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ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END

The Practice of

Margaret E. Greene, Stephanie Perlson, Alice Taylor and Giovanna Lauro Copyright 2015 © GreeneWorks and Promundo

All reserved. Portions of this report may be reproduced without express permission from the authors but with acknowledgement to GreeneWorks and Promundo.

GreeneWorks combines research and strategic thought leadership to address the inequalities that impede and development.

Promundo is a global leader in promoting justice and preventing in societies, communities, and homes by working to engage men and boys, in partnership with women and .

Acknowledgements:

We are grateful to the Kendeda Fund, which funded this research as part of a broader efort to bring researchers on together. We thank the International Center for Research on Women for hosting a panel on men and child marriage on this topic, and to American Jewish World Service for organizing a side event at the Commission on the Status of Women that took the conversation further. Thanks also to Jef Edmeades of ICRW who reminded us of the impor- tant role that men not only in preventing child marriage but in mitigating its efects.

Suggested citation: Greene, Margaret E., Stephanie Perlson, Alice Taylor and Giovanna Lauro. 2015. Engaging Men and Boys to Address the Practice of Child Marriage. , DC: GreeneWorks.

Cover photo: Courtesy of the MenCare Campaign

Design by Ellen Smyth of Elle Designs

Child marriage working paper series, No. 1.

GreeneWorks Promundo 3733 Warren Street, NW 1367 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 310 Washington, DC 20016 Washington, DC 20036 United States Introduction

Girls and boys who marry as children—before the age of 18, the end of childhood as defined by the Convention on the Rights of the Child—can experience a lifetime of harmful limitations on their development and their health. Girls are disproportion- ately afected by child marriage, being more likely than boys to marry as children and to have their schooling, peer and mobility limited by marriage. Many groups worldwide are working to eliminate child marriage through programs that empower and educate girls, support young activists, mobilize communities, enforce , provide incentives to keep girls in , and raise awareness among elders and community leaders.

Increased awareness of the relational aspects of gender suggests that a comprehen- sive, evidence-based response to child marriage should engage not only women but also the , , , and future and fathers-in- of the girls who have been the focus of programmatic eforts. This is necessary for challenging harmful gender norms and increasing understanding of the myriad negative consequences of inequitable relationships. Yet the development community has paid only nominal attention to the role of men and boys in changing harmful marriage-related norms and, in most settings, has failed to address boys’ own vulner- abilities. This has arisen from a desire to focus on the rights and well-being of girls, but has limited the range of interventions used to end the practice of child marriage.

This paper does three things:

n It reviews our knowledge of child marriage and informal unions between girls and boys/men in the Global South;

n It provides an analysis of the attitudes of male and community members regarding child marriage and the role of masculinity in shap- ing these attitudes. This section draws from various sources, including the International Men and Survey (IMAGES), and on emerging evidence from on the attitudes of and community members, especially the men, regarding the practice of child marriage;

n It surveys interventions currently working with men and boys to see what can be built upon more systematically in future work on child marriage.

* Margaret E. Greene, GreeneWorks; Stephanie Perlson, GreeneWorks; Alice Taylor, Instituto Promundo-Brazil; Giovanna Lauro, Promundo-US. The authors will be grateful for suggestions and additional examples. Please direct all correspondence to [email protected].

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 1 What we know about child marriage

Child marriage, generally defined as marriage emphasis on as it relates to the control of before age 18, is most common in sub-Saharan girls’ sexuality, and economic issues of property and land ownership. We must also reach tomorrow’s husbands and and .1 In 2010, over 67 million fathers to end the practice of child marriage. married women aged 20 to 24 had been wed as girls; in the next decade, an additional 14.2 In some settings in sub-Saharan Africa, informal intergen- erational relationships share many of the characteristics million girls under 18 will be married each year.2 of child marriage. Girls’ labor and are commodi- Most girls married as children live in rural areas, ties valued and purchased by men. Intergenerational are poor, and are less educated. Compared to sexual relationships are characterized by older men’s their unmarried peers or to older women, girls access to resources and control, including over the terms of . Though many girls experience material gain from who marry before the age of 18 are less likely these relationships, the inequitable terms place control in to complete , more likely to the hands of the men and contribute to adolescent girls’ experience unwanted , and are at rates of unintended and HIV infection.8 greater risk of sexual and Older men are also able to take young women and girls 3 morbidities and maternal mortality. as sexual partners because they possess the income, em- ployment and resources necessary to establish relation- Unfortunately, law and practice frequently contrast quite ships or marry, whereas younger men often do not. Many dramatically: , which outlawed child marriage in girls leave school during this time, so they do not benefit 1929, is today home to the largest number of the world’s from the empowerment and confidence that child of any : about six million a year, could instill; their limited livelihood opportunities give or over 40 percent of the 14.2 million annual total.4 In the upper hand to older men in relationships with girls. In 2010, 158 reported the minimum legal age of addition, domestic and , usually performed by marriage for women without parental (or other author- women in their homes, is unpaid, whereas men typically ity) consent to be 18 years (it is often but not always the work outside of the home for money. same for boys)5, yet in 146 countries, state or allows girls under 18 to marry with parental consent. In settings where educational attainment is low and In 52 countries, girls under 15 can marry with parental is high, and where patriarchal beliefs have been consent; boys younger than 15 can marry with paren- entrenched for , religious and traditional lead- tal consent in 23 countries. Approximately 13,000 who ers—usually men—are viewed as keepers of knowledge, are under 15—some as young as eight or nine—become of , as authorities on how to live. Ending child 6 brides each day, or five million per year. marriage is difcult in some settings not only because of familial support for it, but because of traditional and Child marriage occurs everywhere in the world, but this community leaders’ support for the practice: and paper focuses on the practice in the Global South where culture will sometimes be cited as unassailable reasons the rates of child marriage tend to be the highest. Most for its continuation. Ending child marriage therefore re- of the time, young girls marry older men, but adoles- quires us to work with men to address the socio-cultural cent boys also marry young. When boys are taken out beliefs and norms that drive this practice. of school early, they, like girls, face decreased livelihood opportunities, which in turn fuels the cycle of poverty, Causes and consequences of child marriage poor health and vulnerability.7 Fathers and male rela- tives and community members play a significant role in Poverty and rigid gender norms that prescribe a lim- perpetuating child marriage for a variety of reasons, most ited life-course for girls and allow no alternatives are of which stem from inequitable gender norms, such as an commonly-cited explanations from the communities

