Language and Early Schooling in Goa
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LANGUAGE AND EARLY SCHOOLING IN GOA AfoiAso Ntawuel, Thesis Submitted for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology o6.-41-z2 r..ove.fte, oT Lan .Sadrts cw A 5-ww.n.01A kiW/ , Ti\T- 3 G 3 bi E---_54(mit,Qitzuconk:‘ viu; 131Col2er -b7 G rJ .A 14.-ro 194, .6 l; FLT (-7 1°107)07- Department of Sociology &Oludia 5:4414,4 Goa University VtuAJA GOA 2007 363 ll DECLARATION Afonso Manuel Botelho, hereby declare that this thesis entitled 'Language and Early Schooling in Goa' is the outcome of my own study undertaken under the guidance of Dr. Ganesha Somayaji, Reader and Head, Department of Sociology, Goa University, Goa. It has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma or certificate of this or any other university. I have duly acknowledged all the sources used by me in the preparation of this thesis. N f / \ ,f' io \ 4 ' • 1 , i t. I i, „,„ `I ie_ff--. i!‘,4 i 20el7 N \ ., ., . i 1 1-'3 / s.\\, --__-'_.- Place: Goa University 9 o Afonso Manuel Botelho ---,,---. -.„;.---- Date: /3/b0 /2 crp? ifi CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled 'Language and Early Schooling in Goa' is the record of the original work done by Afonso Manuel Botelho under my guidance. The results of the research presented in this thesis have not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma or certificate of this or any other university. Place: Goa University Dr. Ganesha Somayaji Reader and Head Date: i 31t191 Department of Sociology Goa University, Goa iv CONTENTS List of Tables vii List of Photos and Maps Preface and Acknowledgement xii 1. Introduction 1 Elementary Education: Constitutional Directive and Right 1 Enrolment, Retention and Learner Achievement in Primary Education 3 Decentralisation and Privatisation 6 Early Schooling in Goa 11 The Problem 14 Objectives 21 Methodology 22 Significance and Limitations of Study 32 Organisation of the Thesis 33 2. Language and Early Schooling in Goa: An Historical Perspective 40 Beyond Colonial and Contemporary Historiography 41 Imposition of Portuguese in Education for Domination 45 Konkani and Education in Konkani 53 Marathi for Devotion and Marathi in Education 63 Mobility Aspirations and English Education 68 Concluding Remarks 77 3. Language and Early Schooling: Perspectives in Sociology of Language 82 Language, Education Policy and Civil Society 84 Education in Mother Tongue 98 4. Language and Early Schooling: Perspectives in Sociology of Education 115 Necessity of Schooling and. Economic Nationalism 117 Marketisation of Education 123 Language and Education in India 131 Grand Theorising to Context-Specific Form of Theorising 139 Structuration Theory and Sociology of Education 140 5. Demography of Goa and Some Characteristics of the Sample 144 Location and Demographic Profile 144 Educational Statistics at a Glance 151 Some Characteristics of the Sample 155 6. Social Status and Language Choice at Early Schooling 174 Socio-Economic Status Index 174 Social Status and Educational Realities 179 Social Status and Parental Aspirations 185 Social Status and Choice 192 7. Resistance and Negotiation: Teachers and Language Use in the Classroom 215 Characteristics of Teachers 215 Medium of Instruction and Use of Other Languages 228 vi 8. Policy versus Practice: Whither Educational Practice in Goa? 242 Introduction of the New Medium of Instruction Policy 242 Mother Tongue and Regional Language: Are They Equally Efficacious? 249 Mother Tongue: Devanagari or Romi Script? 254 Language Hotchpotch during Early Schooling 262 Medium of Instruction during Early Schooling and Academic Achievement 265 Pronounced Preference for English during Early Schooling 268 Denial of Grants to English Medium and Reproduction of Inequality 274 Language-in-Education Policy: A Failure? 276 Perspectives on Medium of Instruction Policy 281 By Way of Conclusion 288 9. Summary and Conclusion 291 Language and Education in Goa 293 Social Analyses of Language and Education 299 Parental Choice and Teachers' Response 307 Evaluation of Education Policy 316 Appendices 324 1. Interview Schedule for Parents 324 2. Interview Schedule for Teachers 330 3. Interview with Language Protagonists/Educationists/Activists 333 4. Primary Level Schools in Salcete and Bicholim 335 5. Selected Schools from Salcete and Bicholim 344 6. Grading of Occupations into Status Groups 346 References and Bibliography 349 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 5.1: Population of Goa and Decadal Growth Rate 145 Table 5.2: Area of Districts and Talukas and Taluka-wise Population (2001) 146 Table 5.3: Religion-wise Population of Goa (1960-2001) 147 Table 5.4: Religion-wise Population of the Districts 148 Table 5.5: Percentage Distribution