? the information in this section for both the affi rmative and the negative. 3 Describe how Australia is similar, or different, to the distribution of religious traditions across the world. chapter 16 religion and non-religion 329 New religious expression

There are a number of terms for trying to identify the FURTHERMORE change over time of religious movements. Old religions and If you ask people who were alive in the 1970s to name an evil cult, new religions can be compared. Some religions break away they may mention ‘Jonestown’ to you. ‘Jonestown’ was not a new from others, and defi nitions of religion can be open or religion, but a community established in the South American nation closed. One of the fastest growing religious movements in of Guiana by the Reverend Jim Jones, a Christian minister from the the world, the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day United States. Jones was mentally unstable and eventually died by Saints (known as the Mormons), refers to itself as Christian. poison, with around 900 others, in a mass suicide of his followers But it uses its own scripture (the Book of Mormon) in in 1978. Other recent religious disasters include around 100 dead addition to traditional Christian scriptures, and so many in Waco in 1993, a group that broke away from the Christian-based older Christians would not call them Christian. Many Seventh Day Adventists. Up to 600 people died in Uganda in 2001, cult people refer to cults as fringe groups that should not have part of a group called ‘The Restoration of the Ten Commandments’, extreme religious the status or respectability that the word ‘religion’ implies. group that is often a breakaway group from the Catholic Church. Check the media over The word ‘cult’ is usually used as a pejorative term and considered dangerous the next few weeks and see whether any controversial religious the term ‘new religious movement’ is used instead. pejorative groups are reported. Conduct some research and decide if they term of criticism could be dangerous to their followers. or depreciation CONSIDER Many new religions are referred to as cults and thus dismissed as dangerous. Should all religions that are new be discriminated against in this way? What are the features of cults and how do new religions show, or not show, these features? the rise of new religious expressions and spiritualities

As societies change, people have to adapt to new ways of thinking. In adapting to change, they can fi nd that their religious system is not adequate and they convert to a newer faith. If enough people convert, then the old religious tradition ceases to exist. As old religious traditions become less relevant to the times, new religions will come into existence. Some of these arise because of splits in older traditions, or because a leader appears and forms a new religion. All religions that are traditional today were once new religious movements. Buddhism and Islam were once despised for being new and innovative. Christianity was sect attacked for being a brainwashing and coercive cult, and as a subgroup of a religious tradition, usually a group with strange rituals such as incest and cannibalism Anton Newcombe of the band the Brian Jonestown Massacre, emphasising a particular (a misunderstanding of the Christian ideas of ‘brothers and the subject of the documentary Dig! The name of the band includes a reference to Jonestown, as well as a reference to aspect that makes it sisters in Christ’ and holy communion). different to other groups Brian Jones, the original guitarist of the Rolling Stones of the same tradition In a similar way, new religions today are often attacked as cults. Many of these groups make people The rise of new religious expression is often driven Theosophy spiritualist group fearful simply because they don’t understand them. A by the pressures of social crisis. War, defeat and colonialism founded in the late few of these groups are genuinely dangerous, and so it is have been major motivators in the formation of new nineteenth century, important to discriminate between those groups that are religions. Just as Christianity was partly a reaction to following Hindu and Buddhist teaching dangerous, those groups that are sects, and those that are Rome’s thrust into Judea, and Buddhism a reaction to genuine new expressions of religious belief. Sometimes, changes in Indian society, new religions such as Theosophy Scientology that discrimination can only be done by watching the and Scientology have benefi ted both from the crisis of war religious group begun by L Ron Hubbard new religion carefully and seeking to understand its goals and a growing connection between the West and the East in the 1950s and operations. during the twentieth century. 330 cambridge studies of religion

INVESTIGATE two examples Theosophy was established in the late 1800s when Western societies of new religious were becoming increasingly interested in spiritualism and Eastern religions. Follow the links to Theosophy and Scientology on the expression Cambridge Studies of Religion website. One could argue that a similar motivation helped Scientology to grow, as this religion recognises Rastafarianism Eastern ideas such as reincarnation. Find out how the rise of these new Reggae musician religious expressions refl ected the concerns of their times. Bob Marley

During the 1960s and 1970s, growing dissatisfaction with traditional religions in light of the global arms race, the possibility of nuclear war and the horrors of the Vietnam War drove many young Americans, Europeans and Australians to join new religions. This was known as the Age of Aquarius, an age that saw the birth of a new understanding of spirituality and universal love. Many of these religions became what is now called the New Age movement New Age movement. promotes and develops Christianity has also felt the rise of new individual ‘spirituality’ spiritualities, in the growth of the Pentecostal rather than founding a new religion; the churches. Beginning in the early twentieth century, New Age can include these groups emphasise the gifts of the Holy Spirit (see astrologers, yoga Chapter Six – Christianity). Pentecostal churches do practitioners, séance goers, shamans and a away with traditional practices such as parish churches, whole range of other traditional liturgy, organ music and robed clergy, religious practitioners

emphasising large regional churches, flexible and Pentecostalism contemporary services with modern music and a movement within relaxed style of leadership with specialised ministry Christianity that places emphasis leaders. They aim to reach young people and their on the possibility of approach emphasises enthusiastic worship, often direct contact with accompanied by raised hands, healing, repetitive the Holy Spirit choruses and speaking in tongues or prophecy. They speaking in tongues have grown significantly through denominational speaking in the switching and their entertaining approach to worship language of the Holy Spirit, a mark of the has been very successful in the Australian context (see When Jamaican musician Bob Marley burst onto the Pentecostal movement Chapter Three: Religion in Australia post-1945 for world music scene in the 1970s, few people realised Exodus additional comments on Pentecostalism). that he was a prophet of a new religion. Most thought literally, ‘departure’; it he was simply introducing the world to a new style of refers to the event where, led by Moses, the people INVESTIGATE music, reggae. His songs included religious terms of Israel left Egypt for such as Exodus, redemption and Zion. the promised land Access the Centre for Studies on New Religions (CESNUR) link on the Cambridge Studies of Religion website. This is a comprehensive redemption concept of salvation resource for studying new religious movements. See what you can learn about some of the new spiritualities mentioned in this Zion chapter, or others that may be of interest to you. referring specifi cally to Jerusalem, taken to refer to any holy or ideal place chapter 15 religion and peace 331

Rastafarian Marley was a member of the Rastafarian Rastafarians have their own sense of social member of a Jamaican religion that has its origins in the writings of Marcus cohesion, belonging to a black society opposed to an religious movement, which believes in black Garvey. A black Jamaican nationalist, Marcus Garvey evil white world. They have developed their own supremacy and the (l887–1940) taught that people descended from ethical responsibility to each other, often referred to ‘I back-to-Africa movement African slaves should to return to Africa. He was and I’ rather than ‘we’ to emphasise that responsibility. considered by many to be a religious prophet and They seek redemption in the land of Africa where they said: ‘Look to Africa, for there a king will be crowned’. will rule a new society. When the Ethiopian Ras (meaning ‘Duke’) Tafari Rastafarians do not have a structured Makonnen (from which the name Rastafari comes) organisation and many seek simple lifestyles. They was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in do meet for ethical and religious discussions and 1930, many saw this as a fulfilment of that prophecy. conduct services, often using elements from the Garvey himself became a Catholic and is celebrated Ethiopian Orthodox Church. At their gatherings as a national hero of Jamaica. Nyabinghi music is played, and this has emerged, in Haile Selassie I was the emperor of Ethiopia, popular terms, as reggae music. Bob Marley became the only independent state in Africa, and a member the best-known proponent of reggae until his death of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. At his coronation in 1981. Listening carefully to his music and lyrics, in he took the title of ‘King of Kings, Lord of Lords and songs such as Exodus and Redemption song, will Conquering Lion of Judah’. He was considered the reveal the religious basis to his music. Messiah in Rastafarian teaching. Haile Selassie I New Age religions never officially endorsed that idea, or Rastafarianism, but on a visit to Jamaica in 1966 he was greeted by During the 1960s and 70s there were signifi cant 200 000 Jamaicans as a messianic figure. His language changes in Western society. Cheap travel and global took the tone of a spiritual leader and his aspirations communications meant people were becoming aware for Africa were similar to those of the Rastafarians. of the world as a whole and differences between people His death in 1975 was not accepted by Rastafarians, were being understood in more personal terms. In the who believe he is still alive. Rastafarians believe they 1960s, British rock band the Beatles visited the should return to their spiritual homeland of Ethiopia. Maharishi Maresh Yogi in India and Western people Rastafarians have a complex set of beliefs. They became more aware of Eastern mysticism and other believe the African people are descendants of the religious traditions. The musical show Hair told of the tribes of Israel (Zion) and that white people are the coming of the age of Aquarius, and traditional Babylon of the Bible, the evil influence in the world. Christian churches were being rejected by the baby Many Rastafarians live by the dietary laws of boomers in their search for freedom from Leviticus and Deuteronomy and are vegetarians or institutionalised religion and for personal fulfi lment. vegans (their dietary laws are called Ital). They This was when New Age religions began to believe that Jah (a shortened form of Jehovah – the develop. They include a mix of very old ideas, such as name for God) blessed the herbs of the field, and thus astrology, Hinduism, Buddhism and paganism, and smoking cannabis is a sacrament. They do not wish to new developing ideas such as the human potential cut the hair or body, so they grow dreadlocks and movement, holistic medicine and environmentalism. spurn tattoos. In language they use unique Rastafarian New Agers use no sacred texts and have little expressions. Rastafarians also emphasise the colours organisational structure. They do have signifi cant red, for the blood of the martyrs, green, for the prophets, including actress Shirley MacLaine and vegetation of Africa, gold, for the wealth of Africa, motivational speaker Deepak Chopra. New Age and black, for the black people, and often use these spiritualities include concepts such as karma, colours in clothing and decorations. These colours reincarnation, universalism, pantheism and ecological are also found on the Ethiopian flag. responsibility. Practices involve a variety of religious infl uences and include channelling (contacting ‘spirit guides’), astrology, meditation, ambient music, using crystals for healing and ‘pop’ psychology. 332 cambridge studies of religion

Many moved to New Age spiritualities because the search for of lack of personal fulfi lment in traditional churches personal fulfi lment or perceived failings of traditional churches, such as sexism and child abuse. Some see the New Age New religions are attractive to people who seek personal movement as an opportunity to explore new fulfi lment, but cannot fi nd that fulfi lment in more spiritualities along with old ideas, ranging from traditional forms of religious expression. New religions traditional Eastern religions, to animistic American are often driven by charismatic leaders. Sociologist Max Indian religious ideas, to Wicca and astrology. Weber spoke of a distinction between charismatic and Wicca Emphasis on the individual and the search for bureaucratic leadership; bureaucratic leadership is the religious tradition of modern witchcraft personal fulfi lment fi t with the trend towards post- leadership through established positions, such as the modernism and the rejection of external authority pope and the Archbishop of Canterbury. Charismatic and the absolutes of traditional Christianity. leadership, however, comes into existence outside of Universalism is the doctrine of the New Age bureaucracies; the charismatic leader seems naturally movement (all religions are the same path to God or gifted and able to solve problems immediately, without reincarnation) and to be in harmony with nature is the the machinery of large institutions. Charismatic leaders, dawn of the New Age, a new society where evil will be such as AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (the eradicated and everyone will be happy. As those in the founder of the Hare Krishnas), are able to build large New Age movement come to have a greater infl uence movements from their attractive personalities and on society, they expect that a New Age will come leadership skills, and help people to fi nd an immediate when war, disease and poverty will end and sense of meaning in their lives. These leaders often have discrimination will be eradicated. an enthusiasm that is harder to fi nd in older, more New Age practitioners in Australia range from structured religious traditions. Charismatic leadership, the hippy communities of Nimbin to business however, can be unstable, and occasionally leads to executives in the Sydney CBD. While it was treated disaster; for example, Reverend Jim Jones, David Koresh with some suspicion when it fi rst emerged, the New and Charles Manson. Sometimes people are not even aware that they are Age movement has been very infl uential in Western AC Bhaktivedanta society (it is, after all, a Western movement) and has being introduced to a new religion. The charismatic Bob Swami Prabhupada, infl uenced the traditional churches including, for Marley was accepted as a fi ne musician and rock star founder of Hare before many people realised he was promoting a new Krishna, a new example, the growth of Pentecostalism. Modern spirituality that is business practices, health services and contemporary religion, Rastafarianism. essentially a 500-year- Christianity are all heavily infl uenced by the New old sect of Hinduism Age movement. chapter 16 religion and non-religion 333

