395

Comment as human food Gene DeFoliart discusses some nutritional and economic aspects

Lusaka and the Copperbelt (900km) to buy During the past few years there has been a new upsurge of interest in insects as food. One the foodstuff and sell it at a much higher price factor that may be responsible is an increasing awareness in the western world that insects when they go back. are traditional and nutritionally important many non-European cultures. Other foods for Chavunduka (1975) noted that in sev- factors may be increased pride in ethnic roots and traditions, increased concern about environment and overuse of pesticides, and better communication among scientists who are eral arcas of Zimbabwe, some families interested in the subject. Edible insects may be closer now than ever before to acceptance 'make a fairly good living from selling in the western world as a resource that should be considered in ftying to meet the v'orld's caterpillars'. pr e s ent and fut ure ;fbo d nee ds. Insects are not only sold widely in the village markets ol the developing world, but many of the favourites Traditional use and economic the early 1980s, annual sales of make their way to urban markets and importance in non-European mopanie entering commerce were esti- restaurants. Conconi (1982), who has cultures mated by the South African Bureau of proposed the'industrialization' of Standards to be 1600t; this did not edible insects in Mexico, notes that in Insects have played an important part include those privately collected and l98l the demand for'escamoles' in the history of human nutrition in consumed (Dreyer and Wehmeyer, (immature stages of the ant, Liometo- Africa, Asia and Latin America 1982). Currently, hundreds oftons of pum apiculatum Mayr.) was so great (Bodenheimer, 1951). They were an mopanie are exported annually from that the price per kilogram went up to equally important resource for the Botswana and South Africa to 1000 pesos (>US$2 at the then- Indians of western North America, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A similar prevailing exchange rate). She states who, like other indigenous groups, caterpillar trade, involving other (translation): expended much organization and species, exists further north in Africa. effort in harvesting them (Sutton, The Yansi people of central Zaire In Tlaxcoapan... they are sold in restaurants like El Prendes. Las Meninas, Delmonicos, 1988). Hundreds ofspecies have been are not atypical other indigenous of and Bellinghaussen, where 2 tacos with 50 used as human food. Some of the groups, and the importance with grams of ants cost 300 pesos. They are served more important groups include grass- which they regard their caterpillars is fried or with black butter, but the best way is hoppers, caterpillars, beetle grubs and indicated by some of their sayings: fried with onions and garlic. (sometimes) adults, winged termites 'Caterpillars and meat play the same Two other insects that are found in (some of which are very large in the role in the human body', and, 'As urban restaurants of Mexico, and tropics), bee, wasp and ant brood food, caterpillars are regulars in the were formerly exported to the United (larvae and pupae) as well as winged village but meat is a stranger'(Muyay, States and Europe, are the white ants, cicadas, and a variety ofaquatic l98l). There are also children's songs maguey 'worm' (larva of the hesper- insects. Ordinarily, insects are not about eating caterpillars. One of these rid, Aegiale hesperiaris Kirby) and used as emergency food to ward off contains the follo.,ving verse: 'Father ahuahutle or'Mexican caviar' (eggs of starvation, but are included as a plan- you have to give rne some "milee" several species of aquatic Hemiptera). ned part of the diet throughout the caterpillars. . .. Look at all the other However, both are in reduced num- year or when seasonally available. children with milee caterpillars that bers now - maguey larvae because of Among the numerous examples that their fathers gave them. . . . I'm going over-collectin g, and ahuahulle because could be cited, the Yukpa people of to bother you until you give me some' of urban pollution ol alkaline lakes. Colombia and Venezuela prefer cer- (Muyay, 1981). At present, two Asian insects are tain of their traditional foods to With reference to mumpa caterpil- being exported to Asian community fresh meat (Ruddle, 1973), as do the lars, which feed on Julbernardia food shops in the United States: these Pedi of South Africa (Quin, 1959). paniculata and several other common are the giant water bug (Lethocerus Indeed, Quin reported that when trees in the miombo woodland of indicus L. & S.) from Thailand (Pem- mopanie caterpillars (Gonimbrasia Zambia, Holden (1986) states: berton, 1988), and canned silkworm belinaWestwood) were in season, the pupaelBombyx mori (L.)l from South sale of beef was seriously affected. In One person can pick about 20 litres per day if Korea. the bush is rich in caterpillars, the value of picking Emeritus Professor Gene R. DeFoliart is at which in 1985 was K20. Thus 7 days' Nutritional value the Russell Laboratories of the Department should give K140 if all are sold and this is a of Entomology, University of Wisconsin, month's salary for a general worker in Zambia. Protein Madison, Wl, USA. Received 27 August 1991; Not strange that people travel 200-300 km to revised and accepted 17 April 1992 pick caterpillars. And traders come from In the dried form most frequentlY