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 2 mation and experimentation. Girls are required to assume In many of the settings where child roles and responsibilities before they are physically, emotionally and psychologically prepared. They may be marriage occurs, young people have little socially isolated, may experience unwanted separation autonomy in their lives and are taught from family and friends, and face exploitation.11 from a young age to ‘respect their elders’. Girls entering marriage face difculties in protecting their sexual and reproductive health; they generally lack knowledge about their sexual and reproductive health and any services available to them, and are often unin- practicing child marriage. Girls living in poor formed of their rights in this area. They are often power- in settings where child marriage is common are roughly less to refuse sex or to insist their husbands use condoms, twice as likely to marry before the age of 18 as girls liv- are less likely to access health services and more likely ing in better-of households in the same settings.9 Many than older women to experience unwanted, ill-timed and families from countries where child marriage is practiced often dangerous pregnancies.12 The greater sexual experi- (such as , India, and ) point to economic ence of older male partners makes girls vulnerable to incentives for marrying early: for many poor HIV and other STIs.13 This is especially true since in many families, daughters are economic burdens; families must settings, extramarital sex, for men, is accepted, if not feed, house and clothe girls even as they know (in many expected. In many settings, restrictions on girls’ mobil- cases) that they will have to make the payments neces- ity and social contact are justified as necessary for their sary to secure husbands for their daughters. In refugee protection, but it is largely done in order to control their settings, families may consider child marriage the best sexuality. The expectation that girls prove their fertility way to protect their daughters and ease pressure on also poses perils, and the complications of early preg- the ’s resources.10 Where is exchanged, nancy and are the leading cause of for it tends to increase with the age of the , placing a girls aged 15 to 19 in developing countries.14 born downward pressure on age at marriage—marrying girls to adolescent also experience higher mortal- young can save the family significant costs. A desire for ity rates.15 In addition, young married girls are especially a submissive , who learns to obey her from vulnerable to (physical, sexual and an early age; and a desire for high fertility, so that women psychological), and are more likely to accept it. start childbearing very young so as to achieve maximum fertility over their lifetimes, also lead families to marry Leaving school early is another factor in girls’ vulner- daughters young. ability to child marriage.16 And poverty, the low status of women and girls, and norms that cause not to In many of the settings where child marriage occurs, value investing in girls and their education all contribute young people have little autonomy in their lives and are to girls leaving school early. Indeed, studies show that taught from a young age to ‘respect their elders’—typi- girls’ educational attainment (or lack thereof) is one of cally older relatives such as , and the strongest predictors of child marriage.17 Across all uncles—who make many of life’s big decisions, including regions, the more years of schooling a girl has, the less arranging marriage for the children in their families. This likely she is to marry as a child—and, the better her eco- leaves most girls and young women, especially those nomic opportunities. Educating girls is not only better for from poor families, powerless and vulnerable. the girls: it promotes economic development and poverty Child marriage prevents girls from leading healthy and reduction by improving girls’ income-earning potential, productive lives; it imposes motherhood and domestic helping to achieve international development goals. roles on girls early in their , a time that could otherwise be dedicated to growth, learning, identity for-

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 3 Men, masculinity and attitudes regarding marriage

Socially and culturally defined notions of country surveyed, the gap between men’s and women’s 20 masculinity, femininity and sexuality shape reported satisfaction was less than 10 percent. relationship and marriage practices every- More recently, a Partners for Prevention (P4P) survey, where in the world. To end child marriage, with data on the Gender-Equitable Men (GEM) scale from multiple countries in Asia, found that across all we must understand the cultural and gender sites (except for Papua New ), at least half of men norms that have contributed to this practice. In responded that women performed more domestic duties; many settings, men are socialized to assume the division of labor was most unequal in . the role of breadwinner, to be dominant and to The majority of the remaining responses were that the di- vision of labor was more equal, as in Papua New Guinea, make most, if not all family decisions. Women, where over three-quarters of the men stated this. in contrast, are raised to run the household— cooking, cleaning and —and produce Even where prescribed social and gender norms tend to be more closely adhered to, there are men and boys, and care for children, as well as sick and women and girls, who uphold equitable ideas of relations elderly relatives. between the , or who simply disagree with the injus- tice that ensues when one group has power over another. Domestic roles and division of labor Programs do well when they identify these “positive devi- The original International Men and Gender Equality Sur- ants,” figuring out how they got to be the way they are, vey (IMAGES), conducted in six low- and middle-income and structuring their activities in ways that recruit more countries, collected data on men’s perceptions of gender people to challenge harmful gender norms. roles and expectations. A little more than half of men in Social constructions of sexuality Brazil, Chile and and over 80 percent of men in Rwanda agreed that women’s most important role is to Ending child marriage requires questioning the social take care of the home and cook; and from 38 percent in constructions of sexuality. In many settings, men are Chile to 62 percent in and 86 percent in India said taught that they can act freely upon their sexual desires; that being a means being tough.18 in these same settings, women are often taught to expect and accept this behavior. Women are typically socialized According to the IMAGES findings, between 50 and 60 to be chaste and to submissively adhere to men’s sexual percent of men reported participating in domestic duties; preferences; men to be dominant and more expansive in but in Brazil and Rwanda, only half as many women (26 their sexuality. and 23 percent, respectively) reported men’s partici- pation. The smallest discrepancy between men’s and The widely held view that women must make themselves women’s reports came from Mexico, where 47 percent available to men’s sexual desires, that it is their duty to do of women and 54 percent of men reported men helping so, and that men have the right to have sex with women with domestic work.19 In India, only 16 percent of men and to control sexual relations is borne out in the IM- reported participating in domestic duties. AGES data. From IMAGES , 33 percent of men and 49 percent of women were in total agreement on the GEM A majority of women and men in each site expressed scale with the statement that “A man has the right to satisfaction with this strongly gendered division of labor, have sex even if the says no,” and another third of indicating their strong . The largest gap be- men and 15 percent of women were in partial agreement. tween men’s and women’s satisfaction, at 80 percent of When asked whether men need more sex than women, women and 94 percent of men, was in Chile. A 13 percent nearly 90 percent of women and 70 percent of men were satisfaction gap was observed in Croatia. In every other in partial or total agreement.21 Demonstrating the norm