New religions are often able to respond quickly, and A new ethics based on respect rather than adapt to pressing social issues. During the twentieth exploitation of the planet was built out of these post- ecospirituality century, new religions attracted high participation from war movements. The Christian god was seen by some spirituality that links women. Groups such as Theosophy, the Orange People as male, war-like and all-dominating, and pagans with concern for the environment (followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh) and Caodaism are built their ethical system with gods and goddesses noteworthy because of the access they afford women to who upheld respect for the planet, feminine values leadership positions. This contrasts with the Christian and care for other humans. Paganism and the later churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church and the New Age Movement in turn gave rise to other Evangelical Anglican Church, which still only ordain men movements such as ecospirituality. Care for the to the priesthood. Traditional churches are slow to accept planet and its people was more important than change and seen as hostile to issues that are current following a list of rules and regulations. Traditional concerns in the community. religions were seen as rules based. Many of the new spiritualities also emphasise contemporary social issues long forgotten by the traditional the relationship religions, such as ecological awareness and social justice. of new religions seeking ethical with society

guidelines New religious movements offer the chance to escape mainstream society. Groups such as the Hare In upholding tradition, older religions are seen by Krishnas (more correctly, the International Society contemporary spiritual seekers as unable to adapt to new for Krishna Consciousness) encourage communal ethical positions. This was especially the case in the second living away from the complexities of modern-day life. half of the twentieth century. In the West, older religions Sometimes these groups seek a total break with supported governments that were involved in two major society, leading to accusations of being cults. But this world wars and, from 1945, a terrifying race to accumulate movement away from society is not always complete. weapons. Other issues also emerged, such as the growth of Hare Krishnas can become deeply engaged in charity alternative lifestyles, the breakdown of traditional concepts work, running kitchens that provide free meals for of marriage and family, homosexuality, social awareness those who can’t afford food. People who participate in and the rejection of traditional organisational structures. new spiritualities that evolved out of the age of Small groups of people tried to fi nd new understandings of Aquarius/New Age movement often seek to effect spirituality that did not include traditional religion. changes in their own lives that will help to change the In the 1940s and 1950s, Englishman Gerald Gardner planet. This includes working in jobs focused on the claimed to possess knowledge of ancient European care of people and the environment, joining charity paganism and witchcraft. Although this was untrue, groups, being involved in organic food cooperatives Gardner started a new interest in religions that had existed and refusing to engage in activities that encourage in places such as Britain before the arrival of Christianity. unnecessary consumption of products and resources. This new spirituality was without an offi cial church or priests, and gave a great deal of freedom to those who practised it. This witchcraft/paganism (now called Wicca) sought spirituality from the land and nature. It sought a return to the ancient solstice rituals and pagan rituals such as Easter, which had been Christianised. In these and in their pagan deities, Wiccans sought a spirituality that was in tune with the planet and nature. 334 cambridge studies of religion

infl uences on the Scientifi c progress growth of new Professor Eric Sharpe, formerly of Sydney University, outlined what he cheekily called his ‘aspirin theory’ of spiritualities religion: that religion exists, in part, to make life A number of factors outside individual human comfortable and healthy, particularly in societies where experience have influenced the growth of new advanced technology does not exist to provide health and religious expressions and spiritualities. These include comfort with the fl ick of a switch or the swallowing of a changes in society as a result of development at a pill! In this way, Professor Sharpe suggested, the more more global level. science explains the operation of the world, the less likely people are to need magical and religious explanations for The rise of materialism how the world works. During the twentieth century, the economies of the Science and technology can also cause great anxiety. West evolved to an extremely sophisticated level. The Recent developments in the mapping of the human gene consumption of goods and services is no longer a means suggest that scientists are beginning to understand the to a better life, but the goal of life itself. Individuals essential nature of humanity and may be able to control it defi ne themselves less by how they are connected to the through cloning. It is not only old religions that suggest community, and more by what they own. This is the rise this is something to be wary of. New religions and consumerism of consumerism or affl uenza. In a vicious cycle, one spiritualities also show concern about the unchecked progress of science and technology. People in new a preoccupation with sacrifi ces family and community time in order to be at the accumulation of work, thus earning more money, and trying to fi nd religions often look to developing self-suffi ciency to avoid consumer goods being dependent on technology. satisfaction in the purchase of more goods. affl uenza Traditional religions encourage this vicious cycle. a growing and unhealthy Some new religions, or new developments from old preoccupation CONSIDER with money and religions, also try to copy this model of consumption. Does religion exist just to make people feel better? How do people use material goods David Lyon, in his book Jesus in Disneyland, suggests religion in this way? Does that invalidate religion? Why or why not? that people legitimise their identities, on a religious level, through the purchase and consumption of religious ideas. Pentecostal Christianity operates by In some ways, the advance of scientifi c progress has the selling of books, audiotapes, DVDs and self-help created more interest in religious aspects of life, particularly guides to make consumers better Christians, and when science cannot provide all the answers that it is endorses what is called ‘prosperity doctrine’. This expected to. Some people feel that science does not provide teaches that people show they are ‘blessed by God’ by for the mystery that is so necessary in life, although many having success in work and material possessions. It can scientists dispute this. The rise of holistic medicine and be argued that some Western Buddhists are Buddhist popular psychology, particularly the human potential not because they go to temples, but because they buy movement, are examples where people, particularly those Buddhist statues and books on Buddhism that they infl uenced by the New Age movement, are choosing not to don’t necessarily read. New religious movements can accept scientifi c progress. In the minds of some, science thrive by opposing this system of consumption, or and religion are both important ways of understanding the joining with it. The Church of Scientology, with its world and are not necessarily incompatible. expensive self-improvement courses, is often cited as Growth of ecological awareness an example, and exemplified by film actor Tom Cruise. Non-consumerist new religions such as the Hare As suggested above, the New Age movement has Krishnas emphasise self-sufficiency and the rejection championed the cause of environmentalism. There have of obsessive consumption. been Christian ecologists throughout the history of Christianity (see Hildegard of Bingen in Chapter Seven); the Church has been often identifi ed with big business and so is one of the institutions that have exploited the environment. While Christians emphasise the command to ‘have dominion over the world’ (Genesis 1: 28), this is often seen as an excuse to abuse it. chapter 16 religion and non-religion 335

New spiritualities emphasise the need for care, and this perspective is seen in the Greens political party and exercise 16.2 lobby groups such as Greenpeace; these groups are part of the new spirituality, expressions of the concepts integral 1 List two new spiritualities and explain their to the New Age movement. New Agers are often actively differences to traditional religious expressions. involved in seeking green alternatives to energy (wind 2 Describe the reasons that new and solar power), agriculture (permaculture and organic religious expressions have grown. farming) and other areas ranging from architecture to 3 Explain the infl uences on the development biodiesel fuels. of new religious expressions. Disenchantment with traditional religious practice and guidance activity 16.2 In recent years it has become obvious that many Australians are choosing to leave the traditional Christian 1 Visit a New Age shop and list the objects/ churches. In the 2006 census, 19 per cent of Australians books/concepts that you can identify (up by 26 per cent compared with 1996) declared they from other religious traditions. have no religion. Other religions grew in numbers and 2 Collect media articles or note TV programs new spiritualities such as Pentecostalism, which grew by that show the rise of new religious expressions. 26 per cent in 2006 from the numbers in 1996, also Try and determine the reasons and experienced signifi cant growth. infl uences that underlie these reports. Christianity declined from 71 per cent in 1996 to 64 3 Reread ‘The characteristics of religion’ per cent in 2006, and this was refl ected in the more from Chapter One. Try to design your traditional denominations of Christianity. There are a own new religion. How would it refl ect number of reasons for this. Firstly, there is a general those characteristics, and how would it decline in people identifying with all organisations, address the issues raised in this section? including everything from the churches to service organisations such as Rotary to other groups such as the Scouts and the CWA. People are also less inclined to accept membership of a religious tradition simply because they were raised in one or their parents belong to it. Mainstream religion has also become less important because of materialism, consumerism or other commitments, such as sport, at the same time church services are usually held. The decline of Sunday schools and youth groups refl ects the sense that it is no longer popular to be involved with a church. Other problems such as sexism, hypocrisy, child abuse by clergy and personal hurts such as the refusal to baptise a child or conduct a funeral are all factors that have led to disenchantment with traditional churches. The new spiritualities are not perceived as having the structures that reinforce these problems. In seeking to identify with a religion, loyalty has been replaced by a desire for people to feel they gain something from their religion. 336 cambridge studies of religion Non-religious world views

search for personal Some people suggest that atheism is, in itself, a faith system; just as one believes in God, then one can fulfi lment through only believe in the non-existence of God. Author George non-religious H Smith has argued that atheism remains a negative position while no substantial argument for the existence practices of God can be found. One counter-argument to this view is that all unproven propositions, including religious Religion is becoming a less important part of society and it propositions, cannot be supported. Another counter is is no longer unusual for people not to have a religious world world view the fact that the unprovability of a religious or any other view. In recent years the number of people who have no an ideological means proposition does not automatically mean that either of understanding the religion has been increasing in Australia. Several terms are possibility is equally likely. world and its people used to describe the varieties of non-religious perspectives. These will be discussed in the following paragraphs. INVESTIGATE Atheism Look up George H Smith on the internet and read readers’ reviews, Atheism is based on the statement that gods are where you will fi nd some interesting debates by both those who atheist unproven. People often make a conscious, considered person who can fi nd love and those who loathe the ideas presented in these texts. no rational explanation decision not to believe in God or sometimes, through Make note of the things that are said and form your own opinion. for the existence circumstance, have lost their belief. Atheism is different Are his arguments convincing? Why or why not? of God, gods and to agnosticism, which will be discussed below. spirits do not exist Well known atheists include environmentalist David Suzuki, writers Douglas Adams (deceased), Terry Agnosticism Pratchett and Philip Pullman, comedians Wil Anderson Agnosticism is more of a concept than a philosophy or agnosticism and Ricky Gervais, actor Jodie Foster, television producer religious perspective. Agnosticism refl ects the idea that person who believes Joss Whedon, singer Björk, and scientists Peter Singer that it is impossible suggests the person does not believe, nor do they and Richard Dawkins. to know whether God, disbelieve, in the existence of any god. gods or spirits exist Perhaps the fi rst sign in Western civilisation of an Agnosticism is a term coined by the evolutionary atheistic world view emerged with the Greek philosopher theorist TH Huxley in 1869. He believed that his Epicurus (circa 340–270 BCE). His writings were rejection of all spiritual knowledge was in accord with celebrated by the Roman poet Lucretius (circa 100–55 the scientifi c progress of his times. Huxley described BCE). These two writers suggested that, although gods how he came up with the term agnostic as follows: may exist, they play no part in human affairs. Lucretius sought to explain all phenomena through human reason When I reached intellectual maturity, and began to ask myself whether I was an atheist, a theist, or a alone, and gave a range of arguments for why the soul pantheist; a materialist or an idealist; a Christian or a does not exist and why death should not be feared. The freethinker, I found that the more I learned and idea of living one’s life with a focus on how we can make refl ected, the less ready was the answer; until at last I came to the conclusion that I had neither art nor part our lives and those of others as good as possible came to with any of these denominations, except the last. The be known as humanism. Although Lucretius was not, one thing in which most of these good people were humanism strictly speaking, an atheist (because he supposed that agreed was the one thing in which I differed from philosophy of life them. They were quite sure that they had attained a that emphasises gods existed), he believed that one should live an certain ‘gnosis’ – had more or less successfully solved the importance of atheistic life, one that does not take the will of the gods the problem of existence; while I was quite sure I had human beings into consideration. not, and had a pretty strong conviction that the problem was insoluble. And, with Hume and Kant on In Eastern societies, philosophers have often held my side, I could not think myself presumptuous in atheistic views. Early Buddhist texts, written in India, holding fast by that opinion. show that the Buddha argued against Indians who did not believe in God 2500 years ago. However, it is possible to be a Buddhist and not believe in gods. Similarly, China has had a long history of atheism branching from the teachings of Confucius (see following page). chapter 16 religion and non-religion 337

Humanism Humanism is a general term that refers to the philosophy of life that emphasises the human spirit and the dignity of human beings. Not all forms of humanism are non-religious and they are usually, as mentioned above, further defined as literary humanism, secular humanism, rational humanism or scientific humanism. The last two of these will be discussed here. While humanism, as such, is a relatively modern concept, it has existed for many years. It has been linked with Greek philosophy and may have ancient roots in China. The East has never really followed the idea of a single, all-powerful deity. There are various religions and philosophies that focus on the question of how to run a society so as to achieve the greatest possible good for its members. This is the goal of rational humanism, and elements of it can be found in philosophical Taoism, aspects of Buddhist philosophy and, most importantly, Confucianism. Confucius was the greatest of Chinese philosophers, and he lived during a period of turmoil in China between 551 and 479 BCE. His system of good government is recorded in a series of questions and answers called The Analects. In Book 11, he asked about heaven and the gods. Chi-Lu asked how the spirits of the dead and the gods should be served. The Master said, ‘You are not even able to serve man. How can you serve the spirits?’ ‘May I ask about death?’ Confucius presenting the young Gautama Buddha to Laozi ‘You do not even understand life. How can you From the 1500s, the Jesuits, a Catholic order, understand death?’ began sending reports of their travels in China back to confucius, analects, 11.12 Europe, and Europeans became very excited by the Confucius neither accepted nor denied the realm humanistic nature of Chinese thinking. Confucius’ of the gods and spirits. He suggested, however, that ideas mixed with the teachings of Europeans who had they are irrelevant to ensuring the good operation of been investigating Classical humanism (derived from society. In the Analects, he demonstrates how the the works of Epicurus and Lucretius, see above). Leading Chinese concept of ren (仁) or ‘loving kindness’ should thinkers such as Voltaire (1694–1778) celebrated both be the guiding element of a good society. Ren does not Confucius’ open attitude and the humanistic attitude of come from, or depend upon, a deity. It is simply the Europeans inspired by the humanism of Greece and best way to run a society. Rome. Voltaire was the most outstanding fi gure of what is called the European Enlightenment, a period that saw a decrease in religious fanaticism and superstition, and an increase in rationalism, humanism and atheism. 338 cambridge studies of religion

Rational humanism Scientifi c rationalism/humanism believes that reality is what can be touched, measured or numbered, Rational humanism is often identifi ed with secular and that things which cannot be seen, such as emotion, humanism; it refers to those who emphasise human beauty and thought, should be rejected. There may be reason in providing answers to the questions of life. diffi culties with this rejection of anything that is Rational humanists emphasise the importance of rational experiential. human thought and reasoning in all aspects of life, including belief and behaviour. Rational humanists are not necessarily non-religious, but they do say that the CONSIDER concept of God and religion is only acceptable if it has Some say science is the new religion. It does, at times, claim been achieved by human reasoning. Rational humanists similar authority. But how do we know that science is valid? What live good moral lives, not because of a belief in God and happens when science disagrees? Investigate a controversial religious standards of behaviour, but because of their subject such as global warming and research scientifi c respect for human life and dignity. This is suggested in methodology. Do scientists line up on both sides of the argument? the ‘Ten commandments of rational humanism’ that can Can science be manipulated? Do the arguments for rejecting easily be found on the internet. religion also apply to science? The positive aspirations and behaviour of individuals are then encouraged because of the importance of human Carl Sagan (1934–1996), one of the modern beings, and the consideration that doing good to others is proponents of scientifi c rationalism, did accept the the obvious way to show respect and because, rationally, possibility of spirituality, comparing it with breath, which it is the best way to behave. he accepted as ‘matter’. He stated: Scientifi c humanism Science is not only compatible with spirituality; it is a profound source of spirituality . . . The notion that While rational humanism emphasises the priority of science and spirituality are somehow mutually exclusive does a profound disservice to both. reason over revelation (the province of religion), scientifi c rationalism emphasises that reality can be discovered As science explores new fi elds such as through scientifi c research and experimentation. This nanotechnology, it seems that the boundaries between nanotechnology has become known as scientifi c humanism. Julian science and religion sometimes become blurred. technology concerned with objects of the Huxley suggested that it is futile to seek answers to Scientifi c humanism sees the ethical behaviour of smallest dimensions questions about the meaning of life, usually the focus of individuals as the result of proven patterns of behaviour religion, questions that include terms such as ‘cause’ or over time. It has been shown, through experimentation ‘creation or ‘ultimate’ or ‘reality’. Rather, he suggested and experience, that to be an ethical person is the best for that people should use a scientifi c-based philosophy as the individual and for the human race. an approach to life. chapter 16 religion and non-religion 339 The difference between religious and non-religious world views

The main difference between religion and non- this transcendental realm has agreed-upon access points religious worldviews lies, in the West, in the concept of or gates. These gates permit who is able to access the non- transcendence the transcendent. This is an ideal space, an imaginary human realm and when. Many humanists suggest that existence above or apart space, an emotion of non-worldly presence, or heaven, a undue focus on accessing the transcendent means from the material world spirit realm, or a realm for ancestors. It is a realm that religious people ignore the concerns of the world. The religious people hope to reach, either after death or religious, however, fear that, without the promise of through prayer, meditation, ritual dreams or magical heaven and the fear of hell, humanity will have no journeys. The relationship between everyday life and incentive to behave morally.