0261 -21 I 4 / 92 / 05/0395-05 O 1992 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd 396 Comment found in village markets of the devel- a calorific value of T6lkcal similar to those of poultry and fish in oping world, insects are very high in (r3196kJ)/100g (dry, ash-free, their degree of unsaturation, with crude protein, many species ranging weight basis) for the winged sexual some groups being rather higher in above 60oh. As to protein quality, forms of the African termite, Macro- linoleic and/or linolenic acids, which Finke, DeFoliart and Benevenga termes falciger Gerstacker, while the are the essential fatty acids (DeFo- (1989) reported that the house cricket winged forms of another African liart,1991). lrAcheta domesticus (L.)], when fed to species, Macrotermes subhyalinus weanling rats, was superior to soy Rambur were found to contain protein as a source of amino acids at 613 kcal (r2575kJ)/100g (dry Vitamins and minerals all levels of intake. The Mormon weight) (Oliveira et a|.,1976). Ashiru cricket (Anabrus simplex Haldeman), (1988) reported a calorific value of In Angola, the caterpillar, Usta terpsi- a tettigoniid, was equivalent to soy 6llkcal (=2566kJ)/100g for the chore M. & W. (), was protein. Other investigators have caterpillar Anaphe venatq Butler found to be a rich source of iron, obtained similar results with a variety (Notodontidae) in Nigeria. Twenty- copper, zinc, thiamin (vitamin B1) and of insects in feeding trials with poul- three species of caterpillars in Zaire, riboflavin (Br); 100 g of cooked insect try. On the other hand, whole insects mostly Saturniidae, were found to provided > l00oh of the daily as a source of protein are of somewhat average 457 kcal ( * 19 19 kJ)/100 g dry requirement of each of these minerals lower quality than vertebrate weight, ranging from 397 to 543 kcal and vitamins (Oliveira et al., 1976). products because of the indigestibility (x1667-228lkJ) (Malaisse and Winged adults of the termite, Mauo- of chitin (Phelps, Struthers and Moyo, Parent, 1980). termes subhyalinus, are high in magne- 1975; Dreyer and Wehmeyer, 1982). Recent analyses of 94 of the insect sium and copper, and the palm weevil Despite this, Dreyer and Wehmeyer species consumed in Mexico also yiel- larva, Rhynchophorus phoenicis F., in conclude that, 'the consumption of ded high fat and caloric values zinc, thiamin and riboflavin. In each mopanie caterpillars lGonimbrasia (Ramos-Elorduy and Pino, 1990). case, 100g of these insects provided belinal can to a substantial degree Excluding pork, soybeans [at more than the minimum daily supplement the predominantly cereal 4660kcal (x19572kJ) kg- llwas the requirement. In Zaire, Kodondi, diet with many ol the protective highest ranking non-insect food Leclercq and Gaudin-Harding (1987) nutrients'. Removal of chitin increases tested, plant or animal. Maize was analysed three species of saturniid the quality ofinsect protein to a level found to have a value of 3700kcal caterpillars prepared by the tradi- 1. comparable to that of products from ( r I 5 540 kJ) kg- Of the insects tional techniques of smoking and vertebrate . Following alkali analysed, 50oh had a higher caloric drying, and found them to be high in extraction, the true digestibility of value than soybeans; 87% were higher riboflavin and niacin, but low in thia- protein concentrate obtained from than corn; 63o/o were higher than beef; min and pyridqxine (86). Feeding whole dried adult honey bees (Apis 70oh were higher than fish, lentils and trials confirmed that, except for thia- mellifera L.) was increased from beans; and 95o/o were higher than min and pyridoxine. the vitamins sup- 7 1.5% to 94.3oh,the protein efficiency wheat, rye or teosintle. The five high- plied by the caterpillars are sufficient ratio (PER) from L50 to2.47, and the est (caterpillars) of 16 to allow proper growth of young rats. net protein utilization (NPU) from species examined averaged 6594 The caterpillars studied by Malaisse 42.5 to 62.0. This compares with (x27 695kJ) kg- 1; the five highest and Parent (1980), also in Zaire, values of 96.8oh, 2.50 and 70.0, Coleoptera (beetle grubs) of 17 species proved an excellent source ofiron; of respectively, for casein (Ozimek et al., examined averaged 5964kcal 21 species tested, 100g of insects pro- 1985). In general, insect protein tends (=25049kJ) kg- 1; the five highest vided (average value) 335o/o of the to be low in the amino acids, Hemiptera (mixed nymphs and minimum daily requirement. methionine/cysteine; but it is high in adults) of 14 species examined aver- In Mexico, axayacatl (a mixture of 1 lysine and threonine, one or both of aged 5646kcal (x 23 71 3 kJ) kg- ; the several species of aquatic Hemiptera), which may be deficient in the wheat, five highest Hymenoptera (all ants, ahuahutle (eggs of the preceding), and rice, cassava and maize-based diets ranging from adults to immatures) of jumiles (several species of edible stink that are prevalent in the developing 24 species examined averaged bugs) are rich sources of riboflavin world. 