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 4 Sexual, physical and emotional violence have intergen- Child marriage is a business transaction, erational consequences, socializing the next to tolerate violence and to rationalize it as a tool in the an agreement between families that subordination of girls and women. As the State of the regulates girls’ and women’s sexuality World’s Fathers report (forthcoming in 2015) details, fathers’ violence against mothers has a lasting impact on and reproduction. children.23 Surveys of adolescent and adult perpetrators and survivors of violence often reveal that they experi- enced violence in their childhood homes.24 that men must be virile, on the question of whether men IMAGES data point to the harmful efects on men of should be embarrassed about their inability to get an having experienced violence—committed directly against erection, over 90 percent of men and over three-quarters them or against their mothers—as children:25 Men are of totally or partially agreed; in Brazil, 37 more likely to commit partner violence as if they percent of men agreed with this statement; in Chile, it experienced violence as children. In India, for example, 44 was 46 percent; in India, 91 percent; Mexico, 13 percent percent of those who were victims of psychological and/ and Rwanda, 59 percent.22 Around one third of men in or physical violence used physical violence against a fe- Croatia and Mexico, 57 percent in India and 70 percent in male partner, compared to only 22 percent of those who Rwanda believed that men need sex more than women were not victims of . Men who experienced physical and between 34 percent in Croatia and 61 percent in or psychological violence as a child were twice as likely to India agreed that men are always ready to have sex. The have low self-esteem as an adult and much higher uses Partners for Prevention survey portrays how ingrained of . Men who witnessed their being beaten these attitudes are among both men and women. For in- by a partner were over 2.5 times more likely ever to have stance, with the statement that a woman cannot refuse to perpetrated violence against their own partners.26 have sex with her husband, 67 percent of women and 58 percent of men of agreed or strongly agreed; The low value attached to females—other than for their 50 percent of women and 42 percent of men in Cambo- sex, reproductive and domestic roles—partially accounts dia agreed or strongly agreed; and in , 33 percent of for the sense of male sexual entitlement to girls and women and 41 percent of men agreed or strongly agreed. young women and their commodification in some set- tings. Child marriage is a business transaction, an agree- A sense of men’s sexual entitlement is also extensively ment between families that regulates girls’ and women’s documented in the Partners for Prevention data. The sexuality and reproduction, while men’s sexuality remains study directed a question about the motivations for unrestrained and in some cases, encouraged, both within to men who reported ever having raped a woman or girl, and outside of marriage. Perceptions of masculinity including partners and non-partners. Rural and urban and acceptable sexuality for men and women; girls’ and Bangladesh, China, Papua New Guinea (Bougainville) and women’s lower worth compared to boys and men; and urban reported the highest levels of rape for poverty and the power imbalance between the sexes the reason of “sexual entitlement,” at 71 to 86 percent. create a situation in which families and communities feel The percentages of men reporting they had raped a obliged to marry their daughters very young. woman or girl out of fun or boredom ranged from 66 percent in rural Bangladesh to 63 percent in Papua New An assessment of ’s age-of-consent law revealed Guinea, to 23 percent in urban Indonesia. Significant interesting attitudes regarding men’s, usually fathers’, proportions of men also reported raping women and girls sense of entitlement to and control over girls’ and for reasons of anger and . The final reason, women’s sex(uality) and reproduction. It exemplifies the “drinking,” is compatible with all of the other reasons and low value attached to girls in strict patriarchal settings can drive and support the other motives for rape.

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 5 and their resulting commodification.27 Parents’ rationale sexuality and maintain their reputation within the family for marrying their daughters early is to protect them from and community. “illegitimate” sexual relations and to ensure they are pro- vided for, i.e., in to older men. Sex in instances An entry point for changing attitudes where the man and the girls’ parents have engaged in Raj and colleagues (2011) found religious leaders in the transaction giving her to him to be provided for, is to hold loose interpretations of who is an legitimate; it is a marriage. As the author writes, “The tra- adult and qualifies to be legally married, since customary ditional engagement (called the ‘Introduction’) practice defines adulthood as the onset of ; what during which bridewealth is established and exchanged most agreed upon was that is forbid- remains an important symbolic process through which a den.31 Other study participants, including teachers, police, man, and, by extension, his kin, obtain legitimate access etc., noted that child marriage had no positive efect. Of to a young woman’s reproductive capacities and produc- the few who believed there to be positive efects of child tive labor… sexual liaisons with a young woman without marriage, they cited protective factors, that marrying consent of her is considered theft, a commit- early would teach the girl how to behave and prevent ted by one man against another man’s property” [empha- her from entering into . All of the participants 28 sis added]. stated the negative efects of child marriage, especially on the health of the mother and her children. A male reli- Parents were uncomfortable with the shifting balance of gious leader cited the discontinuation of the girl’s school- power in which girls would establish their own sexual re- ing as a problem and a female teacher thought leaving lationships and benefit directly from any resulting trans- her parents early would have negative psychological action. Parents would stand to lose in such a transaction. consequences. Participants also felt that a girl could not When Uganda’s Defilement Law was passed, therefore, properly handle the responsibilities associated with being it provided a way for fathers to reassert their right to a wife and mother, leading to further complications. control sexual access to their daughters and for parents to gain economically. Men of means, however, “have the In results from IMAGES in Mali, in the focus group discus- economic resources and reputational incentive to pay sions conducted, wide support for inequitable gender omutango (compensation), the social capital to evade the norms and gender-based violence was found; for exam- law, and the social leverage to transform their transgres- ple, 90 percent of men and 75 percent of women agreed sions from possible scandals into public silences.” While that men should make the final decision in their home; 90 the law’s theoretical purpose was to protect girls from percent of men and 77 percent of women agreed that the sexual relations with older men, it led to much concern most important role for a woman is to take care of her about its underlying goal of “punishing men for what family and home; and 63 percent of men and 41 percent many saw as a masculine right—sexual access to younger of women agreed with the statement that there are times 29 females.” when women deserve to be beaten.32

In one South Asian community, the concepts of izzat Yet the evidence in Mali also suggests possible inroads for () and sharam (shame) suggest that “the bodies persuading men and boys not to participate in child mar- and actions of women and girls represent community or riages. While—on the topic of child marriage—over 60 30 individual honour.” These concepts were found to be percent of male and female respondents agreed with the integral in convincing young women to comply with their statement that a girl who is not married young is a risk parents’ wishes for marriage and may be employed even for her family (suggesting a negative view of sex outside more so with South Asian girls in the UK due to fears of marriage), only 15 percent of men and 16 percent of about premarital sexuality and the influence of west- women felt the practice of early marriage should continue. ern values. Parents justify these marriages as the steps Suggestive of a possible shift in attitudes between gen- parents must take in order to regulate young people’s erations, young men and women and those with higher

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 6 healthy to fulfill this role. Boys were also seen to “become Parents were uncomfortable with the men” based on others’ considering them men, which was often based on their work status. An additional element shifting balance of power in which of being considered a man was getting married and girls would establish their own sexual dealing with the associated responsibilities. It might be possible to appeal to men to delay marriages with very relationships and benefit directly from young girls by promoting the idea that responsible men any resulting transaction. protect the health of their , daughters, nieces and .