TABLE 16.2 THE RESPONSE OF RELIGIOUS AND NON-RELIGIOUS BELIEF SYSTEMS TO SEVERAL ASPECTS OF LIFE

CONCEPT OF CONCEPT OF THE HUMAN IDEAS OF SOCIAL TRANSCENDENCE RESPONSIBILITY WESTERN Christianity (religion) God/Jesus manifests through his The human should remain the Responsibility to family, the church to offer either an earthly humble creation and servant of Church and other Christians paradise at his second coming, God in the hope of accessing overrides concern for members or access to heaven at the end the kingdom of God/heaven. of other religions and the of time. God is a being who Yet humanity is considered planet more generally, although transcends human experience, the high point of creation Christians are called to be but has entered humanity through and God’s intervention in the God’s infl uence in the world. the person of Jesus Christ. world is to save humankind. Western humanism A certain transcendence The human being is an Responsibility is to improve (non-religion) exists within the human, and agent of reason and thought society, sometimes to the encourages the improvement of who can improve his/her detriment of those with the world. The rationale, however, existence and the existence genuine faith. The emphasis is for the good of humanity. of others. The responsibility is on providing for other of people is to ensure the human beings to improve welfare of humankind. their quality of life. Atheism There is no transcendent being. Human beings have a purpose Social responsibility is part only in this life, to live a of caring for other people life of personal and social and this world. Good people fulfi lment and satisfaction do good to others. for this existence only. EASTERN Buddhism (religion) Everything is Buddhanature, The human is a manifestation Charity in general, and the need and enlightenment allows you to of the self-deception of the to encourage all to realise the perceive this. The transcendent senses. As an illusion, life is a truth of Buddhist teachings. is actually immanent, gate to another life, or nirvana. It is a means of generating dwelling in the person. karma and to help others on their path to enlightenment. Confucianism The perfectly managed state The human is an agent through Social responsibility to refl ect (non-religion) is an ideal to be realised. which the world can be on and transform oneself, transformed and made perfect. one’s family and ultimately one’s society to achieve a world of perfection. 340 cambridge studies of religion

Human beings have an underlying world view, a construct that helps them to understand life. For many, exercise 16.3 this refl ects their religious background and their own religious belief. For others this is a rejection of a particular 1 Outline the essential features of religious perspective. atheism and agnosticism. 2 Outline the positions of rational INVESTIGATE humanism and scientific humanism. Choose another religious and non-religious world view. Compare 3 Discuss how atheism, agnosticism and them under the same headings as in the table above. humanism determine the aspirations and behaviour of non-religious people. Chapter One discusses the nature of religion and beliefs, and that provides a good background to activity 16.3 understanding the world view of both those who are religious and those who are non-religious. However, as 1 Debate the following topic – ‘Non-religious the table above shows with the discussion of only a few world views are simply different expressions of religious and non-religious belief systems, people’s beliefs what could be called a “religious” world view.’ are refl ected in their understanding of the transcendent, 2 Construct a table that shows the differences the importance of the person and the responsibility between atheism, agnosticism and humanism. people have to others. 3 Write three paragraphs comparing the response of one religious and one non-religious belief system to: a) the concept of the transcendent b) the human person c) social responsibility. chapter 16 religion and non-religion 341 Conclusion

It could be argued that religion is universal, challenges understanding of various historical ages comes, not simply people’s motivations and profoundly infl uences history at through history books, but through biographies. Only in every level. Others would say that there is no need for a such personal works can one acquire a deep understanding religious world view. The word ‘religion’, however, is a of the times and their effects on the personal lives of culturally framed term. It may be asked, ‘Is religion a signifi cant men and women. Biographies also tend to be separate entity to culture?’ It is important to understand more exciting. The world views of people are revealed in the interactions between religion and culture, and beliefs and theories, but also in the words and actions of between religious and non-religious world views. people at various times and places in human history. Professor Sharpe of Sydney University recommends that end of chapter summary

• The religious dimension is a complex • Charismatic leadership, innovation and justice idea in human history. are ways of seeking personal fulfi lment. • Animism is the belief that spirits • New ethical issues infl uence new are an integral part of nature. religious expressions. • Polytheism is the belief in many gods. • New religious expressions need to clarify their relationship with society. • Monotheism is the belief in one God. • Infl uences on new religious expressions • Religion provides meaning and purpose include the rise of materialism, scientifi c for many human beings. progress, ecological awareness and • Religion maintains the status quo, disenchantment with traditional religions. keeping society together. • Several non-religious world views are signifi cant. • Religion can also bring radical and • Atheism is disbelief in God. dynamic change to society. • Agnosticism is a belief in the • The fi ve major religions are represented unknowability or irrelevance of God. in all regions of the world. • Humanism has many expressions, of which two • New religious expressions have diffi culty are rational humanism, the belief in reason, and being accepted in society. scientifi c humanism, the belief in science. • Social crisis is signifi cant in the rise • The difference between religious and non-religious of new religious expressions. world views is evident in their understanding • The New Age movement, Rastafarianism of the concepts of the transcendent, the and Pentecostalism are examples of human person and social responsibility. new religious expressions. 342 cambridge studies of religion End of section questions

The HSC Specimen Examination material suggests that assessment for Religion and non-religion in the HSC examination will include 10 multiple-choice questions (1 mark each) and one short-answer question (5 marks). That format is followed here.

multiple choice questions (10)

1 The belief in one God is known as: 7 ‘When I reached intellectual maturity, and began to ask a Polytheism myself whether I was an atheist, a theist, or a pantheist; a b Animism materialist or an idealist; a Christian or a freethinker, I c Monotheism found that the more I learned and refl ected, the less ready d Transcendence was the answer; until at last I came to the conclusion that I had neither art nor part with any of these denominations, 2 Which of the following religious traditions except the last’ (TH Huxley). This is an example of: is thought to be polytheistic? a Atheism a Hinduism b Theism b Islam c Humanism c Christianity d Agnosticism d Zoroastrianism 8 Rational humanism believes in: 3 ‘Martin Luther King and Mahatma Gandhi both a The validity of emotional experience used religious principles to effect radical change b The delusions of the human mind in their societies’. This is an example of: c The importance of rational human thought a Social cohesion d Revelation from God b Social transformation c Atheism 9 Non-religious world views emphasise: d Agnosticism a The role of God in creation b The revelation of God’s will in sacred texts 4 Which of the following religious traditions c The idea of social responsibility has the greatest global distribution? d The idea of sacred space a Hinduism b African religions 10 The human person, according to a religious world view, has: c Shinto a An existence that is only relevant to this world d Christianity b A body and soul or spirit c Simply a mind 5 Traditional churches in Australia have d No relevance outside their own individual existence declined from 71 per cent in 1966 to 64 per cent in 2006. This is an example of: short answer question (1) a Disenchantment with traditional religious practice b Growth of ecological awareness question 11 (5 marks) c Scientifi c progress d Rise of materialism Lucretius (circa 100–55 BCE) sought to explain all phenomena through reason alone and gave a range of arguments for why 6 How has scientifi c progress infl uenced the soul does not exist and why death should not be feared. the rise of new religious traditions? a It has explained away religious experience Identify the world view of Lucretius and discuss his b It shows people do not need God understanding of the concept of the transcendent. c It raises concerns and anxieties in people d It has discovered the ‘God gene’ glossary 343

Glossary

95 Theses (C) writings by anatta (B) the absence of self, or soul arati (H) a Hindu fi re ritual, waving Martin Luther that expressed his a fl ame before the images of the gods anchoress an anchorite (male) displeasure at the sale of indulgences or anchoress (female) is one who archetype a model upon 99 names of Allah (I) the names gives themselves over to total which subsequent behaviour used in the Qur’an to refer to Allah seclusion: they take vows, receive and attitudes can be based the last rites (for those about to aristocrat the elite, or die), and sometimes also a mock a upper classes, of society funeral. Then they are walled abomination a state of disgust into a cell; these cells are usually ark (J) a special cabinet where and hatred; abhorrence, set into the walls of a church so Torah scrolls are kept detestation, loathing they can participate in mass artefacts objects of historical adharma (B, H) the androgynous refl ecting both signifi cance made by humans opposite of dharma: all that male and female characteristics; Aryans (H) an early European is bad, wrong, wicked either a mix of, or neither, people who are thought to masculine and feminine adherent person who have invaded India several supports or gives allegiance Anglicare (C) national network of thousand years ago to a religious tradition care and social-justice agencies of ascetic (H) someone who the Anglican Church in Australia adultery the act of having sex or practises severe self-discipline an additional relationship outside anicca (B) impermanence and possibly retires into solitude the legal bounds of marriage in order to achieve this animism primitive or tribal religion; advaita (H) literally ‘not two’, an the belief that spirits inhabit all Ashkenazi (J) Jews originally expression of Vedanta Hinduism objects and have infl uence on from northern Europe people and natural events affl uenza a growing and as-salamu alaykum (I) unhealthy preoccupation with anthropology the study of human greeting: ‘Peace be upon you’ money and material goods culture and development atheism the belief that there agnosticism the belief that anti-Semitism prejudice are no gods (strong atheism) or there may or may not be a against Jewish people nonbelief in gods (weak atheism) god; this is unknowable apocalyptic (J, C) a genre atheist person who can fi nd agnostic person who believes that of literature, highly symbolic no rational explanation for the it is impossible to know whether and mystical, usually written existence of God, gods or spirits God, gods or spirits exist to discuss the ‘end of time’ atman (H) the self, similar to the ahimsa (H) non-violence Apostles (C) students whom concept of the individual soul Jesus had chosen and trained for a alchemy early form of scientifi c avatars (H) forms or manifestations mission of healing and preaching and philosophical investigations, of the Hindu gods, especially Vishnu particularly involving chemistry, Apostolic Succession (C) avodah sh’belev (J) metallurgy and mysticism the unbroken handing on worship from the heart alcoholism addiction to alcohol of authority and belief from the time of the Apostles Ayatollah (I) high-ranking amrita (H) the special drink of the title given to Shi’a clerics gods, the nectar of immortality arahat (B) a person who has achieved enlightenment through listening to the teachings of the Buddha 344 cambridge studies of religion

b bishop (C) an authority fi gure castes (H) a term used to refer to of the Christian clergy varnas in Hindu/Indian society baby boomers those born in the late 1940s and 1950s, B’nei Yisrael the children of Israel cathars from a Greek word meaning ‘pure ones’ following World War II bodhisattva (B) one who has Bali (H) an evil god; also a achieved enlightenment but Catholic actually means Hindu island in Indonesia forgoes nirvana to help others ‘universal’; the denomination achieve enlightenment usually called Catholic is the baptism (C) a religious Roman Catholic Church act of purifi cation by water Book of Proverbs (J) described in that allows recipients the fi rst verse as written by Solomon, celibate living a life of membership to Christianity son of David and King of Israel sexual abstinence Baptist (C) a denomination of Brahmacharya (H) fi rst phase in Chan (B) see Zen an individual’s life, dedicated to Christianity that rejects infant chaperone older guardian who the pursuit of personal realisation baptising, as they believe that accompanies young women in of Brahman (the life of a student, followers should choose to be public to ensure that they restrict approximate ages 0–24) Christian of their own accord their behaviour (particularly bardo (B) An intermediate plane Brahman (H) concept of with the opposite sex) the ultimate god, sometimes of existence or period, which Christ (C) the Greek word that is called ‘the great world soul’ in Buddhism translates as the used for the Jewish term ‘messiah’ semi-conscious state of the time Brahmin (H) one of the four Christos a Greek term between death and rebirth castes, the priestly class meaning ‘anointed one’ Bardo Thodol (B) a text that guides Bringing them home the report Church of England (C) the offi cial a person through the experience handed down regarding the Stolen established church in England of death until rebirth; also known Generations; the term is often as the Tibetan Book of the Dead applied to the enquiry itself circumambulate the practice of walking around something, beatifi cation (C) a declaration Buddha (B) ‘enlightened usually as an act of worship by the Pope that a soul is one’, usually applied to blessed in heaven; it is a stage Siddhartha Gautama clan a large family grouping towards the canonisation or Classical Age the Greek and Roman sanctifi cation of a person’s soul c empires (circa 300 BCE to 300 CE) Bedouin (I) Arab desert nomad caliph (I) ‘successor’; this entitled communion (C) literally Bhagavad Gita ‘the song of the holder of the offi ce to make ‘fellowship’; applied to the the Lord’, the most popular religious and political decisions sacrament of holy communion Hindu sacred writing for the Muslim community companions (I) those who knew Bhakti movement (H) devotional canon (C) in Roman and supported Muhammad movement in Hinduism Catholicism, a law approved during his prophetic career by the Pope; also a reference to bid’a (I) ‘innovation’; used against Confucianism the religious/ the body of sacred writings those accused of besmirching philosophical system based on the sacred traditions of Islam by canonisation (C) the the teaching of the Chinese changing them into something new process of becoming a saint Confucius (551–479 BCE) in Catholic Christianity bimah (J) raised platform conscription a legal act by a government to force its citizens bisexual a person who is cardinal (C) a senior fi gure of to enlist in the defence forces, attracted to both sexes/genders the Roman Catholic Church mainly with the objective of sending them to war glossary 345