5361kcat (x225l6kl) kg- 1;and the and niacin (Massieu et al., 1958, five highest Orthoptera (grasshopper 1959). Sphenarium grasshoppers are nymphs and adults) of 20 species high in niacin, while axayacatl is a rich Fat examined averaged 4168kcal source of iron. The high content of Malnutrition in developing countries (r l7506kJ) kg- 1. iron and zinc in many edible insects is is as much, or more, a problem of Cholesterol levels in insects vary of particular interest. Iron deficiency calorie deficiency as of protein defi- from low (e.g. none in the edible is a major problem in women's diets in ciency. Insects vary widely in fat (and, leaf-cutter ant, Atta cephalotes Lalr.) the developing world, particularly thus, energy) content. Isoptera (ter- to approximately the levels found in among pregnant women, and espec- mites) and Lepidoptera (caterpillars) other animals (- I mg sterol g 1 ially in Africa (Orr, 1986). Vegetarians rank among the highest in fat. For tissue), depending on species and diet everywhere are at risk of zinc defi- example, Phelps et al. (1975) reported (Ritter, 1990). Insect fatty acids are ciency. Comment 397

Fibre populations are often those that are a diet of similarly high quality to that dependably most abundant. Thus, used in bringing beef animals to Chitin comprises I0% of whole - many of the species used as food are market size and condition, the food insects. is a carbohydrate dried It important crop pests. Relative to effi- conversion efficiency of the crickets polymer found in invertebrate ciency of resource utilization and pre- was estimated to be more than five exoskeletons, protozoa, fungi and serving environmental quality, a few times that of beef animals (Nakagaki algae, and is being called the polymer examples will suffice to indicate the and DeFoliart, 1991). When the high ofthe future because ofits abundance, diversity of possibilities that exists. fetirndity of the cricket is considered toughness and biodegradabilitY The question has been raised, for (1500 offspring per female cricket (Goodman, Numerous aPPli- 1989). example, whether increased pro- compared with four standing animals chitin and its derivatives cations of motion and harvest of palm weevil in the beef herd for each animal mark- (especially chitosan) are being found (Rhynchophorus) and rhinoceros eted), the true food conversion effi- in medicine, agriculture and industry. beetle (Oryctes) larvae as food might ciency is closer to l5-20 times greater In fact, chitin from shells of lobsters, serve as a form ofbiological control of for the cricket than for beef. crabs and crayfish has been approved these pests (and the associated 'red- Turk (1990) notes that at least 42 by the Japanese for use in cereals as a ring disease' of palms). Such a practice species of leguminous trees are fed of fibre and calcium. If protein source might result in the reduction of pesti- upon by edible caterpillars in Africa. concentrates from dechitinized insects cides, as well as creating new eco- He suggests that management Prac- acceptable and should become Pro- nomic opportunities for indigenous tices for these trees should be large scale, the chitin duced on a people (DeFoliart, 1990). In South developed that would help preserve could be of significant by-product Africa, Ledger (1987) suggested that caterpillar production. Some of the as a fibre source. value serious consideration be given to trees are among those recommended Potential hazards attempting harvest of the brown (for reasons other than caterpillar Some insects secrete toxins, produce locust, Locustana pardalina (Walker), production) by an advisory panel of toxic metabolites or sequester toxic as human and animal food (as indige- the United States National Academy chemicals from foodplants (Blum, nous people have done for centuries) ofsciences (1979) for further develop- 1978; Duffey, 1980; Wirtz, 1984). in order to eliminate or reduce the use ment as food protein resources. In Defensive secretions that may be reac- of insecticides on this pest. The idea Zambia, where late bush-burning is tive, irritating or toxic include carb- was summarily dismissed as 'totally very damaging to the forest, Holden oxylic acids, alcohols, aldehYdes, impractical' by agricultural officials. (1986) noticed that there were very alkaloids, ketones, esters, lactones, Nevertheless, local officials in Thai- few late fires in the areas where the phenols, 1,4-quinones, hydrocarbons land launched a campaign to combine mumpa caterpillars are found: the and steroids, among others. Phyto- grasshopper harvest and sale with pest people burn early to protect the cater- chemicals sequestered bY various control when conventional control pillars. He proposed research on man- insects include simPle Phenolics, procedures proved unsuccessful agement of the caterpillars not only flavin, tannins, terpenoids, PolY- (Defoliart, 1989): whether or not suc- because they are important