These studies highlighted that while many men assert education levels held more equitable attitudes. The Mali male privilege and dominance over women, believing surveys revealed that young men and women agreed that men should be in control and make all final decisions, men should be role models for their children and faithful, they also attribute great power and agency to women. As and some women stated that a good man treats his wife Matthewson points out, “Saliou clearly felt the injustice gently and satisfies her sexually. Also, 77 percent of men lay in women replacing men in the workplace, rather than and 86 percent of women agreed that couples should in the sexual exploitation of women. He was convinced decide together about . that ‘all women were materialistic’ and easily seduced by money. He declared that the majority had many - The harms that arise from strict and unequal gender friends at once in order to be well looked after financially. norms are well-documented, but Matthewson’s (2009) He lamented, bitterly: ‘You know, girls nowadays don’t study of young men’s health behavior in reveals know how to say “no.” You see the girl for the first time, a way to use gender norms to encourage their positive you talk to her and she accepts [to go out with you]. behavior. While those she interviewed held many of the They do it because they don’t work—it’s their way of gender inequitable beliefs that make up a dominant mas- extracting money from men.’”33 This statement conveys culinity, she found that the key concept of male respon- the perception of women’s power and agency in relation- sibility—part of —was compatible ships. with health-seeking behavior since a man needs to be

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 7 R ESEARCH CASE STUDY: Emerging evidence on child marriage in Brazil

We know little of the preferences, views and choices of but husbands hold the last word. men regarding marriage, which have not systematically Husbands also face lesser consequences upon separa- been studied. A study in Brazil on child marriage is just tion than wives do: the men have had greater work and yielding its first qualitative findings:34 There is no one education experience while the wife has had none or less pathway to child marriage in Brazil, suggesting the di- than he, and husbands are not expected to participate verse roles men and boys can play in influencing marriag- in caregiving of children (nearly all interviewees said the es.35 Child marriages in Brazil are largely informal unions, children would stay with the wife if the couple sepa- but their causes and consequences are similar to those of rated). As a result women are often left with financial and formal marriage. Many couples self-identify as married, child-care burdens, and lower prospects for re-marriage. and involve girls in their early adolescence and men 5 to Informal marriages also mean no legal protection for girls 10 years older, though sometimes much older than that. and women. Brazilian husbands’ advantage begins with their position Young men (in early adolescence through their early as key decision-makers in determining whether mar- twenties) were the demographic which girls, men over 30, riages will take place. Marriages are often framed as men and family members most consistently described in nega- ‘assuming responsibility’ for girls due to pregnancy, or tive terms and as unattractive as potential husbands. Ad- as protective figures if girls sufered abuse from a family olescent boys and young men were consistently referred member or complained of their parents’ restrictions on to as irresponsible and good-for-nothing, as vagabonds their mobility. Men view marriage as a marker of man- who only want to have fun. Younger husbands often ‘test’ hood and responsibility, entitling them to exercise difer- their power and control over wives; therefore, there ap- ent forms of control and to demand that girls adhere to pears to be potential in working with them to transform the men’s preferences, from everyday to larger choices. their gender norms through caregiving programming and Husbands control girls’ sexual activity (when they have other approaches. Girls’ rejection of young men was an sex, whether they used protection), childbearing and important factor in the acceptability of marriage to older education, and mobility. Men’s regulation of girls’ access men since these men are viewed as more responsible, to their social networks include expecting their wives to stable, and more likely to hold better jobs. stay at home, while they continue to go out and enjoy their own independence. Jealousy and control of girls’ Expectations around men’s potential and actual roles as mobility are highly normalized, and emerged as the most caregivers and husbands tended to be minimal, on the common sources of conflict. Many girls seek to negotiate part of all groups who participated in the field research. or contest the points of their marriage they disagree with, Three types of fatherhood and caregiving were identified:

1. Some fathers of married girls: Encouraged, or did not play a decisive role in discouraging girls’ marriages even when they disagreed, suggesting their role in preventing marriages could be enhanced; 2. Some husbands of married girls or fathers of young children: Played little to no role as fathers apart from being providers (mothers and grandmothers were ex- pected to help raise young wives’ children); 3. Some older husbands as father figures to their young wives: Assumed the role of provider and imposed control and discipline. These husbands—especially those who were significantly older—also held attitudes associated with being a girl’s father figure, such as wanting to “teach” girls how to have sex and wanting to “give them what they never had.”

Many husbands and wives expressed opposition to child marriages, but social norms continue to support them, and they—and their impact on other development and hu- man rights issues—remain highly under-recognized in Brazil.

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 8 Programs that engage men and boys to end child marriage: A scan of approaches

In addition to working with girls and of their wives and daughters; they share responsibility for household and domestic tasks and they ensure, in a mothers, talk to the fathers and uncles shared decision-making capacity with their wives, that who make the decisions. their daughters and have the best possible opportu- nities to build a fulfilling and healthy future. —Archana Dwivedi, Nirantar, India In addition to this attitudinal shift, they learn that taking girls out of school early sets them and their families on a Why engage men and boys to end child path to poverty. They learn that girls are not physically, marriage? In a patriarchal society, in order to emotionally, or mentally ready to be wives and mothers, and that the impact of early marriage on their overall change the status quo, men and boys, as the health, and the health of their children, is harmed. As wielders of power both in the home and the men’s value and respect for women and girls increases, community, must be included in any efort to and as their perception and comprehension of the nega- change social norms, if the efort is to prog- tive consequences of a gendered power imbalance grows, they will not want to see any harm come to the women ress and continue beyond the duration of the in their lives. This is how we get men to help stop child program. Their understanding of what it means marriage. to be a man and of the roles embedded within Since unequal and harmful gender and social norms are that understanding—, husband, father, socially constructed, it is possible to teach norms that are partner—needs to shift toward a desire to be equitable and promote fairness. Well-evaluated and well- caring, respectful, supportive, non-violent, to designed programs, though limited in reach, show that share decision-making and domestic duties adult men and husbands can be encouraged and sup- and not to instill or use control ported to adopt behavior that will delay child marriage or mitigate its negative efects on child wives. This section tactics. And the women in their lives and their reviews programs working with men and boys to prevent community should expect, celebrate and en- or mitigate child marriage. courage this. Working with boys and brothers Interventions working to alter unequal gender and social Parents, peer groups, and other norms help males of all ages who may hold some gender socialize boys to adopt gender-specific attitudes and inequitable attitudes to understand the benefits of behaviors. As are those for girls, these gender norms often adopting more equitable attitudes in all aspects of their dictate rigid, socially constructed roles that have negative lives, an understanding which is key to preventing child consequences for women and girls, and for men and boys marriage. Being a good husband and father should not themselves.36 In most societies, the notion of a real man be defined as earning an income, or intimidating those is associated with risky sexual behaviors, violence and around you; it means valuing, and therefore respecting a of care work. Male often have no space and supporting one’s wife and children, especially girls, to question these norms. The evidence shows that with as much as oneself and other males. Therefore, fathers adequate support, boys (and men) can adopt equitable and other older male relatives, typically those making attitudes and behaviors, which are associated with protec- marriage decisions, start to value education for their tive efects against harmful practices and acts of gender- daughters as much as for their sons; they listen to and based violence; better sexual and reproductive health respect the thoughts and feelings, hopes and dreams, (SRH) outcomes; greater involvement in domestic chores;