consumerism a preoccupation with Decalogue (J) literally ‘ten words’; e the accumulation of consumer goods refers to the Ten Commandments ecospirituality spirituality contextualised the context of deity a god or goddess that links with concern the expression; for example, denomination (C) an organised for the environment expressing a religious tradition subgroup of the Christian in a way that can be identifi ed ecstatic state (I) a state of church; may be used by with another cultural context connection with Allah, achieved other religious traditions using body movement and music coolie an unskilled dhamma (B) the totality of labourer, usually Asian Ecumenism (C) movement the Buddha’s teachings towards unity within the Christian corroboree an Aboriginal ceremony, dharma (B, H) the right way churches between different usually in the form of a dance of living, righteousness Christian denominations cosmos the universe viewed Dharma Wheel (B) eight- El (J) a word meaning ‘god’ as an ordered system spoked wheel representing episcopal (C) the form of Council of Nicea, the (C) the fi rst the Noble Eightfold Path Church government that has a council of the Christian Church; dhyana (H) one method of yoga hierarchical order of ministry: produced the Nicene Creed, the bishops, priests and deacons Christian statement of faith Diaspora (J) the Jewish community outside Israel epistles (C) letters, a term used Covenant a promise or in the Bible from the Greek word agreement between two parties disciples (C) Jesus’ students during his time on Earth; see Apostles esoteric intended to be understood creed a statement of religious by few people; private knowledge belief, often summarising the dissenting those who disagree major concepts of that religion with others, particularly Essenes (C) separatist religious applied to those who are not group in Israel in the fi rst century CE Crusades (C) a series of attacks members of a state church by European Christians to Evangelical (C) originally ‘from recapture the Holy Land, which divorce the legal ending the Gospels’; from the eighteenth was held by Islam, in the eleventh of a marriage before the century CE it refers to a Protestant to thirteenth centuries CE death of either spouse movement that believes one’s soul can be saved only by having faith doctrine a body of teachings that cult extreme religious group, in the atoning death of Jesus often considered dangerous forms the basis of a belief system Exodus (J, C) literally ‘departure’; documentary hypothesis refers to the event where, led by d the proposition that the Torah Moses, the people of Israel left was developed from several dalit (H) an ‘untouchable’, Egypt for the promised land independant source documents an outcast; someone Hindus exoteric available to ordinary dowry goods or money that a believe has no varna people; public knowledge wife, or her family, brings to Daoism see Taoism her husband in marriage experiential relating to experience darsan (H) to be in the Dreaming, the the belief system of presence of a deity the Australian Aboriginal peoples f David, King (J, C) the most dukkha (B) the basic element of fatwa (I) ruling, can be sought from important king of Israel who the human condition, translated as a community leader or Ayatollah united the tribes of Israel; an ‘suffering’ or ‘desire’ or ‘anguish’ ancestor of Jesus of Nazareth feminist theology a movement that looks at religious teachings, particularly within Judaism and Christianity, from a feminist perspective 346 cambridge studies of religion

fi lioque clause (C) literally Grihastha (H) second phase in henotheism the belief that one ‘from the son’; was added to the an individual’s life, dedicated god is greater and is worshipped Nicene Creed, and caused great to the pursuit of personal from among a number of gods debate about the divinity of ‘the realisation of Brahman (the life hereditary passed down father’ compared with ‘the son’ of a householder, ages 25–49) within a family fornication sex outside of marriage Guide for the perplexed (J) Herod, King (C) Idumean King of theological and philosophical Israel at the time of Jesus’ birth g work that discusses the nature of God, the existence of God, God’s heterosexual sex sex between genocide planned extermination knowledge and the nature of evil a man and a woman of a national or racial group gurdwarra Sikh temple Hijra (I) the year Muhammad gentiles (J, C) those left Mecca, 622 CE; the fi rst who are not Jewish h year of the Muslim calendar get (J) divorce document Historical Jesus Movement (C) Hadith (I) an authority in the gnostic (C) from Greek gnosis, group of scholars analysing Christian Islamic world; comments on meaning ‘wisdom’; gnostic doctrines writings to assess what Jesus may what the Prophet did and said, hold that the world is corrupt and actually have done as a historical put together by various Muslim only wisdom of secret matters fi gure, and what may have been clerics after Muhammad died allows humans to connect with the mythologised about him later small spark of the divine within hagiography a biography of a holy Holocaust the execution of the them. Gnosticism was widespread person or saint; can also be used Jews during World War II in Persia in the years before to imply a biography that includes Islam conquered that region only good things about its subject Holy Spirit (C) third person of the Christian Trinity, with the Good Friday (C) the Friday Hajj (I) pilgrimage to Mecca Father and the Son (Jesus) before Easter that commemorates once in life is one of the fi ve the day Jesus died pillars of the Islamic faith homogenous having a common origin gospel (C) the doctrine taught halachah (J) literally ‘the going by Christ and the Apostles or the way to live’; refers to homosexual sex sex between Jewish ethics and morality people of the same gender Gospels (C) the story of Jesus’ life and teachings, especially halal (I) a term often applied humanism philosophy of as in the fi rst four books of to meat; has the wider meaning life that emphasises the the New Testament of what is permissible under importance of human beings Islamic law and applies to many Great liberation upon hearing aspects of life and behaviour in the intermediate state i (B) see Bardo Thodol haraam (I) forbidden under icons (C) stylised pictorial Islam; the opposite of halal Great Schism (C) split between representations of saints, Biblical Western and Eastern Churches Harijans (H) ‘children of God’; this characters or stories, used as aids to in the eleventh century CE term applies to the untouchables worship in the Orthodox churches Greek mystery religion a Hasidim (or Chasidim) idolater a worshipper of idols, mystery religion only divulges (J) ‘pious ones’ breaking the Second Commandment its secrets to those who work not to worship graven images Havdalah (J) ceremony to towards and achieve initiation mark the end of Shabbat ijma (I) consensus among religious leaders Hellenise to make something Greek glossary 347

ikonostasis (C) decorated Jewish (J) name given to the kinship the family relationships screen between the altar and the people of Israel after the exile between people and the rights congregation in Orthodox churches in Babylon; the survivors were and obligations associated mainly from the tribe of Judah with those relationships Immaculate Conception (C) doctrine that Mary, the mother jihad (I) ‘striving’; related koan (B) question-and-answer of Jesus, was free from sin to the concept of effort riddles that challenge thinking from her conception and lead to enlightenment jinn (I) local folk spirits immanence the idea that gods or of the Arab world Kshatriya (H) one of the spiritual forces pervade the universe four castes, traditionally, the Judea part of a mountainous area and are present in every aspect of ruling or military class (now divided between Israel and life, compared with transcendence Palestine) that Jews believed had kumbha (H) a pot that is indentured labour work under a been promised to them by God symbolic of the womb fi xed-term contract with repressive Jumu’ah (I) Friday Kumbha Mela (H) a Hindu conditions, often involving bringing prayers at the mosque pilgrimage that occurs four times a person to a country for a certain every twelve years and rotates among period of time to do a certain job jurisprudence the study of law and four locations: Prayag (Allahabad), the principles on which law is based indulgence (C) in Roman Haridwar, Ujjain and Nashik Catholicism, a pardon from jurisprudence (I) theological the expectation of punishment and scholarly quest to discover l in purgatory after the sinner from the scripture of Islam the has been absolved best way to live as a Muslim laity the people of the church, as contrasted with the clergy infanticide the practice of juxtaposition thoughts killing newborn infants or images of two things not Last Supper (C) the fi nal meal normally considered together Jesus had with his disciples insights understandings before his crucifi xion or revelations k legalistic rigid adherence to the law interfaith dialogue the move to greater cooperation and harmony Kama Sutra an ancient lesbian a female homosexual Sanskrit text giving instruction between different religious traditions liberal a non-literal approach on the art of lovemaking Islam (I) the name of the religious to understanding religion tradition; means ‘submission’ karma (B, H) the effects of one’s and religious writings actions in life, good or bad; the Islamic law (I) made up from lingam phallic symbol associated natural consequences of actions rules found in the Qur’an and other with Shiva in Hinduism karmic merit (B) see punya sources; also called Shari’a law literalist a strict, exact khirqa (I) woollen robe approach to understanding j associated with Sufi s; can also religion and religious writing refer to initiation of a Sufi Jain a follower of Jainism, a liturgy a form of public worship non-theistic religion founded khutba (I) the message at liwat (I) homosexual acts in India in the fi fth century the mosque, delivered by BCE by Jina Mahavira the khutb (speaker) lutiyya (I) a term that relates to lesbianism jati (H) term used to describe kiddush (J) a prayer used communities in India to bless the Shabbat meal Jerusalem capital of Israel; kidushin (J) marriage was also the capital of Judea that is ‘made holy’ 348 cambridge studies of religion

m meditation the practice of emptying monasteries (B, C) places the mind to think or refl ect on an where monks and nuns live Mabo decision the decision of aspect of God or religious belief; monastic life (B, C) spiritual the Australian High Court in 1992 can also be non-religious that Indigenous native title exists recluse as monks and nuns menorah (J) seven- monism the view that magistra (Latin) a female teacher branched candlestick everything (including religion) Mahabharata, the (H) a war Messiah (J, C) the promised is one; there are no divisions epic, the story of the battle deliverer of the Jewish nation between two families monogamy having one metaphysics a branch of philosophy spouse at any one time mahatma (H) a title given to that centres on the nature of reality people of outstanding character and monotheism the worship spirituality, meaning ‘great soul’ middle way (B) the middle way of only one god of Buddhism avoids the extremes Moses (J, C) a prophet who mala (B) string of prayer beads, of indulgence and asceticism; it was commanded by God to usually made up of 108 beads is the ideal life for a Buddhist lead the Hebrews out of Egypt; mandala (B) symbolic minaret (I) a tower at a mosque also wrote the Torah representation of the cosmos, where the muezzin calls Muslims drawn as an aid to meditation mosque (I) a place of worship and minyan (J) quorum of ten Jews community centre for Muslims mantra (B,H) devotional needed to form a synagogue prayer or incantation used for muezzin (I) the one who meditation and worship miracle an effect in the calls Muslims to prayer physical world which surpasses multiculturalism the policy that marriage one of the rites of all known human or natural recognises cultural diversity rather passage expressed in most powers and is therefore ascribed than expecting a country to only religious traditions, but with some to supernatural agency unique features in Hinduism refl ect one particular culture mi’raj (I) an ecstatic rising to heaven martyr to put someone to murti (H) an image in which death who will not give up their Mishnah Torah (J) fi rst the divine spirit is shown written record of the oral religion, views or beliefs Mutawwa'in (I) Muslim law of the Jewish people masjid (I) mosque religious police misogyny expressing a hatred mystery religions fi rst-century matha (H) monastery, seminary; of women one of the four centres established religions that developed in the by Adi Shankaracharya for the missionary a person who works Roman Empire emphasising preservation of the four Vedas to convert others to their religious exclusive knowledge or mysteries faith, often in a place where that and other sacred scriptures mysticism the process of religion is not widely practised Mecca or Makka (I) the city developing a profound connection in modern Saudi Arabia where missions church and government with an ultimate reality, be it Muhammad lived and received his establishments where Indigenous heaven, God, a deity or so on Australians were placed under revelations; spiritual centre of the myth a spiritual or religious idea the policy of protectionism Muslim world and focus of the Hajj expressed in human terms Medina or Madina-al-Nabi mitzvot (J) keeping the n (I) (‘city of the prophet’) is a commandments of God few hundred kilometres north moksha (H) release from the nafs (I) self; in Sufi teachings of Mecca; here the Prophet cycle of rebirth and reunifi cation nafs refers to a sort of false ego Muhammad was invited to act of the atman with Brahman nagid (J) Hebrew term as judge, and established the meaning ‘prince’ or ‘leader’ fi rst Muslim community glossary 349

nanotechnology technology Non-conformists (C) those pathivratha (H) a wife who is concerned with objects of who do not conform to the state chaste and faithful to her husband the smallest dimensions religion; in the case of England, patriarchs from the Greek and the Church of England Nataraja (H) the form of the god Latin pater, refers to the power Shiva known as the Lord of the dance structure of men in a society or the o ‘fathers’ of religious traditions Native Title Act legislation passed by the Australian oligarchy rule by a small, Pauline Christianity (C) a term parliament in 1993 that enshrined elite class of people used critically to suggest that the concept of native title Paul and his followers unduly om (H) the sound with which corrupted the message of Jesus neo-Platonic a movement that creation began; the symbol developed the theories of the of Hinduism and a common pedagogical relating to Greek philosopher Plato into a expression in a mantra the science of teaching religious and mystic system omnipotent all powerful pejorative term of criticism nepotism undue support to or deprecation omnipresent all present one’s relations (often in an penal relating to punishment employment or political sense) omniscient all knowing Pentateuch (J, C) the fi rst ner tamid (J) a light that represents orthodox literally, keeping to the fi ve books of the Hebrew the eternal fl ame that was correct teachings of the religion Bible; also called the Torah continually burned in the Temple Pentecostalism (C) movement New Age movement promotes p within Christianity that emphasises individual ‘spirituality’ rather pagan a person who follows a set direct contact with the Holy Spirit than a new religion; can include of beliefs of ancient religions astrologers, yoga practitioners, Pentecostals (C) followers séance goers, shamans and a whole Pali Canon (B) the Buddhist sacred of the variant of Christianity range of other religious practitioners text, also called the Tripitaka, that emphasises the gifts written in the Pali language of the Holy Spirit New Testament (C) Christian sacred writing: the life of Jesus pantheism the idea that persecutor someone who punishes and the early Church God is in everything others for following a particular faith niddah (J) purity rules pantheon set of all the gods Pharisees (J, C) a religious sect in a religious tradition that was active in Jesus’ day nikah (I) complex term often translated as ‘marriage’, but has parable a short story philosophy the study of the connotations of embracing and sex containing a religious lesson general principles of knowledge nirvana (B) state of bliss paradox seemingly pilgrimage (H) a practice that all resulting from enlightenment, the contradictory ideas Hindus are expected to complete extinction of desire (dukkha) Parinirvana (B) the once a year; also a practice in many religious traditions Noahide Laws (J) the laws that Buddha’s enlightenment apply to all people, not only Jews partitioning splitting polyandry a wife having many husbands Noble Eightfold Path (B) the something into parts fourth Noble Truth, the middle plagiarise copy someone’s ideas or polygamy having more than way, the way of life for Buddhists writing without acknowledgement one spouse at a time nominal refers to those who take Passover or Pesach (J) the polygyny a husband the name of a religion but do not feast that celebrates the having many wives necessarily practise that religion Exodus and related events polytheism the worship of many (poly) gods (theos) 350 cambridge studies of religion