of Population by Religion in Talukas 149 Table 5.6: Population by Languages Spoken as Mother Tongue 150 Table 5.7: Literacy Rates in Urban/Rural Areas of Talukas 151 Table 5.8: Enrolment in Different Media for the Years 1982-83 to 2005-2006 154 Table 5.9: No. of Primary Schools in Different Media in 2002-2003 155 Table 5.10: Parents by MOI 155 Table 5.11: The Urban-Rural Composition of Govt. Aided and Unaided Schools 157 Table 5.12: Locality of Schools, Existing Schools and No. of Schools Selected 159 Table 5.13: Locality and No. of Parents Interviewed 159 Table 5.14: Parents by Type of Schools 159 Table 5.15: Native State, the Type of School and the MOI 162 Table 5.16: Parents' Mother Tongue and MOI in the Two Talukas 168 Table 5.17: Parents' Religion 169 Table 5.18: MOI of the Father and the Child at Primary Level 171 Table 5.19: MOI of the Fathers' Secondary Education and MOI of the Child 172 Table 6.1: Father's Qualifications in Salcete and Bicholim 176 Table 6.2: Mother's Qualifications in Salcete and Bicholim 177 viii Table 6.3: Parental Income in Salcete and Bicholim 178 Table 6.4: Socio-Economic Status Index 179 Table 6.5: Parents by Social Status, Type of School and MOI 183 Table 6.6: Religion, Social Status and the MOI 184 Table 6.7a: Social Status and Parental Aspirations for Children's Education 186 Table 6.7b: Social Status and Parental Aspirations for Children's Education 187 Table 6.8a: Social Status and Parental Aspirations for Children's Employment 188 Table 6.8b: Social Status and Parental Aspirations for Children's Employment 189 Table 6.8c: Social Status and Parental Aspirations for Children's Employment 190 Table 6.8d: Social Status and Parental Aspirations for Children's Employment 191 Table 6.9: Reasons Determining Choice of School by Social Status in Salcete 192 Table 6.10: Reasons Determining Choice of School by Social Status in Bicholim 193 Table 6.11a: Social Status, Language Characteristics and Choice of School 196 Table 6.11 b: Social Status/School Characteristics Determining Choice of School 197 Table 6.11 c: Social Status and Other Reasons Determining the Choice of School 198 Table 6.12: Social Status, MOI and Preference for English in Salcete and Bicholim 205 Table 6.13: Parents' Reasons for Preference of a Particular Medium 206 Table 6.14a: Social Status and Other Reasons for Preference for English Medium 206 Table 6.14b: Social Status and Other Reasons for Preference for English Medium 207 Table 6.15: Social Status and Other Reasons for Preference for Konkani Medium 208 Table 6.16: Social Status and Other Reasons for Preference for Marathi Medium 209 Table 6.17: MOI and the Village/Town of Schooling 210 ix Table 6.18: MOI and Reasons for not Studying in the Same Village/Town 211 Table 6.19: Aspirations/Characteristics of Medium and Low Status Parents with Children in English Medium Schools 212 Table 7.1: No. of Schools and Teachers Interviewed 216 Table 7.2: Type of Institutions and No. of Teachers Interviewed 217 Table 7.3: MOI in Schools and No. of Teachers Interviewed 223 Table 7.4: Classes Taught by the Teachers 225 Table 7.5: Qualification of the Teachers 225 Table 7.6: Teachers' Training Course 226 Table 7.7: Religious Composition of the Teachers 227 Table 7.8: Mother Tongue of the Teachers 227 Table 7.9: MOI Preferred by the Teachers 228 Table 7.10: Early Schooling, MOI and Children's Understanding of the MOI 229 Table 7.11: Early Schooling, the MOI and the Need for Use of Other Language 232 Table 7.12: Early Schooling, the MOI and Additional Languages Used 234 LIST OF PHOTOS AND MAPS Photos 195 Photo 6.1: Govt. Primary School with Single Teacher Konkani Medium Primary Classroom 195 Photo 7.1: Govt. Primary School in Marathi in Municipal Area of Bicholim 218 Photo 7.2: Govt. Primary School with Two Classrooms, Two Media (Konkani and Urdu) and Primary Classes from Ito IV of both Media Conducted in Single Classroom each 218 Photo 7.3: Pvt. Aided Primary Classes (Standard I and IV) in one Classroom 219 Photo 7.4: Pvt. Aided Primary Classroom (Konkani) in a Pvt. Unaided Pre-primary and Aided Primary School 219 Photo 7.5: Govt. Middle and Primary School 220 Photo 7.6: Pvt. Aided H. School and Pvt. Aided Primary School in Marathi in Panchayat Area of Bicholim 220 Photo 7.7: Pvt. Aided H. School with Pvt. Aided Primary (Konkani) and Unaided Pre-primary School (English) in Panchayat Area of Salcete 221 Photo 7.8: Pvt. Aided H. School with Pvt. Aided Primary School (Konkani) and Unaided Pre-primary School (English) in Municipal Area of Salcete 221 Photo 7.9: Pvt. Aided H. School with Pvt. Unaided Primary School and Pre-primary School (English) in Bicholim 222 Photo 7.10: Pvt. Unaided Primary and Pre-primary School (English) in Municipal Area of Salcete 222 xi Photo 7.11: A Classroom in a Pvt.