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 9 and better education outcomes for girls.37,38,39 More re- Project in Uganda was developed by the Institute of search is needed on boys’ perceptions of marriage, but we Reproductive Health at Georgetown University, Save briefly describe some recent findings from young grooms’ the Children, and Pathfinder International, as well as perspectives later in the paper. local partners. It targets very young adolescents (aged 10 to 14) and unmarried and newly married and - ’s Choices worked with very ing adolescents (aged 15 to 19) and young adults (aged young adolescents (youth aged 10 to 14) to question 19 and older), as well as their communities, to promote gender roles and norms. This is an important time to gender-equitable attitudes and sexual and reproduc- intervene since young people’s attitudes and beliefs are tive health (SRH), transform gender norms and reduce still forming, allowing them to question harmful gender gender-based violence.43 The interventions are based on 40 and social norms. The program was piloted in children’s the life-course perspective and seek to engender more clubs in a district in using trained facilitators to im- equitable and healthy behaviors within each group, in plement age-appropriate participatory activities, such as addition to encouraging community involvement so as to taking photos portraying gender inequalities, to explore provide an enabling environment for such gender norm and discuss the unequal gender norms—and their feelings change. GREAT involved multiple components, including: about them—in their community. Statistically significant results showed the program to be efective at promot- ■ Engaging community leaders engaging in dialogue ing more gender-equitable attitudes and behaviors about changes they would like to see in the community among participating boys and girls. For example, more and how to make them happen; participants felt that daughters should have the same opportunities as sons to go to school or to work outside ■ Training Village Health Teams to strengthen their ser- the home, and parents of participants reported their sons vices for SRH and reduce the stigma attached to this, discussing their desire for equality for their sisters. By as well as providing more gender-sensitive services for creating an opportunity for these youth to explore new all community members; ideas and question previous ones, they were socialized ■ Producing Oteka, a serial radio drama reflecting the diferently, ideally in ways that will support more gender- challenges community members face and promot- equitable attitudes and behaviors throughout their lives.41 ing community involvement in gender equality, sexual Working with young men and future husbands and reproductive health and combating gender-based violence; Jagriti Youth works in India, specifically with unmarried youth aged 10 to 21 in areas with low information, high ■ Generating radio discussion guides for the adoles- rates of anti-female and anti-child practices, and weak cents of each age group to discuss the themes in the state systems and services.42 The youth are trained with program and how they apply to their lives; as well as life skills and encouraged to make their voices heard and activity cards, a community engagement game, and to make informed decisions about the issues they face a coming-of-age book for very young adolescents to as they become adults, as well as to lead by example in help them understand the changes in their lives and groups they form, and to train and mobilize their com- adopt more gender-equitable behaviors. munities to end harmful practices. By providing them CARE’s Tipping Point program works in Bangladesh and with livelihood skills, encouraging entrepreneurship and Nepal to understand the “demand” side of child marriage: informing them of their rights and the negative impact the grooms and their families looking for young brides. of some social practices, Jagriti Youth hopes to break the Unmarried adolescent boys in both countries stated a cycle of poverty as well as help participants avoid harmful preference to marry later, when they become self-reliant. practices such as child marriage. Boys with more education also preferred to marry girls with more education. Like girls, however, boys do not The Gender Roles, Equality, and Transformations (GREAT)

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 10 have much decision-making power regarding their mar- tions of child marriage, but even as brothers, uncles, and riages, unless they are contributing financially to the fam- mentors, these men and boys also exert considerable ily. Additionally, mothers of sons expressed a preference direct influence on women and girls. When men and for younger daughters-in-law since they are more likely boys ascribe greater value to girls’ education and more to do what they are told. Where boys’ and girls’ aspira- equitable roles in decision-making, there are measurable tions difer from those their parents have from them, benefits for girls, for families, and for men themselves.46 boys can have the power to shift marriage expectations. Thus, Tipping Point works with groups of boys and girls As part of the MenCare campaign, Promundo and World using a gender synchronized approach to think critically Vision adapted the Program P curriculum to engage about masculinity and power and build knowledge and fathers in India in the promotion of gender equality in the skills in leadership, gender, power, and sexuality, self- home and the prevention of child marriage. The goal of awareness and interpersonal communication.44 the A More Equal Future: A MenCare Manual to Engage Fathers to Prevent curriculum is to The International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), encourage men, their partners and daughters, to reflect along with local partners, developed the Development upon the cultural and gender norms that devalue girls Initiative Supporting Healthy Adolescents (DISHA) in and present barriers to men’s participation as caring, India.45 The program activities encouraged youth par- involved fathers. Some of the fathers’ groups’ objectives ticipation and sought to improve young people’s SRH included improving men’s understanding of how gender through access to information and services, as well as to inequality influences relationships between men and reduce the social and economic constraints that restrain women and supports child marriage, encouraging men’s their choices and actions, such as strict gender norms. caregiving in relationships and in the home—such as The program used youth groups, peer education, youth sharing domestic household duties and financial decision- income-generation opportunities, community mobiliza- making—and supporting girls’ education. Traditional gen- tion with community leaders and youth, adult groups der roles were found among participants, with men not and youth-adult partnership groups, youth-friendly sharing in any or housework, girls’ education reproductive health services and NGO capacity building not being prioritized since they will go to another family for sustainability. Some of the program’s behavior- and and it is sons who will support their family, and interest- knowledge/attitude-change benefits included the age of ingly, some women, mainly mothers-in-law (who in South marriage increasing by almost two years (from close to Asian culture hold much power over their daughters-in- 16 to almost 18); a 30 percent increase in the number of law and sons47), objecting to women’s economic activities male and female youth who knew the legal marriage age outside the home and men’s increased participation in for girls, as well as a 30 percent increase in the number of the home, finding these to be indications that they some- youth believing that girls should wait to marry until they how had failed in their duties as a woman. are at least 18 years old (from 66 percent to 94 percent of males); and among adults exposed to DISHA, there was Despite the existence of strict gender roles and expecta- an increase from 48 percent at baseline to 83 percent tions, the study found that the men’s groups were aware at endline believing that girls should wait until age 18 or of gender inequalities and the need for change. This find- older to marry. ing suggested the potential efcacy of strategies such as awareness-raising within the family and community Working with fathers to influence social norms; promoting girls’ education; Working with fathers seems an especially promising promoting economic resources for families to mitigate route for action. Approximately four out of five men will the economic factors that lead to child marriage; police become fathers in their lifetimes. All males, from early involvement and enforcement of laws; organizing groups childhood to late adulthood, will interact with other males to educate fathers about the need to prevent child mar- of diferent ages. These interactions shape male percep- riage; and providing couples a chance to discuss child