pope (C) head of the Roman q s Catholic Church Q (C) from the German Quelle, sacrament (C) a religious ceremony practice ritual, worship meaning ‘source’; an early collection that celebrates an outward sign prajna (B) wisdom of Jesus’ sayings apparently used of an inner spiritual grace by Matthew and Luke in the priest (C) someone who sacred holy or religious, common words of their Gospels performs religious rites and as opposed to secular Qur’an or Koran (I) central makes sacrifi cal offerings Sadducees (J, C) a high-status religious text of Islam primary source a document religious group of Jesus’ day or other material that comes r sadhu (H) an ascetic solely directly from a person or place of devoted to achieving moksha interest; see secondary source rabbi (J) community leader through meditation schooled in Jewish law and ritual; procreation bringing into salat (I) prayer being, creating life often leads Jewish worship salvation (C) the belief that rak’at (I) the rituals associated prophet an inspired teacher, Jesus died to save people from with daily prayer revealer or interpreter of what is the punishment of sin believed to be the will of God Ramayana, the (H) religious text samatha (B) a meditation that concludes with an epic battle proselytising encouraging converts technique that aims to increase from one religion to another Rastafarian member of a Jamaican the voluntary attention span religious movement, which prosperity doctrine (C) the samsara (B, H) the cycle of believes in black supremacy and teaching that God will reward rebirth, or reincarnation obedience or generosity by the back-to-Africa movement samskara (H) a series of rituals giving a person greater wealth redemption (C) concept of salvation that serve as rites of passage and Protestant (C) churches that split reincarnation (B, H) the mark the various stages of life and from the Catholic Church during the concept of rebirth in physical signify entry to a particular ashrama Reformation in the sixteenth century, form to the earth; see samsara in protest at the Church’s teachings sanatana dharma (H) what its religion a set of common practitioners call Hinduism puberty a period of change in young beliefs held by a group of people sangha (B) the community men and women, usually in their which may include a system of of Buddhists, including the early teens, that marks the transition prayers and religious laws from childhood to adulthood monastic community and the resurrection the bringing broader Buddhist community puja (B, H) worship; rituals of a person back to life may be carried out at a public sannyasi (H) one who renounces temple or in the home rites of passage ceremonies life and dedicates themselves that mark the stages of life to strictly spiritual pursuits (the punya (B) concept of karmic merit, people pass through fourth stage of life, ages 75–100); where merit accumulates by doing Hindu ascetic and mystic good deeds, having good thoughts Roman Empire Rome and the etc, and is carried into the next life Roman Empire, by Paul’s time, Sanskrit (H) ancient sacred controlled all the lands surrounding language of India Puranas (H) a body of Hindu the Mediterranean Sea including sati (H) old custom where a sacred writings that tell Judea and Jerusalem; the Romans widow threw herself onto her legends about the gods spoke Latin, but the Greek language husband’s funeral pyre purgatory (C) the intermediate was as important as Latin satori (B) the Japanese state between death and rta (H) the divine pattern in word for ‘enlightenment’ heaven, according to Roman nature, the universal presence Catholic theology that governs nature, human purity freedom from evil or guilt ethics, conduct and justice glossary 351

satyagraha (H) ‘soul force’ or sesquicentenary Slavic people from Central ‘truth force’, interpreted by 150-year anniversary Europe or Northern Asia (e.g. Gandhi as non-violent resistance Russian, Bulgarians, Serbs) sexual morality conforming Saviour (C) Jesus Christ to particular rules of conduct; sociology study of the structure and often used to mean chastity development of human societies sawm (I) fasting Sexually Transmitted sodomy homosexual practices; Scientology religious group begun Infection infection transmitted the term comes from a particular by L Ron Hubbard in the 1950s through sexual contact interpretation of the story secondary source a document of Sodom (Genesis 19) Shabbat or Sabbath (J) an or other material that has been important ritual observance for sophos wisdom written (usually much later) Jews, it represents the day God about a person or place of speaking in tongues (C) speaking rested after creating the world, that interest; see primary source in the language of the Holy Spirit, a is, the seventh day of creation as mark of the Pentecostal movement sect a subgroup of a religious recorded in Genesis; shabbat literally tradition, usually emphasising means ‘cease’ and refers primarily stations (I) a Sufi term referring a particular aspect that makes to the seventh day of the week to stages along the spiritual it different to other groups path of self-knowledge Shahada (I) the fi rst pillar of of the same tradition Islam, the statement of belief that Stolen Generations the term sectarianism excessive devotion to ‘There is no God but Allah and applied to the Aboriginal children a particular sect or religious faith Muhammad is his prophet’; this in Australia taken from their attests to believers’ commitment to families and raised to be assimilated secular having no connection with a very pure ideal of monotheism into the white community religion, as opposed to sacred Shaivism (H) sect of Hinduism stupa (B) a mound or monument segregation any system where racial that primarily worships Shiva that usually contains a relic groups are kept apart from each other Shari’a law (I) legal code of subha (I) another name for self-effacement the act of Islam based on the teaching of a string of prayer beads making oneself inconspicuous, the Qur’an and other Islamic through modesty or timidity Sunni (I) the majority sources; see Islamic law variant of Islam Semitic The major group of people Shi’ite or Shi’a (I) the second in the Middle East; Semitic peoples superstition fear of the unknown or largest Islamic group, Shi’ite include Jews, Arabs and others who acting according to some unknown Muslims believe that Muhammad’s trace their language and culture spiritual force or prejudice descendants are best suited to back to ancient Semitic languages lead the Muslim community Sutras (B) sacred texts containing such as Akkadian. This term can the words of the Buddha also refer specifi cally to Jews Shinto (B) ‘way of the gods’ Sutras (H) a school of study Sephardim (J) Jews originally Shiva (H) one of the main gods related to Hindu philosophy from around the Middle in Hinduism; the destroyer East and North Africa synagogue (J) Jewish shramanas (B) wandering place of worship Septuagent (J, C) a Greek teachers, monks or philosophers translation of the Hebrew syncretism the process of new siddur (J) prayer book Bible, made about 250 BCE religious systems developing Sikhism a religious tradition that out of the combination of two Sermon on the Mount (C) developed in Northern India in the or more existing religions large section of Jesus’ teaching sixteenth century CE that combines contained in the Gospel of synoptic (C) literally ‘seen elements of Islam and Hinduism Matthew (Chapters 5 to 7) together’; the Gospels of Matthew, sin a transgression of divine Mark and Luke, which share law; an offence against God many common features 352 cambridge studies of religion

t Thirteen Precepts (J) Moses u Maimonides’ principles of tallit (J) prayer shawl faith, which he believed every Umayyad (I) the fi rst caliph dynasty, reigning from 660–750 CE Taoism major Chinese religion/ Jew should maintain philosophy, founded about 600 Tibetan Book of the Dead (B) untouchables (H) see dalit BCE; also known as Daoism see Bardo Thodol tasawwuf (I) making a tikkun olam (J) the Jewish v profession of Sufi sm concept of the repair of the Vaishnavism (H) sect of Hinduism that primarily worships Vishna tasbih (I) the action of using world; an emphasis on the prayer beads, rather than need for social justice Vanaprastha (H) third phase in an the beads themselves tirtha (B) enables one to cross over individual’s life, dedicated to the pursuit of personal realisation of tawhid (I) the concept from the world to the side of nirvana Brahman (retired life, ages 50–74) that God is one tithe a tenth part of some amount, varna (H) the concept commonly tefi llin (J) leather box and straps specifi cally as a donation to a church known as ‘caste’; the four varna Temple, the (J, C) the temple Torah (J) the word of form the basis of Hindu society built in Jerusalem is often simply God in Judaism varnasrama dharma (H) the called ‘the Temple’; there have tori or torii (B) a gate of system of social life and stages been several temples built two columns and two beams in an individual’s life during the history of Israel that separates the sacred Vedanta (H) the highest Ten Commandments (J, C) the area of the society teaching of the Vedas, the ancient summary of the law given to Moses totem object such as an animal, Sanskrit scriptures of India Ten Commitments (H) ten actions plant or particular landmark Vedas (H) the earliest sacred that express Hindu ethical behaviour through which an Australian Indigenous person is linked to writings of Hinduism; veda Tenak, the (J) acronym for the the ancestral being responsible means ‘knowledge’ Hebrew Bible made up of the for his or her existence Vedism (H) the early Teachings (Torah – T), the writings religious system of India that from the Period of Prophecy (Nevi’im transcendence existence above developed into Hinduism – N) and the writings from the or apart from the material world remaining books (Ketuvim – K) transgender a person whose vestments particular clothing worn within a worship setting terra nullius literally ‘land identity does not conform to general belonging to no one’; the concept ideas of male or female gender vipasayana (B) meaning that Australia was uninhabited by Trimurti (H) the three ‘insight’; one of the most ancient people before European settlement gods, Brahma, Vishnu and meditation techniques Tetragrammaton (J) the four- Shiva, who make up the Vishnu (H) the supreme letter name of God: YHWH Hindu godhead, Brahman god for Vaishnavas, and a manifestation of Brahman in textual relating to a text Trinity (C) the concept of one god and three persons other traditions of Hinduism theology the study of God (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) and religious doctrine Tripitaka (B) literally ‘three w Theosophy spiritualist group baskets’; the sacred writings that Wesak or Vesak/Visakha founded in the late nineteenth contain the teaching of the Buddha, (B) celebration of the day the century, following Hindu sometimes called the Pali Canon Buddha was born, achieved and Buddhist teaching Tritiya-prakrti (H) Hindu sacred enlightenment and died texts that refer to a third gender glossary 353

West, the Western civilisation zina (I) extramarital sex (sex before includes Western Europe (e.g. marriage and adultery), although the United Kingdon, France, there are different punishments Germany), the United States for different acts; adultery is of America and Australia worse than premarital sex Wicca the religious tradition Zion referring specifi cally of modern witchcraft to Jerusalem, or to any holy or ideal place Wik decision the decision of the Australian High Court that Zoroastrianism an ancient religion clarifi ed the status of native title of dualism; that is, it had a good as applied to leasehold land god (Ahura Mazda, the lord of light and wisdom) and a bad god world view an ideological (Angra Mainyu, the god of deceit) means of understanding the world and its people wowser Australian term referring to a puritanical fanatic or spoilsport wudu (I) ritual washing of arms, face and feet before the daily prayers y yarmulke (J) skull cap YHWH (J, C) the Tetragrammaton, the four letters that are the name of God revealed to Moses; often translated as LORD or Yahweh (or in the past, Jehovah) yoga (H) any of various systems of discipline in the Hindu philosophical system concerned with achieving union of the mind and body with the universal spirit z zaddik (J) righteous man zakat (I) to purify zazen (B) experiential meditation zekhr or dhikr (I) ritual utterance of God’s name or God’s praise Zen (B) a Buddhist sect that advocates self-contemplation and wisdom in striving towards awakening 354 cambridge studies of religion

Answers to multiple choice questions chapter 1 chapter 6 chapter 12 1 D 2 B 3 C 4 B 5 A 1 C 2 A 3 A 4 B 5 C 1 D 2 A 3 B 4 C 5 C 6 D 7 A 8 C 9 D 10 B 6 A 7 B 8 D 9 D 10 C 6 A 7 B 8 C 9 D 10 A chapter 2 chapter 7 chapter 13 1 C 2 C 3 A 4 C 5 D None None 6 D 7 A 8 D 9 B 10 A chapter 8 chapter 14 chapter 3 1 C 2 B 3 A 4 D 5 B None – too diverse 1 C 2 B 3 A 4 A 5 C 6 A 7 B 8 B 9 D 10 C 6 D 7 A 8 D 9 B 10 B chapter 15 chapter 9 None chapter 4 None 1 B 2 C 3 D 4 A 5 B chapter 16 6 B 7 C 8 D 9 A 10 C chapter 10 1 C 2 A 3 B 4 D 5 A 1 A 2 B 3 D 4 A 5 A 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 C 10 B chapter 5 6 B 7 A 8 C 9 A 10 D None chapter 11 None index 355