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 11 marriage. Activities and indicators were created, and a Working with husbands of young brides five-day training took place, involving fathers and couples Eforts to address child wives have often ignored their in gender-transformative group education in which par- husbands. In many settings, child brides are socially ticipants could utilize the objectives they developed, and excluded, and engaging child brides without a consider- finalize the outcomes for engagement of fathers. Sessions ation for their partners’ influence on girls’ social capital, included topics such as gender roles in society, power education, health, and fertility regulation may not yield and early marriage, household decision-making, and the sustainable results. Opportunities exist to adapt and to influence of fathers during formative years.48 pilot efective group-education activities that engage The Promises Curriculum, developed by Save the Children men and boys in HIV prevention, family planning, and vio- and used in Nepal, seeks to encourage parents to engage lence prevention in the context of child marriage. These in more gender-equitable behavior so as not to pass on materials should include guidance on how to work with the imbalance of negative gender roles to their children. husbands and fathers, young and old. This intervention uses three evidence-based approaches Adult men and husbands can be engaged in eforts to to influence people’s behavior: -based messages, delay child marriage or to mitigate its negative ef- word-of-mouth marketing, and ‘influence principles’. fects on child wives. Dynamics of power within couples Posters with the desired behavior-change messages were are shaped by social norms that set roles for men and placed strategically around the community in gathering women, but also by spousal gaps in education, sexual spots and changed regularly to maintain people’s interest experience, and health information. 50 and influence them toward the desired behaviors. Influen- Addis Birhan (Amharic for ‘New Light’) works with mar- tial members of the community (teachers, social workers, ried men in Ethiopia on issues concerning harmful gender etc.) were identified by local NGOs to talk about the is- norms, relationships, caring for children and families, SRH sues. The first element of the intervention was promoting and gender-based violence.51 Developed by the Popula- girls’ education—again, using emotion-based benefits, tion Council and the Amhara Regional Bureau of Youth for parents and their children—with the desired behavior and , the program trained male mentors with at change being parents’ support for their daughters to least six years of education to mobilize groups of married finish school before marriage. Poster topics included girls’ men (25 to 30 men in a group) within the community to hopes and dreams for their future; parents’ hopes and meet weekly. The program encourages non-judgmental dreams for their daughters; personal testimonials from dialogue, expression of one’s feelings and self-explora- educated women and their parents; lost opportunities for tion, and uses a curriculum with many pictures since the girls who were married early; community leaders’ opin- targeted participants are men with low levels of educa- ions about keeping girls in school; and parents commit- tion. Changes reported by both participants and their ting to keep their daughters in school. families included increased couple communication rather The second element of Promises focused on ending than only men directing their wives; men reported shar- domestic violence by promoting the vision of harmonious ing what they learned in the group with their wives and relationships and thoughtful and respectful communica- children, described changes in how they view the division tion, rather than violence, between husbands and wives. of labor within the home, and started taking on some These posters expressed the future dreams and hopes typically female responsibilities, such as fetching water, or of youth, their parents, and couples, for violence-free childcare. Over 130,000 married boys and men (ages 10 and respectful, caring relationships. In addition to using to 85) have participated in Addis Birhan, with the majority emotion-based appeals to reach people with empathy, between 25 and 39 years old. Therefore, many men of the this intervention creates a safe and familiar space for typical marriage age are changing their views on gender them to discuss and question their beliefs and behaviors relations, positively impacting the factors that often lead with other members of their community.49 to child marriage.

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 12 Mobilizing community members girls in Ethiopia. The program focused on providing ado- lescent married and unmarried girls with health informa- Since no group exists in a vacuum separated by sex, tion and services, empowerment, financial , and age or any other demographic characteristic, for any livelihood and negotiation skills. In their eforts to support norm-change interventions with men and boys, women married adolescent girls and to delay marriage for un- and girls, to be efective, the entire community must married girls, they trained community members, includ- be involved in the process. When we speak about an ing village elders, religious leaders and health workers enabling environment, this means community mem- through peer education methods. Through this process, bers are working together in support of the same goal. these community members reflected upon the factors Without creation of an enabling environment through leading to child marriage and how early marriages impact the mobilization of community members, those seeking girls’ and their families’ lives—a key element for catalyz- to change norms will be swimming upstream, against ing community change.53 the tide, rather than swimming downstream with it. Ad- ditionally, people tend to act in a group, following what Vikalp Sansthan works in the state of Rajasthan to they observe others doing; thus, a few individuals taking empower women and girls, and engages boys and men action become a small group which snowballs into a to help achieve a more equitable society.54 One of their community. Also, the more pervasive the messaging in goals is to end child marriage, for which they campaign the community, the greater the number of community to increase the value of girl children, and organize teams members exposed to the messages, as well as the greater of local youth and community leaders to address educa- the likelihood that community members internalize them. tion, marriage and girls’ rights in their communities. Vikalp involves many community stakeholders, including Breakthrough works in India and the U.S., using mass caste leaders, religious leaders, local government and media campaigns to mobilize communities to act against police ofcials, education institutions, -related gender-based violence.52 Currently, through their Nation service providers, and community youth and families in against Early Marriage campaign in Bihar and Jharkhand, participatory activities. They also advocate with police for they use street theater, mass media, community engage- enforcement of the Prevention of Child Marriage Act and ment, and youth leadership training to raise awareness of to stop child marriages. the harmful consequences of child marriage and to build cultural support for ending it. They train young people, MAMTA, a New Delhi-based NGO, works on a range of particularly men and boys, to be change agents, helping initiatives to improve the sexual and reproductive health create cultural norms for an environment accepting of and rights of marginalized communities in India.55 They alternatives to child marriage. Breakthrough’s strategies work to change public opinion about and prevent harmful include targeting men and boys as leaders of change traditional practices by empowering young people, mobi- within their communities to reject child marriage and lizing the community, networking and strengthening the promote rights for all; and focusing on increas- capacities of civil society organizations on child marriage, ing girls’ access to school and livelihood skills while also and strengthening the administrative systems for enforc- increasing their value as human beings, since women and ing laws and policies. MAMTA’s interventions promote girls’ lower status is a key driver of child marriage. more equitable norms as a prevention strategy, especially around definitions of masculinity, among marginalized and CARE Ethiopia implemented TESFA (“hope” in Amharic) vulnerable adolescents in rural settings. They use group or Towards Improved Economic and Sexual/Reproduc- education interventions to influence young men’s and tive Health Outcomes for Adolescent Girls, in the Amhara community gatekeepers’ attitudes toward gender roles. region, working with communities to mitigate the efects of child marriage by supporting ever-married adolescent ’s Community Empowerment Program56 has

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 13 teachers, religious and community leaders, and these lo- As custodians of culture and tradition, cal leaders recognize and appreciate Plan’s presence. these leaders are held in high regard Engaging traditional and religious leaders by their communities, and can be to end child marriage influential advocates for change in Coexist Kenya, formed in 2002, is a network of men’s and boys’ organizations working to address multiple their communities. forms of gender-based violence, including child mar- riage. In 2012, Coexist worked with the men and boys of the Maasai Moran community, who became members of worked in Senegal, using a trained local facilitator within Coexist’s Changed Men Initative. They focused on working each village who belongs to the same ethnic group as with community elders to prevent the socially-accepted community members. Classes for youth and adults meet of girls, child marriage and female genital mutila- weekly and use modern non-formal education techniques tion (FGM). The community elders praised the men who to ensure everyone’s participation, as well as traditional had joined the Coexist Initiative, and girls who had been African traditions such as theater, dance, storytelling and married returned to school; and in 2012, in the strict song so that lessons are more easily absorbed by com- Kaya community, no one under the age of eighteen was munity members. In addition to learning life skills such married. They also saw an increase in the number of men as literacy, math and management skills, they discuss supportive of gender equality and girls’ and women’s issues such as , human rights, problem-solving, empowerment. 58 and understanding ways to maintain proper health. By The Zambian government has launched an important ini- discussing new ideas and practices within an open and tiative with chiefs and tribal leaders. As custodians of cul- familiar environment, participants feel more comfortable ture and tradition, these leaders are held in high regard with the facilitator and each other as they discuss build- by their communities, and can be influential advocates ing a healthier community. for change in their communities. The Ministry of Chiefs Plan mobilizes children and communities in Bangladesh and Traditional Afairs has worked with First Lady Dr. to prevent child marriage.57 Using a Child-Centered Com- Christine Kaseba, the and other support munity Development (CCCD) approach in which children to launch a nationwide campaign to end child marriage.59 are key participants, Plan also engages other stakehold- Traditional leaders in Zambia are increasingly using public ers such as parents, community leaders and government forums to educate their communities about the harmful ofcers. They raise awareness about child rights and the consequences of child marriage and calling for the arrest negative impact of child marriage; even children who and prosecution of people perpetuating it. For example, were not members of the children’s organization were Princess Kapuwamba of the Lotzi people in Western aware of Plan’s messages. The most reported increased Zambia, who is a commissioner at the Human Rights awareness was of the danger to girls’ health and de- Commission and at The Law Development Commission velopment. Plan also partners with local government in Zambia, speaks with parents and community leaders institutions to identify and celebrate child marriage-free about the negative efects of marrying their children at villages, emphasizing publicly the importance of chang- an early age. By engaging in discussions with parents and ing such norms, as well as supporting the government ‘s community leaders, she maintains, sustainable solutions eforts to institute online birth registration, which makes can be developed collaboratively. Another local leader, it more difcult to falsify a child’s age and birth certificate Chief Mpezeni, created a school scholarship fund to assist once it is on record. Plan’s CCCD approach also links with vulnerable children, particularly girls, to stay in school

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 14 and avoid an early marriage. Chief Simamba believes percent were willing to use the tools developed with their that, to end the practice, those marrying their daughters congregations. In Ethiopia, 100 percent of Christian and early should be punished, and has called on other local 93 percent of Muslim faith leaders who participated in the leaders to report all cases of child marriage to authori- training were engaging their congregants. ties. He also encourages parents to stop early marriages Additional resources of interest include: so young girls can receive their education and reach their aspirations. ■ The Ethiopian Orthodox Church’s Development Bible, produced in collaboration with UNFPA and the Popula- Religious leaders, often men, are uniquely positioned tion Council. In many remote rural Ethiopian communi- to make a diference. Their views influence those of ties, churches and mosques are the only institutions their congregations and communities. Given their social with which they have regular contact. The patriarch of networks, religious leaders are pivotal intermediaries be- the Ethiopian Orthodox Church decreed the writing tween communities and administrators at various levels of the Development Bible to take advantage of the of government. Places of worship (churches, mosques, church’s reach to convey health and development mes- temples) are often the only institutions with which people sages to its congregants via trained priests.61 An initial have contact in an ongoing way, particularly in rural evaluation showed positive efects on knowledge and Africa. Engaging faith-based institutions and individual commitments of the priests.62 religious leaders can support the development of gender- equitable messages that discourage early marriage, ■ UNICEF and for Peace. 2010. From Commit- promote girls’ development, and support ment to Action: What Religious Communities Can Do To change. Some child marriage interventions have worked Eliminate Violence Against Children. New York: UNICEF. with community and traditional leaders to discourage This volume references child marriage as an important child marriage, and sometimes other related practices, traditional practice that is perpetrated “without a primary such as FGM, but more research is needed to determine intention of violence” but reflects deeply rooted discrimi- the impact of these on girls’ lives. nation against women and girls. It ofers many ways that religious leaders can engage in ending diverse forms of The Center for Interfaith Action (CIFA), with Nike Founda- violence against children. tion support, sought to empower faith leaders in Ethiopia and with the knowledge and tools to change at- Publicizing the example of prominent individuals titudes and behaviors around child marriage and female who are positive deviants genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), a common prerequi- site to marriage.60 Because, in settings with low levels of Positive deviants are individuals who decide to act as education, faith and religious leaders hold an important change agents, going against harmful community norms role in their communities, often shaping people’s beliefs to adopt and promote positive behaviors that are benefi- and behaviors with rationalizations based on culture and/ cial for themselves and their communities. Because they or tradition, CIFA worked with them to change their at- are members of the communities they are able to ques- titudes, and together, to develop tools the faith leaders tion norms in culturally relevant and sensitive ways that could use with their congregants in order to change their do not alienate others, often while demonstrating the beliefs and behaviors. The program shifted faith leaders’ benefits of the changes they embody. Men and boys play attitudes on child marriage from 40 percent in favor of a key role in standing up against child marriage and other eliminating it to between 93 and 100 percent in favor of forms of gender-based violence and and its elimination in Ethiopia (Muslim and Christian); and in encouraging their peers and communities to do the same. Nigeria, at baseline, 25 percent of the faith leaders were Saidal Pazhwak, an Afghan father of two girls, works with in favor of eliminating child marriage and at endline, 80

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 15 the Welfare Association for the Development of Afghani- Qamar Naseem, born into a very conservative family in stan, which has trained over 10,000 women teachers and , co-founded Blue Veins in 1999. They initially over 30,000 local leaders, on the importance of girls’ worked to raise awareness of breast cancer, but he and education. He believes girls have a right to pursue their the staf realized there were deeper issues surrounding education.63 women’s control of their own bodies that needed to be addressed. Despite threats from the community, Blue Ziauddin Yousafzai, Malala Yousafzai’s father, exempli- Veins grew into a women’s empowerment program that fies “positive deviance” in his strong support of girls’ included women and men. Community support groups education, which he instilled in his . Malala’s own were formed to bring women and men together to accomplishments and her response to the difculties she discuss community issues, such as delaying marriage for has faced have highlighted Mr. Yousafzai’s unusual vision girls, participated in training sessions and spoke 64 and commitment. at local community gatherings. Over 300 community support groups have been established. Additionally, Youssef is an 18-year-old from Egypt who Qamar and Blue Veins have brought communities belongs to a youth group campaigning against child mar- together to rebuild the schools bombed by Islamic riage and helping girls to leave their forced marriages.65 militants who reject girls’ education and control the After seeing several classmates leave school against their region. During the destructive flood of 2010, which will and endure unhealthy pregnancies, Youssef wanted created a humanitarian emergency, Qamar urged camp to help them and prevent other girls, such as his 15-year- ofcials to respond to women’s unique needs (such as old , from the same experience. reproductive health services and supplies) and to monitor the situation for an increase in child marriages that might By excluding men, programmes fail to result from families seeking protection for their daughters amid the insecurity. 66 create an atmosphere in which change— especially on sensitive issues—can be nurtured. – Qamar Naseem, Blue Veins, Pakistan