Index a al–Afghani, 202 Shinto, 293 al–Arabi, Ibn, 202 see also Indigenous beliefs, Australian Abelard, Peter, 148 al–Bukhari, 226 Annanias, 145 Aboriginal Australians al–Ghazali, 202, 224, 229 anti–Semitism, 125, 308 and Christianity, 19, 57, 143, 326 al–Hallaj, 202 Apocalypse, 133 dispossession, 58–60 Al–Shafi , Imam, 224 Apocrypha, 123, 133 and land, 58–62 al–Wahhab, Ibn ‘Abd, 202 apostles, 123 the land rights movement, 60–2 Al Zahra, Fatima, 202, 224–5 Apostolic Succession, 128 and oral culture, 59 Alaric, king of Visigoths, 295 Aquinas, Thomas, 120, 156, 272 reconciliation, 72 alchemy, 289–91 Arafa, Muhammad, 226 religion, see indigenous alcohol arahats, 84–5, 88, 111 beliefs, Australian in Australia, early, 47–8 Aristotle, 271–2 timeline, 55–6 in Islam, 214 Arius, 130 Uniting Church, 70 Alexander the Great, 121, 164 art, iii see also Stolen Generations Ali ibn Abu Talib, 208–10, 224–6 Indigenous Australian, 26 abortion, 152, 231, 276 Allah, see Islam articles of faith, Islamic, 211 Abraham, Prophet Amma, 194 Aryans, see Indo–Europeans in Islam, 205–6, 211, 216 Analects,The Asalha, 115 in Judaism, 244–7, 251–2, 260 gender roles, 111 Ashkenazim, 249 Abrahamic religions (including humanism, 337 Ashoka, King, see Asoka, King Judaism, Christianity and Islam) Ananda, 83 Ashramas, 176, 192, 195, 312 god, conception of, 247 anatta, 89 Asoka, King, 83, 99–102, 108 and interfaith dialogue, 70 Anderson, Wil, 336 Buddhism, impact on, 101 monotheism, 323–4 anicca, 88, 93 evangelising work, 327 suffering, 23 ancestor worship, 23 individuals, impact on, 100 transcendence, 19 and indigenous Australians, 59 life, 100 Zoroastrianism, 324 religions of ancient origin, 287 society, impact on, 101 see also Christianity, Islam, Judaism Shinto, 293–4 sources, 102 Abu ali Hussein Ibn Sina, 224 angels, 206 timeline, 76 Abu Bakr, 208–9, 224–5, 317 Anglicanism (Episcopal Church), 127 Athanasius, 130 Abu Hanifa, Imam, 224 Australia, adherence in, 64–5, 69 atheism, 13, 22, 322, 336–7, 339 Adam of Bremen, 298 in Australia, early, 33–4 atheist states, 327 Adams, Douglas, 30, 336 baptism, 159–60 and Buddhism, 77 afterlife, 23 ethics, 134 and shramanas, 80 agnosticism, 22, 336 homosexuality, 154–5 atman, 78, 167, 171–2, 175, 311–12 ahimsa, 176, 188–9, 191, 311, 313 schools in Australia, 46–7 Augustine, Saint, 120, 309 A’isha Bint Abu Bakr, 224–6 timeline, 120 Australia, iii, 13–14, 20–1 history of Islam, early, 208 on public morality in early Australia, 48 Buddhist celebrations, 114 Islam, impact on, 224 animism, 323 census data on religion, 327 life, 224 global underpinning, 327 Christianity in early timeline, 202 Hinduism, 165 Australian history, 33–6 ajivakas, 80 immanence, 19 Christianity, decline in, 335 Akbar, 164 New Age, 332 Christian churches, 127–8 al–Adawiyya, Rabi’a, 224 religions of ancient origin, 287 Christian environmentalism, 152 356 cambridge studies of religion

colonisation, 33–4 bias, 15–16 people, signifi cant, 99 Hasidim, 274–5 Björk, 336 pilgrimage, 114 Hindus and marriage, 192 Blavatsky, Helena, 164, see practices, signifi cant, 114–15 Hindu temples, 195 Theosophical Society principal beliefs, 87–9 Islam, 202, 210 Bodhidharma, 103–5 puja, 93, 114 and Japan, 294 bodhisattvas, 81, 85, 91, 93, 110–1, 114 sacred texts, 90 Jews and homosexuality, 278 Bon, indigenous religion of Tibet, 86 schools, major, 84–6, see also New Age, 332 Book of the Dead, Tibetan, 90 Mahayana, Theravada, Vajrayana peace and religion, 307 Booth, Catherine, 120, 144 schools, specifi c schools of thought, 103 Pentecostalism, 330 Bowker, John, 305 Shankara, 187 premarital sex, 153 Brahma and Shinto, 292, 294 religious adherence, 63–4 in Buddhism, 91 and Taoism, 288, 291 women in early Australia, 36 in Hinduism, 168, 193, 197, 311–12 temples, 15, 66, 87, 197 Australian Inland Mission, 44, 70 Brahman, 167, 171–2, 175, 191, 312 Wesak, 114–15 Brahmins, 78, 100, 165–6, Western Buddhists, 334 b 169, 176–7, 186–7, 192–3 world view, 339 Buddha, the, Zen Buddhism, 103–7, Balinese Hinduism, 186 demons, 79–80 see Zen Buddhism Bamberger, Seligmann, 249 in Hinduism, 169 see also dhamma, dukkha, baptism, 158–61 introduction, 77 karma, samsara, sangha Baptists kshatriya, 177 Australia, adherence in, 64 life and enlightenment, 79–80 c in Australia, early, 33 perception in different schools, 84–6 and Anglicanism, 127 pilgrimage, 114 Caesar, 145 baptism, 159 qualities of, 81 Caitanya, Sri, 164 Beatles, 331 on question of supreme being, 22 caliphs, 202–3, 208–9 beatifi cation on sex, 108–9 Calvin, John, 129 of Hildegard of Bingen, 148 Three Jewels, 87 camel, battle of the, 226 of Mary McKillop, 47 timeline, 76 Caodaism, 333 Beatitudes, the, 134–5, 308 Buddhacarita, the, 79 Carrel, Alexis, 306 Benevolent Society of New Buddhism caste system, Indian, 65, see varnas South Wales, 43 adherence in Australia, 13, 63–4, 66–7 Castle Hill, riots in, 34 Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint, 149, 151 in Australia, early, 40 Cathars, 149 Bennett, Dennis, 120, 144 in Australia, contemporary, 66–7 Catholicism, Roman, 128 Beruriah, 270, 278 Asoka, King, 99–102, see Asoka, King adherence in Australia, 64–5 Bhagavad Gita, 164, 169, 174–5, and atheism, 336 Anglicanism, 127 176, 186, 188–9, 311–12 big questions, on the, 22–3 in Australia, early, 33–5 Bhakti movement, 164–5, 186 buddhas, 79 sectarianism, 41 Bhakti yoga, 173, 175 councils, 76, 83 baptism, 158–60 Bible, the, 133 days of celebration, 114–15 Bible, 133 gender roles, 155–6 ethics, 92, 108–13 ethics, 134, 152 homosexuality, 154–6 gender roles, 111–13 Hildegard of Bingen, 149, 151 peace, 307 global distribution, 327–8 history, 17 Protestantism, 129 and Hinduism, 78, 166, 177 Japan, 292 slavery, 326 humanism, 337 Luther, Martin, 144 Sunday worship, 158 New Age, 331 Old Testament, 123 see also New Testament, as a new religion, 329 peace, 305, 307, 309 Old Testament peace, 304 prayer, 136 index 357

Protestantism, 129 Roman Empire, 324 Judaism, beliefs of,20 Rastafarianism, 331 schools of thought, 151 moral law, 252 salvation, 131 sources, 123–4 Moses, 248 schools in Australia, 45–6 texts and writings, sacred, 133, 307–8 Tanak, 254 timeline, 120 timeline, 17, 120 Ten Commandments, 256 celibacy variants, 127–9 Creationism, 22 Buddhism, 109 world view, 18, 339 Crusades, the, iii, 120, 249, Christianity, 148 writings, early, 124 306–7, 314, 316, 325 Hinduism, 192 see also Jesus; God; Bible; gospels Cronulla riots, timeline, 56 Judaism, 122, 277 Christmas, 325 Cruise, Tom, 334 charismatic leaders, 332 Chuang Tzu, 288–9 cults, see new religious expression ch’i, 290 Church of Jesus Christ of the Chi Shi Huang De, 288 Latter–Day Saints, 329 d Children of God, 69 Church Acts (Australia 1836), 35 Chinese religions, see Civil War, American, 326 Dalai Lama, XIV, 86, 99 Taoism, Confucianism communion, 125, 154, 158, 160, 329 Australian timeline, 56 in Australia, 40 communism, 327 Gandhi, Mohandas, 190 global distribution, 327–8 and Buddhism, timeline, 76 homosexuality, 109–10 Chisholm, Caroline, 36 Congregationalists interfaith dialogue, 70 Chopra, Deepak, 331 in Australia, 33 timeline, 76 Christ, see Messiah; Jesus Confucianism Daoism, see Taoism Christianity and Buddhism, timeline, 76 Darwin, Charles, see evolutionary theory adherence in Australia, 13, 63–5, 69 defi nition, 17 Darling River, Dreaming story, 25–6 beliefs, principal, 130–2 characteristics of a religion, 19 David, King bias, 16 gender roles, 111 and Christianity, 121, 123 charity, in early Australia, 43 humanism, 337 gender roles, 278 context, historical and cultural, 121–2 interest in, 17 homosexuality, 155 denominations, 33, 127–9 sexual ethics of Buddhism, 109 Tanak, 254 development of early communities, 127 and Shinto, 292 timeline, 243 ethics, 126, 134–5, 152–6 and Taoism, 288–9, 291 David, Star of, 243 Gandhi, Mohandas, 188 world view, 339 Dawkins, Richard, 318, 336 gender roles, 155, see also and Zen Buddhism, 106 Dead Sea Scrolls, 122 gender roles, Christianity see also Chinese religions Deane, Sir William, 143 global distribution, 327–8 Confucius, 337 death and Hinduism, 166, 177 atheism, 336 for Indigenous Australians, 57 infl uences, early, 124–5 gender roles, 111 for Jews, 280 and Islam, 206, 208, 211 consciousness Deborah, 270, 278 and Judaism, 20, 243 in Buddhism, 88–9 denominational switching, 69, 330 monotheism, 324 in Hinduism, 173 Devi, Sarada, 194 Mormons, 329 Constantine, Emperor, 130 Devil and the New Age movement, 332 timeline, 120 in Islam, 212, 232 as a new religion, 329 convicts, see Australia, colonisation and Jesus, 123 Nordic religions, 295 coolies, 37, 188 in Judaism, 251, 255 organisations for peace, 310 Corbin, Henry, 230 and sex, 152, 232 peace, 307–10 corroborees, 57 suffering, 23 people, signifi cant, 144 Covenant, 244–5 Dhammadinna, Sister, 99 personal devotion, 136–7, see also prayer ethics, 259–60, 276 dharma (dhamma) practises, signifi cant, 158 Isaiah, 270 Asoka, King, 100 358 cambridge studies of religion

in Buddhism, 83, 87, 91 Christianity, 152 g in Hinduism, 172, 174–6, 186, 311–13 Hinduism, 191 Dharma Day, 115 Islam, 231 Gabriel, Archangel, in Islam, Dharma Wheel, 77 Judaism, 276 206–7, 209, 211, 226, 229 dialogue, interfaith, see interfaith dialogue environmental Gandhi, Mohandas, 185, 188–90 Diaspora, defi nition, 20 Buddhism, 108 life, 188–9 disenchantment with tradition, 335 Christianity, 152 impact on Hinduism, 189 Divali, 325 Hinduism, 191 impact on world, 190 Douglas, Mary, 259 Islam, 231 peace, 311, 313 Dreaming, the, 19, 24–7 Judaism, 276 social transformation, 326 in relation to contemporary see also environment, concerns for Ganesha, 171, 197 Indigenous concerns, 57–62 sexual Ganges river, 79, 170, 187, 191, 195–8 dukkha, 80, 87–8, 91 Buddhism, 108–11 Gardner, Gerald, 333 Durkheim, Emile, 323, 325 Christianity, 152–5 Garvey, Marcus, 331 Hinduism, 191–193 Gautama, Siddhartha, see Buddha, the e Islam, 231–5 Geertz, Clifford, 20, 324 Judaism, 276–8 Geiger, Abraham, 270 ecospirituality, 333 Shinto, 294 gender roles ecumenism, 70–1, 130, 310, 325 Eugenius III, Pope, 149, 151 and Buddhism, 82–3, 85, 111–13 Eddas, see Poetic Edda, Prose Edda euthanasia and Christianity, 123, education Christianity, 152 149–51, 153, 155–6 early Australian school system, 45 Hinduism, 191 and Hinduism, 111, 172, 193–4 Edward VI, King, 127 Islam, 231 and Islam, 204, 225–6, 232–3, 236 Eight Immortals (Taoism), 290 Judaism, 276 and Judaism, 249, 259, 278–9 Eightfold Path, see Noble Eightfold Path timeline, 55 and new religions, 333 Einstein, Albert, 190 Evangelicals and Shinto, 293 Eiriksson, Leifr, 295 and Anglicanism, 127 genocide, iii El, see Yahweh immanence, 19 Gervais, Ricky, 336 Eliezar, Israel Ben, see Tov, Ba’al Shem and the individual, 325 Gilgamesh, 154 Elijah evolutionary theory, 22 Gnostic and Christianity, 121 Exodus, Rastafarianism, 330–1 John the Baptist, 123 Elizabeth I, Queen, 127 Sufi sm, 229 England, Church of, see Anglicanism f god Enlightenment, European, 337 of Christianity, see God environment, concerns for Falwell, Reverend Jerry, 154 existence of, 22 in Buddhism Fatima, see Al Zahra, Fatima in Hinduism, see Brahman appeal to Australians, 67 Federation of Australia, 37 of Islam, see Islam Asoka, King, 100, 102, 108 feminism, Jewish, 270 of Judaism, see Yahweh Christian ecologists, 334 feminist theology, 151, 155 nature of, 271 in Islam, 214 Five Precepts, of Buddhism, 92 New Age, 332 new religions, 331, 333–4 Flynn, Reverend John, 44, 71 see also Abrahamic religions, Shinto, 294 Foster, Jody, 336 Christianity, Islam, Judaism Epicurus, 336 Four Noble Truths, 87–8, 304 God Episcopal Church, see Anglicanism Fox, George, 309 beliefs of Christianity, principal, 130–1 Essenes, 121–3 free will, 23, 212 Bible, 133 Esther, 278 Friends, Society of, see Quakers Catholicism, 128 ethics funerals, Islam, 236 Islam, 206 bioethics Buddhism, 108 index 359