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 16 Conclusions and recommendations

As decision-makers and potential husbands, constraints to their individual desires to marry young men and boys are central to any efort to end women who are a bit older. child marriage. Though marriage generally ■ Fathers and other senior male relatives play important requires the participation of both men and roles in negotiating and deciding on matches that are advantageous for the family. women, a concern with the rights and em- powerment of vulnerable girls has focused the ■ Religious leaders play a dual role, directly ofciating field more narrowly on them than is strate- marriages that may involve children, and more indi- rectly influencing community opinion with their views gic. Marriage especially calls attention to the and actions. limitations of this focus on one sex. Marriage ■ Male community members reflect the peer context transactions are resolved in a market, a mar- for individual and family decisions about marriage, ket where individuals and families of brides schooling, health care and other issues. These men can and grooms find and negotiate linkages with support or discourage marriage-related decisions taken grooms and brides. A broader perspective by others in the community. that takes the full range of players in the ■ Male teachers, health care providers and local govern- marriage market into account is likely to be ment ofcials are often influential in communities and more advantageous. their actions and opinions can have an important influ- ence on public opinion. Two key themes that require more systematic focus in Relatively few programs are working directly with men work with men and boys are 1) the cultural construction and boys to stop child marriage. This review has identi- of sexuality, since it helps to shape preferences for young, fied some interesting examples, however, though many malleable wives and significant spousal age gaps; and 2) have not yet been evaluated. Some of the most promis- the structural drivers of the age gap between , ing work involves changing norms among adolescent including young men’s difculties in transitioning to adult boys and in communities, and engaging traditional and roles that include paid employment. One of the reasons religious leaders in their roles as authority figures and as for the age gap is that men cannot get married until ofciants. they have work, and older men are more likely to have achieved stable employment. IMAGES-Mali for example A number of specific recommendations emerge found that younger men were frustrated at the older men from this review. who married their female age-mates. This may represent Work with boys from an early age to challenge and an opportunity for discussion around the favoring of change norms regarding gender and sexuality. One key elders over young people in the context of patriarchy. programmatic approach is to address early marriage in the context of comprehensive sexuality education. Which men are we talking about when we advocate for Adolescence is a key age at which to engage boys in light engaging men and boys in ending child marriage? Several of their emerging sexuality and the increasing opportuni- categories of men are especially important to involve: ties they face to reinforce or question inequitable gender

■ Grooms represent the demand side of child marriage; norms. Programs should provide children and adolescents though some of them may also be children, many if of all ages with in-school (teachers, administrators) and not most are not. We need to understand much more out-of-school (mentors, peer groups, positive deviants) about their preference for very young brides, and the support and safe spaces to question and discuss the chal- lenges they face, including child marriage.

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 17 Work with boys as grooms and potential grooms. Be- health workers are trained to monitor for child marriage cause families often have higher expectations for boys, cases and gender-based violence, stopping by homes it may be productive to challenge the practice of child and educating families about the benefits of delaying marriage by focusing more attention on the experiences marriage. Teachers and heads of school should be em- of young grooms. Boys who marry young do not experi- powered by local government ofcials to talk to families ence some of the negative consequences that girls do, about the negative consequences of child marriage, and but many end up with less education or employment to monitor/report possible child marriage cases. Work training when fatherhood leads them to assume roles as with ministries of education and other appropriate min- providers. istries to develop curricula that promote more equitable gender norms, challenge discrimination and discourage Foster community spaces and activities to engage young child marriage, and train teachers and administrators to boys and girls given that school generally does not fill teach and implement these curricula. the day and is not fully engaging. There are few positive, healthy spaces children and adolescents can go to spend Support and celebrate positive deviants in their eforts time with peers. Creation of these activities would need and help them recruit others to this cause. Get them into to be done in ways that do not generate conflict with par- schools to talk to , families, teachers and ad- ents who limit children’s mobility. Examples could include ministrators; support them in health facilities; encourage sports, dance, arts and culture and other activities that them to seek invitations to speak in houses of worship. If could be complemented by education on transforming there are positive deviants in local government or espe- gender norms, relationships and sexuality. cially traditional and religious leaders, celebrate the steps they have taken and encourage them to continue their Target interventions at the fathers of adolescent boys important work and to reach out to others. and girls. Raise aspirations of fatherhood beyond their roles as providers and decision-makers. In addition, Engage male community members more systematically. fathers could have so much to share and discuss with This requires reaching out to them in places that are their sons. Reaching parents and youth alike in ways that meaningful to and frequented by men, to include sports encourage discussion on healthy relationships and ap- venues, health service centers, schools, places of worship, propriate sexual behavior. In the Latin American context, public administration facilities and in the businesses that this could drive discussions of shared responsibility for provide services for . Another approach is to contraceptive use, rather than an overemphasis on losing organize community conversations involving positive virginity and the need for early marriage as a conse- deviants within religious or traditional institutions, health quence. care providers, educational settings and local govern- ment. Local authorities could propose how they might Provide gender transformative training for local govern- implement the ideas discussed and community members ment ofcials and traditional leaders. As the work in would hold them accountable. Zambia has shown, a systematic approach to raising the awareness of leaders—and encouraging them to Conduct more research on the roles of men and boys in address child marriage in ways that work in their com- child marriage and the programs that are evolving to end munities—can have very positive efects. These leaders, the practice. What measures are adequate to capture the most of whom are men, mediate between the law and its impact of working with men and boys? Is it enough to implementation, and are essential to engage in eforts to measure the impact of programs on the knowledge and end child marriage. attitudes that men hold? If we wish to go beyond attitudi- nal change, how can we measure the impact of work with Provide training on child marriage for professionals in men and boys on the lives of of marrying? the health and education sectors. Work with ministries A second major area for more research is to study the of health to ensure that all clinical staf and community way male and female sexuality are defined in diferent

ENGAGING MEN AND BOYS TO END THE PRACTICE OF CHILD MARRIAGE 18 settings. The cultural construction of sexuality is funda- leaders and government ofcials will amplify the many mental to structuring sexual relationships, and supports good programs that currently focus on women and girls. much of the inequality in these relationships. Only by engaging men and boys in gender transforma- tive ways can we systematically challenge the inequality The limited attention that men and boys have received and discrimination faced by girls and young women who in the global movement to end child marriage ofers an marry as children, address the difculties experienced by enormous opportunity. Their engagement as individu- boys who marry as children, and improve a host of health als, family members, community members, health and and development outcomes. education workers, employees, traditional and religious

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