Pentecostalism, 128 Herod, King, 123 holocaust, the, 243, 274, 304 Protestantism, 129 Herrigal, Eugen, 107 Holy Spirit, 124, 128–9, 131, Gore, Al, 190 Hertzl, Theodore, 243 145, 158–9, 324, 330 Gospels, 16, 122–4, 133–4, 308 High Court, 18 homosexuality Graham, Billy, 120, 144 Higher School Certifi cate exam, 98 Australian timeline, 55 Great Schism, the, 120, 128 hijra, 202, 206 Buddhism, 109–10 Greenberg, Blue, 279 Hildegard of Bingen, 120, 148–51 Christianity, 154–5 Greens political party, 335 Christianity, impact on, 148 Hinduism, 191–3 Greenpeace, 335 individuals, impact on, 148 Islam, 233–5 Gurdjieff, 230 society, impact on, 149 Judaism, 278–9 sources, 150 new religions, 333 h writings, 150 Uniting Church, 70, 154 Hillel, 270 HSC exam, see Higher School Hadith, the, 213–4 Hillsong Church, 69, 129 Certifi cate exam A’isha, 226 ‘hindoos’, 38, 65 Huldah, 278 peace, 314–15 Hinduism humanism, 337–9 sexual ethics, 232–3, 235 astrology, 197–8 atheism, 336 Sufi sm, 228 Australia, adherence in, 13, 63–6 ethics, 338 Hafi z, 202, 229 in Australia, contemporary, 65–6 scientifi c humanism, 338 Hafsah, 225–6 in Australia, early 37–8 rational humanism, 338 Hagar, 216 beliefs, principal, 171–3 Huxley, Julian, 338 Hajj, 216–17, 236, 315, 325 big questions, on the, 22 Huxley, TH, 336 halachah, 276 Buddhism, infl uences on, 78, 89, 93, 102 Halal, 214, 232 challenges in the study of, 16 i Haraam, 214, 232 ethics, 172, 176–7, 185, 191–194 Harappan civilisation, 165 gender roles, 193–4, see also Ibn–Fadlan, 295, 298 Hardrada, Haraldr, 295 gender roles, Hinduism Ieyasu, 292 Hare Krishnas, see International global distribution, 327–8 Ijma, 214 Society of Krishna Consciousness gods and goddesses, 171 Immaculate Conception, 128 Harim Mosque, see Ka’ba Indus Valley civilisations, 165 immanence, 19, 339 Hasidim, the, 273–5 interest in, 17 immigration dress, 269 Islam, relations with, 189 to Australia, 55–6, 63, 65, 68 history, 273–4 New Age, 331 Immigration Restriction Act, Judaism, impact on, 274 organisations for peace, 313 see White Australia Policy in modern world, 275 peace, 311–13 Indian independence, 102, timeline, 243 people, signifi cant, 186 164, 189–90, 313 see also Tov, Ba’al Shem personal devotion (puja), 179–80 Indian religions (including heaven polytheism and henotheism, 323 Buddhism and Hinduism) Buddhism, 89 practices, signifi cant, 195 immanence, 19 Christianity, 148 sacred sites, 196–7 world view, 18, 78 Islam, 211–12 sanatana dharma, 167 see also Buddhism, Hinduism transcendence, 339 schools of thought, 186 indigenous beliefs Hebrew Bible, see Tenak Sufi sm, 229 animism, 323 hell temples, 15, 65–6, 197 Australian, 17, 24–7 Buddhism, 90 texts and writings, sacred, 174–5, 312 Christianity, early relations, 33 moral behaviour, 339 variants, main, 168–70 cosmology, 24 Islam, 211–12 Vedic and Upanishadic periods, 166–7 Islam, 203 Nordic (Hel), 295–6 yoga, 172–3 spirituality, 56–7 Henry VIII, King, 120, 127 Hirohito, Emperor, 292 world view, 24 360 cambridge studies of religion

global distribution, 327–8 prophets, 206 Jnana yoga, 173 see also law, indigenous origins and context, 204–5 John XXIII, Pope, 120, 144 Indo–Europeans, 165–6 texts, sacred, 211, 213 John the Baptist, 123, 125 Indus Valley civilisations, 164–5 timeline, 202 Jones, Reverend Jim Industrial Revolution, 153 washing rituals, 160, 236 (‘Jonestown’), 329, 332 Inquisition, the, iii see also law, Islamic; Muhammad; Judaism International Society of Krishna Shi’ites; Sufi sm; Sunnis; Qur’an Australia, adherence in, 13, 63–4 Consciousness, 65, 173, 332–4 in Australia, early, 38–40 interfaith dialogue, 70, 310, 325 j beliefs, principal, 251–2 internet, 15 characteristics of a religion, 20–1 interviews, 14 Jacob, Prophet, 245–7, 260 and Christianity, 121–2, 125, 249 Iqbal, 203 Jainism, 187, 190 Conservative, 249, 278–9 Iraq War James, William, 325 divisions, major, 249 timeline, 56 Jehovah, see Yahweh ethics, 248, 259, 274, 176–9 Isaac, Prophet, 244–7, 260 Jerusalem Exodus, story of, 247–8 Isaac, Rabbai Solomon, 270 context of Christianity, 121 family tree, 246 Isaiah, 270 Islam, 226, 228 gender roles, 278–9 ISKCON, see International Society Paul, Saint, 127 global distribution, 327–8 of Krishna Consciousness timeline, 120, 243 henotheism and monotheism, 323–4 Islam and Yahweh, 251 and Islam, 203, 206, 208, 211 Australia, adherence in, 13, 63–4, 68 Jesuits, and Confucianism, 337 origins, 244–8 in Australia, contemporary, 68, 210 Jesus Orthodox, 249, 276, 278–9, 282 in Australia, early, 40, 45, 210 baptism, 160 Patriarchs, early, 245–6 beliefs, principal, 211–12 death, 130 Paul, Saint, 144–7 calendar, 207 divinity and humanity, 130 peace, 304 and Christianity, 314, 316 ethics, 134–5 people, signifi cant, 270 conquest, iii Gandhi, Mohandas, 189 practices, signifi cant, 280–3 Crusades, 120, see also Crusades gender roles, 156 prophets, 259–60 ethics, 213–4, 231–5 inner light of, 19, 309 Reform / Progressive, 249, fi ve pillars, 215–17 in Islam, 206, 211 270, 276, 278–9, 282 gender roles, see gender roles, Islam Judaist groups, attitude towards, 122 salvation, 131 global distribution, 327–8 life of, 123–4 Shabbat, 21, 262, 276, 280, 282–3 hijab marriage, 158 schools of thought, 270 in Australia, 68 monotheism, 324 texts, sacred, 253–4 and Hinduism, 166 ministry, 125 time and space, concepts of, 244 history, 17, 208–10, 224–6 Nicene Creed, 131 timeline, 243 in India, see Mughal sultanate as a model life, 126 washing rituals, 160 interest in, 17 peace, 307–9 world view, 21, 244 jihad, 218 Paul, Saint, 144–7 see also law, Jewish and Judaism, 243 prayer, 136 monotheism, 324 revelation, 131 k mosques, 15, 67–8, 211, as revolutionary, 151 218, 232, 236–7 resurrection, 123, 125, 130, 132 Ka’ba, 205, 207, 216–17, 223, 226, 237 in early Australia, 40, 45 salvation, 131 Kabbalah, 229, 270, 273, 275, 278 as a new religion, 329 sex, extramarital, 153 Kabir, 164 organisations for peace, 317 sources on life, 123–4 Kadisha Bint Khuwaylid, peace, 314–17 timeline, 120 202, 204, 206–7, 224 people, signifi cant, 224 transcendence, 339 Kali, 171, 311 practices, signifi cant, 236–7 jihad, 217–18, 315–16 kama, 191 index 361

Kama Sutra, 187, 191, 193 Luther, Martin, 120, 128–9, 144 marriage kami, 292–4 Lutheran Christianity Christian, 158 karma adherence in Australia, 64 Hindu, 170, 191–2, 195 in Buddhism, 80, 87–9, Lyon, David, 334 Islam, 204, 225, 232–3 91, 110–1, 114, 339 Judaism, 276–7, 280 in Hinduism, 166–7, 172–4, m new religions, 333 176–7, 195, 198 Marsden, Samuel, Protestant minister, 35 in New Age, 331 Mabo case, 62 Mary, mother of Jesus, 123, 128, 131, 136 Karma yoga, 172 McKay, Reverend Fred, 71 Mary, Queen, 127 Khomeini, Ayotollah, 203 MacKillop, Mary, 36 materialism, 334 kinship, Indigenous Australian, 57, 59 MacLaine, Shirley, 331 materialists, Indian shramanas, 80 King, Martin Luther Jr, 190, 313, 326 McMahon, Reverend Maududi, Sayyid, 224 Knox, John, 129 Dorothy McRae, 154 Mecca koans, 93, 106 Madhamika, school of Mahayana, 85 A’isha, 226 Kojiki, 293 Madhva, 186 Ka’ba, 205 Kook, Rabbi Isaac Abraham Hacohen, 270 Magha, 115 mosques, 237 Koran, see Qur’an Mahavastu, the, 79 Muhammad, life of, 206–7 Koresh, David, 332 Mahabharata, 164, 169, 174, origins of Islam, 204, 224 Krishna, 169, 173–5, 186, 197, 311–12 176, 193–5, 311–12 peace, 314 kshatriyas, 78–9, 166, 169, Mahapajapati, 83 pilgrimage, 216–17 174, 176–7, 311–12 Maharishi Maresh Yogi, 331 practices, signifi cant, 236 Kumarajiva Mahatma Gandhi, see Gandhi, Mohandas prayer, 215–16 timeline, 76 Mahayana, 85–6 Qur’an, 213 Kumbha Mela festival, 185, 197–8 formation of, 83 social cohesion, 325 Kung, Hans, 305 and nirvana, 89 timeline, 202 Kyi, Aung Sun Suu, 190 regional locations, 84, 327 media, 15 sacred texts, 90 meditation, 306, 339 l timeline, 76 in Australia, 65, 67 Wesak, 114 in Buddhism, 85, 87–8, 90, 93, 112, 114 Lang, John Dunmore, Zen Buddhism, 103 in Christianity, 135, 310 Protestant minister, 35 Maimonides, Moses, 270–2 in Hinduism, 170, 173, 177 language ethics, 276, 278 in Islam, 228 indigenous Australian, 57 Judaism, impact on, 271–2 in New Age, 331 Lao Tzu, 288 life, 271 in Taoism, 289, 291 Last Supper, 123, 125 Sephardim, 249 in Zen Buddhism, 103, 105–7 Latin, 17 society, impact on, 272 Meiji, Emperor, 292, 294 law timeline, 243 Meissner, Carl, 17 Jewish, 21, 247–8, 251–2, 254 writings, 271 Mendelssohn, Moses, 270 and Jesus, 123 Maitland, Sarah, 120, 144 Mernissi, Fatima, 233 Islamic, 21, 203, 214, 218, 224–5, 232–5 Malcolm X, 217 Messiah, 121, 123–4, 146, 258, indigenous Australian, 21, 26, 57 Malik, Imam, 224 275, 307, see also Jesus leaders, religious, 15 Makonnen, Ras Tafari, 331 Methodism, 128–9 Lennon, John, 190 mandalas, 93 in Australia, 33 liberation theology, 151 Mandela, Nelson, 190 timeline, 120 Logos, Christianity, 124 Mannix, Daniel, Irish–Catholic middle way, the, 77, 79, 88 Lord’s Prayer, 136 priest in Australia, 42 Mirabai, 186, 194 Love, Commandment of, 135, 308 Manson, Charles, 332 miracles Lotus of the Good Law, 90 Manu, Laws of, 164 Islam, 213 Lucretius, 336 Marley, Bob, 330–2 Jesus, 123, 125 362 cambridge studies of religion

Shankara, 187 in Christianity, 148, 229 Njal of Berthorsknoll, 295 Mishnah, 243, 270, 271 Eastern, 331 Noahide Laws, 251 missionaries in Islam, see Sufi sm Noble Eightfold Path, 77, 87–8, 92–3, 304 Australian, early, 44, 58 in Judaism, 243; see also Noble Truths, see Four Noble Truths Buddhist, 100, 102 Hasidim; Kabbalah non–religious world views, 336–8 Catholic, 292 in Taoism, 289 difference to religious Islamic, 218 world views, 339–40 Jewish, 274 n global distribution, 327–8 Paul, Saint, 145 see also atheism, agnosticism, humanism moksha, 171–2, 175, 195, 197, 311–12 Napoleon, Emperor of France, 243, 249 Nordic religion, 295–8 monasteries, Buddhist, 82, 87, 103, 107 Nargajuna, 99 beliefs, principal, 296 Asoka, King, 101 timeline, 76 human search for meaning, 298 monism, 187 Nathuram, Godse, 189 origins of universe, 295 monotheism, 19, 323 NCCA, see National Council rituals, 298 morality, public, 326 of Churches in Australia society, infl uence on, 298 in early Australia, 47–9 National Council of Churches supernatural powers and deities, 297 Mormons, 329 in Australia, 70 timeline, 295 Moses native title, see Aboriginal NSW Ecumenical Council, 70 and Christianity, 128, 133–4 Australians, land rights movement Covenant, the, 244 Nebuchadnezzar, 258 o and Islam, 206, 211 Neng, Hui, 105 life, 247–8 Nero, Emperor, 145 Old Testament, 123, 133, 153, moral law, 252 New Age movement, 330–5 253, 307–8, see Tanak Orthodox Judaism, 249 adherence in Australia, 13 Orthodox Christianity, 128 Prophets, 260 rise of in Australia, 65, 67, 69 adherence in Australia, 64 Tanak, 253–4 Hildegard of Bingen, 149–50 baptism, 158–60 timeline, 243 yoga, 172 Bible, 133 Moses of Lyon, 243 new religious expression, 325, 329–35 ethics, 134 mosques, see Islam, mosques ethics, 333 re–enactments, 125 Movement for the Restoration of the fulfi lment, 332–3 timeline, 120 Ten Commandments of God, 329 infl uences on, 334–5 Ottoman Empire, 203 Muawiya, 209, 226 rise of, 329 outback, the, 49 Mughal sultanate, 164, 203 society, relationship with, 333 missions, 44 Muhammad ibn Abdullah, Prophet New Testament, 123, 126–7, 130, Ozalp, Mehmet, 223 hajj, 216–17 132–4, 144–7, 153, 155, 188–9 humanity, 207 and Islam, 206 p life, 206–7 peace, 307–8, 310 origins of Islam, 204–5 Nicaea, Council of, 120, 13–1 paganism peace, 314–15 Nichiren ancient, 17, 146, 232 as role model, 207 timeline, 76 animism, 323 sacred texts, 213 Nihongi, 293 in Australia, 69 sexual ethics, 232–3 Nile, Reverend Fred, 154 New Age, 331 shahada, 211, 215 Ninety–Five Theses, 120, 129 Nordic religion, 295 timeline, 202 nirvana Wicca, 333 wives, 225 Asoka, King, 101 Pali Canon, the, 83, 87, 90, 111 see also hadith; Islam; Qu’ran in Buddhism, 78, 81, 84–5, 87–9, 91, 339 Palmo, Tenzin, 99, 112 Müller, Max, 323 in Hinduism, 175, see moksha Parham, Charles F, 129 multiculturalism, iii, 65, 71 and sexual ethics, 109 Parks, Rosa, 326 mysticism Wesak, 114 Passover, 248 index 363

in Christianity, 125 Plaskow, Judith, 279 Qur’an, 213 Paul of Samosata, 130 Poetic Edda, 296 A’isha, 225 Paul, Saint (of Tarsus), 127, 144–7 polytheism, 323 articles of faith, 211–12 Christianity, impact on, 146 Pope, the ethics, 214, 231–5 individuals, impact on, 146 Apostolic Succession, 128 Hajj, 236 gender roles, 156 Christian churches, 127–9 homosexuality, 154 homosexuality, 155 ethics, 134 jihad, 218 letters, 147 timeline, 17, 55–6, 120 Muhammad, 206–7 life, 145 Prabhupada, AC Bhaktivedanta peace, 314–17 peace, 308 Swami, 332 publishing, 209 Pharisee, 122 Pratchett, Terry, 336 Sufi sm, 228–30 timeline, 120 prayer, 306, 325, 339 and Tenak, 243 society, impact on, 146 Christian, 133, 136–7, 310 Qutb, Sayyid, 224 sources, 146–7 Hindu, 179, 188–9 Timothy, 126 Islamic, 213, 215–17, 228, r writings, 133 230, 232, 236–7 peace and religion, 305–6, 318 , 129 Rabia, 229 see also Christianity, peace; Australia, adherence in, 64 racism Hinduism, peace; Islam, peace in Australia, early, 33, 44 against Muslims in early Australia, 45 Peace, Prince of, see Messiah baptism, 160 in contemporary Australia, 70 Pentateuch, see Torah prophet, defi nition, 21 Raja yoga, 173 Pentecostalism, 128–9 Prose Edda, 295–6 Rajneesh, Bhagween Shree, 333 Australia, adherence in, 64, 69 Protestantism, 129 rak’at, 236–7 and Anglicanism, 127 in Australia, early, 33–6 Ramadan, 216 baptism, 159 ministers in early Australia, 35 Ramakrishna, 186 immanence, 19 sectarianism, 41 Ramanuja, 186 as new religious expression, baptism, 158 Ramayana, 174, 189, 311–12 330, 332, 334–5 Bible, 133 Rastafarianism, 330–1 see also Methodism and Catholicism, 128 reconciliation, see Aboriginal Persian Empire, 204, 208 peace, 307, 309 Australians, reconciliation Peter, Saint, 128, 308 prayer, 136 Reformation, the, 120, 144 Pharisees, 121–3 timeline, 17, 120 reincarnation philosophy work ethic, 323 in Australia, 65 atheism and agnosticism, 336 Proverbs, Book of, 260–1, 304, 324 in Buddhism, 78, 84–5, 109 of Buddhism, 79 Pullman, Philip, 336 in Hinduism, 23, 166–7, 171–2, 177 and Christianity, 148, 308 puja, temple worship, 195 in new religions, 330–2 defi nition, 18 Pure Land Buddhism, 103 see also samsara east Asian, 107, 292, 294, 337 Purgatory, 128 religion humanism, 337 Purva Mimamsa, 186 Australia, religious affi liation, 13, 64 Indian, 17, 78, 80, 167, 186–7 the word and etymology, 17, 323, 341 and Judaism, 249, 271–2 q global distribution of religions, 327–8 Taoist, 289, 291 individual meaning, 324–5 Pilate, Pontius, 123, 131 Q, supposed Christian text, 124 new religious expression, 329–35 pilgrimage Qabbalah, see Kabbalah religious expressions in Buddhist, 101, 114 Qiyas, 214 human history, 323–6 Hindu, 195–7 Quakers social cohesion, 325 Islamic, 213, 216–17, 226, 230 see Hajj in Australia, early, 33 social transformation, 326 Jewish, 248 baptism, 160 religions of ancient origin, 287, 300 plagiarism, 15 peace, 309–10 resurrection 364 cambridge studies of religion

Christian, 131, see also in Buddhism, 78, 89 Shaiva Siddhanta, 186 Jesus, resurrection in Hinduism, 166, 172, 174, 191, 311 shamans, 287 Islam, 211–12 see also reincarnation Shankara Judaism, 257 sanatana dharma, 167, 191 gender roles, 193 revelation sangha, 80 impact on Hinduism, 187 Christian, 131 Asoka, King, 100–1 Kumbha Mela, 197 Jewish, 276 in China, 107 life, 186–7 Rinpoche, Guru, 99 ethics, 92, 109 Shari’a law, see law, Islamic ritual, 14, 19 festivals of, 115 Sharpe, Eric, 334, 341 Buddhist, 115, see also mandalas formation of, 82–3 Shema, Great, 251, 281–2 Christian, 131, 137, 158–61 gender, 111, see also gender Sheol, 257 Hindu, 166–8, 172, 179 roles, Buddhism Shi’ites, 209–10 Islamic, 203, 215–16, 229, 232, 236 Three Jewels, 87 A’isha, 226 indigenous Australian, 24–7, 57 Sangha Day, 115 in Australia, 68 Jewish, 21, 245, 262, 280 sannyasi, 176, 187, 189, 195 Fatima Al Zahra, 224 Nordic, 298 St Vincent de Paul Society, 43 Sufi sm, 227 Quakers, 309 Sargon, king of Mesopotamia, 154 timeline, 202 Shinto, 293 Satan, see devil wives of Muhammad, 225 Taoist, 290 satori, 105 Shinto, 292–4 Robertson, Reverend Pat, 154 Sawm, 216 animism, 19, 293, 323 Robinson, Gene, 154 sceptics, Indian shramanas, 80 beliefs, principal, 293 Roman Empire, 17 Schism, Great, see Great Schism, the human search for meaning, 294 Christianity, 120–1, 127, Schopenhauer, 164 nature of, 292 129–30, 308–10 scientifi c progress, 334 origins of universe, 293 and Islam, 202–4 Scientologist, 18 rituals, 293 and Judaism, 254 Scientology, Church of, 15, 329–30, 334 society, infl uence on, 294 Paul, Saint, 145–6 scriptures, see texts, religious supernatural powers and deities, 293 religion, 323–4 sectarianism timeline, 292 Roncalli, Angelo Giueseppe, 120 in Australia pre–World War II, 41, 71 Shiva, 167, 169–70, 186–7, 196, 311 Roy, Ram Mohan, 186 in India, 189 Shotoku, Prince Royal Flying Doctor Service, 44, 71 secularism timeline, 76 rta, 191 rise of in Australia, 65, 69 shramanas, 80 Rumi, 202, 229 Selassie, Emperor Haile I, 331 Sikhism Ruskin, John, 189 Sephardim, 249 in Australia, early, 38 Ruth, 278 September 11, 2001, attack on global distribution, 328 United States, iii, 154, 304, 306 and Sufi sm, 229 s Sermon on the Mount, 123, 125, 134, 189 Sinai, Mount, 244, 248–9, 252 Seven Social Sins, see Social Sins, Seven Singer, Peter, 336 sacred sites Seventh Day Adventists, rituals slavery, 326 for Indigenous Australians, 59 and practises, 158, 160 Smart, Ninian, 19 Sadducees, 121–3 sex, premarital and extramarital Smith, George H, 336 Sagan, Carl, 338 Buddhism, 108–9 Social Sins, Seven, 190 Sagas, Nordic, 296 Christianity, 152–3 social welfare, in Australia pre–World Sakyamuni, Prince, see Buddha, the Hinduism, 191–2 War II, Christian contributions, 43, 49 Salama, Umm, 225 Islam, 232–3 Society of Friends, see Quakers Salat, 215, 236; see prayer, Islamic Judasism, 276–7 Solomon, 243, 260, 324 salvation, Christianity, 123, 158–60, 325 Shabbat, see Judaism, Shabbat Sodom, 155, 234, 244, 278 Salvation Army, 43, 160 Shahada, 215, 228 Soto Buddhism, 107 samsara Shaiva devotion, see Shiva source, primary, 14 index 365

Spirit, Holy, see Holy Spirit ethics, 276–8 Theravada, 84–5 Stolen Generations, 59–60 homosexuality, 154 affi rmation of, 83 timeline, 56 and Islam, 243 gender roles, 111 studies of religion, iii, 70 monotheism, 324 and nirvana, 89 Sturluson, Snorri, 295 synagogue services, 282 regional locations, 84 suffering, 23 tantra, 164, 191, 194 Wesak, 114 in Buddhism, 79, 87, 108, Tao Te Ching, 288–9, 291 sacred texts, 90 see also dukkha Taoism, 288–91 theses, 95, see ninety–fi ve theses Sufi sm, 227–30 beliefs, principal, 289 Three Jewels, 87, 92 al–Adawiyya, Rabi’a, 224 and Buddhism, 76, 85 Tibetan Book of the Dead, see Islam, impact on, 229 defi nition, 17 Book of the Dead, Tibetan jihad, 218 gender roles, 111 Tikkun olam, 260–1, 276 prayer, 237 humanism, 337 Tolstoy, Leo, 189 and the Qur’an, 230 interest in, 17 Torah society, impact on, 230 meaning, human search for, 291 and Christianity, 133 timeline, 202–3 origins of universe, 289 ethics, 259–61, 276–9 suicide rituals, 290 Hasidim, 273 in Hinduism, 191 society, infl uence in, 291 and Islam, 206 in Judaism, 276 supernatural powers and deities, 290 monotheism, 251 Sunday / Saturday worship, Christian, 158 Tao, 17, 289–91 moral law, 252 Sunnis, 209–10 and Zen Buddhism, 103, 106 Moses, 248 in Australia, 68 timeline, 288 Orthodox Judaism, 249 Malik, Imam, 224 tawhid, 211, 229, 231 the Patriarchs, 247 Muhammad’s humanity, 207 temperance movements, in Shabbat, 262 Sufi sm, 227 early Australia, 47–8 synagogue services, 280–3 timeline, 202 temples, see Buddhism, Hinduism and the Tanak, 253 wives of Muhammand, 225 Temple, of Jerusalem, 280–1 totem, indigenous Australian, 26–7 Suzuki, David, 336 Christianity, 121–3, 125, 308 Tov, Ba’al Shem, 243, 273 Suzuki, DT, 107 timeline, 243 transcendence, 19, 339 Swain, Tony, 24 Ten Commandments Travolta, John, 18 syllabus, HSC Studies of Christianity, 133–5, 152, 251 tree, universal, see Yggdrasil Religion, iii, 99, 287 Judaism, 248, 256–7, 262, 276, 281 trimurti, 170, 311 see synagogues, 15, 261, 280–3 terra nullius, 58–62 Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu in Australia, 39 terrorism, 316, see also September 11 Trinity, Holy, 124, 130–1, 324 Great Synagogue, Sydney, 39 Testament, see New Testament, tripitaka, see Pali Canon, the Paul, Saint, 145–6 Old Testament Pharisees, 122 texts, religious, 14 u Shabbat, 262, 276 of Buddhism, 90 syncretism of Christianity, see Bible, New Umar, 208–9, 225–6 Christian–Aboriginal in Australia, 57 Testament, Old Testament union movement of Hinduism, see Vedas, in early Australia, 45 t Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita Unitarians of Judaism, see Tenak, Torah in early Australia, 33 Talmud, 251, 254, 260, 270–1, 278 Theism Uniting Church of Australia, 70–1 Tanak / Tenak / Tanach / adherents in Australia, 13 Australia, adherence in, 64 Tenach, 20–1, 253–4 Theodosius, Emperor, 254 baptism, 160 beliefs, principal, 251 theology, 13 homosexuality, 154 and Christianity, 121, 123, 133–4, 243 Theosophical Society, the, 14, untouchables, 176, 189 death, 257 66, 76, 164, 329–30, 333 Upanishads, 166–7, 171–2, 366 cambridge studies of religion

174, 186, 189, 191 violence, iii y and Buddhism, 78 Vishnu, 167–70, 174, 197, 311–12 timeline, 164 visits, 15 Yahweh Urban II, Pope, 120 Vivekananda, 164 names of God, 246, 251, 253 urban drift and urbanism, 40, 167 Voltaire, 337 and Christianity, 121, 130 Uthman, 208–9, 213, 226 qualities, 254–5 w Yen, Chen, 99 v Yggdrasil, 295–6, 298 Waco, 329 yin and yang, 288–9 Vaishnava devotion, see Vishnu warfare, see peace and religion yoga Vajrayana, 86 Weber, Max, 332 in Australia, 65 mandalas, 93 website, see internet in Buddhism, 85, 93 regional locations, 84 Wesak, 114–15 in Hinduism, 167, 170, 172–3, Tenzin Palmo, 112 Wesley, John, 120, 128 175, 177, 187, 313 see also Dalai Lama West, the, 18 Yogacara, school of Mahayana, 85 Valhalla, 296–8 and Buddhism, 80, 112 Varanasi, 196 culture and religion, 323 z varnas, 166, 172, 176–7, and Hinduism, 194 191–2, 194–5, 311–12 individualism, 325 Zakat, 215 see also Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Islam, 316 Zarathushtra, 324 Vasubandhu, 99 Jewish foundations, 243 zazen, 105 Vatican Council, new religious expression, 331–4 Zen Buddhism, 103–7 First, 120 religion and non–religion, 339 Buddhism, impact on, 106 Second, 55, 120, 144 sexual ethics, 233 history, 104 Vedanta, 186–7 and Zen Buddhism, 106–7 individuals, impact on, 105–6 Vedas, 174–5 Whedon, Joss, 336 in Japan, 107 dharma, 172 Whirling Dervishes, 227, 229 society, impact on, 106 ethics, 176, 191 White Australia Policy, 38, 63, 65 and Taoism, 291 gender roles, 193 timeline, 55–6 in the West, 107 peace, 311–12 Wicca, 333 Zevi, Sabbatai, 243 personal devotion, 179 in Australia, 69 Zionism, 243, 249, 270, 275, 330–1 pilgrimage, 195 New Age, 332 Zoroastrianism puja, 195 and Nordic religion, 295 Judaism, infl uences on, 251, 255, 257 Shankara, 187 Wise, Isaac Mayer, 249 monotheism, 324 timeline, 164 women Persian Empire, 204 Vedic and Upanishadic periods, 166–7 in early Australia, 36 religions of ancient origin, 287 Vishnu, 168 see also gender roles three wise men, 123 vegetarianism Won Buddhism, 103 Zwingli, Huldreich, 129 in Buddhism, 87, 89, 92 World Council of Churches, 120 appeal to Australians, 67 World Parliament of Asoka, King, 100 Religions, Chicago, 164 in Hinduism, 188, 191 world view, 18, 336, 339–41 in Judaism, 122 wowsers, 47–8, 326 in Rastafarianism, 331 Vikings, 295, 298 x Vinaya texts, 82–3, 90, 92 on gender roles, 111 Xavier, Frances, 292 on sexual ethics, 108–9