as food, acetylenes, alkaloids, cyanogens, cessful pest control was achieved, the but because of their favourable impact glucosinolates and mimetic amino grasshoppers were an economic on woodland management. That is, acids. Insects are also a source ol windfall. this practice would create an incentive injectant, ingestant, contactant and In Mexico, Conconi and Pino for people to burn early and, thereby, inhalant allergens (Wirtz, 19841. (1979) suggest that some plants that enhance woodland regeneration. The Gorham, l99l), and some insects are widespread and characteristic of reception by administrators for this serve as vectors or passive interme- arid regions, but of limited food value, proposal was:'Serious researchers diate hosts of vertebrate pathogens such as mezquite, madrono and some cannot come up with such things!' such as bacteria. protozoa. viruses or cacti, could be used for cultivation of (Holden, 1986, in postscript added in helminths (Gorham, l99l). More their associated insects, thus produc- leel). attention should be directed toward ing more protein of animal quality. assessing these risk factors in the The insects are many times higher in edible insect groups. The long history protein and fat than are the Plants Economic implications for of human use suggests, however, with upon which they feed: for examPle, industrialized countries little evidence to the contrary, that the protein (on a dry weight basis) is insects intentionally harvested for 69.05oA in the adult weevil, Metama- Processed insects for sale as cocktail human consumption do not Pose any sius spinolae Vaurie, compared with snacks, etc., are apparently no longer significant health problem. 5.2loh in nopal, the cactus uPon imported into the United States which it feeds; fat is 58.55% of the (DeFoliart, 1988). A new product, Relevance to environmentallY caterpillar of A e giale he sp e r iaris Kirby however, tequila-flavoured lollipops, pest management compatible compared with 3.60% in the magueY which contain an embedded beetle agriculture and sustainable plant. When the cosmopolitan house grub, are selling (at US$0.95 each) as As noted by Dufour (1987) in Colom- cricket, Acheta domesticus, was main- fast as they can be made, according to bia, insects used as food by indigenous tained at temperatures > 30'C and fed the Californian manufacturer. Several 398 Comment processed insects are commercially If insects become more widely Conconi, J. R. E. de (1982) Los Insectos. Como de proteinas en el Editorial Japan (Mitsuhashi, 1984; accepted as a respectable food item in fuente futuro. available in Limusa, Mexico, DF, 144pp Kantha, 1988). The most widely eaten the industrial countries, the economic Conconi, J. R. E. de and Pino, J. M. (1979) is inago (the grasshopper, Oxya velox implications are obvious. They would Insectos comestibles del Valle del Mezquital y F.), which is preserved by boiling in form a whole new class of foods made su valor nutritivo. Anal.s Biol. IJniv. Nacl soy sauce. This product appears as a to order for low-input small-business Auton. Mexico, Serie Zool. 50, 563-57 4 luxury item in supermarkets through- and small-farm production. Interna- DeFoliart, G. R. (1988) Are processed insect the country, including Tokyo. tional trade in edible insects would food products still commercially available in out the United Slates? Food Insects Newslett. I (2), Mitsuhashi (1984) states (translation): almost certainly increase. Although 1,6. acceptance 'Catching inago is an activity that prospects for widespread DeFoliart, G. R., Ed. (1988-1991) Food Insects adds poetic charm to rice paddies in are uncertain, there has been a notable Nev,slett.l-4 autumn'. He further describes an inago increase in the number of articles in DeFoliart, G. R. (1989) The human use of hunt at an elementary school in newspapers and magazines, and the insects as food and as animal feed. Bull. Ento- mol. Soc. Am.35,22-35 Tsukuba Science City in Ibaraki Pre- subject is usually treated more seriou- fecture, in which the fathers and sly than in the past. In my contacts DeFoliart, G. R. (1990) Hypothesizing about palm weevil and palm rhinoceros beetle larvae public response has mothers who participated collected with the US the as traditional cuisine, tropical waste recycling, 68 kg of inago in 2 h. Mitsuhashi sug- been almost totally positive. For and pest and disease control on coconut and gests that with rice in overproduction, example, as a guest on radio call-in other palms can they be inlegraled2 Food Insects Newsle t t. 3 (2), 1, 3-4, 6 why not let inago feed on the excess, shows, I have repeatedly heard callers DeFoliart, G. R. (1991) Insect latty acids: thus increasing the population of the make comments such as 'We Ameri- similar to those of poultry and fish in their grasshopper. Another product, cans shouldn't be foisting our food degree of unsaturation, but higher in the poly- cooked wasps, sells at Y1000 values on other people who need unsaturates. Food Insects Nevslett. 4 (l),1-4 (*US$8.00) per can (r65g); mixed food', and 'Maybe we Americans Dreyer, J. J. and Wehmeyer, A. S. (1982) On with cooked rice, this was a favourite would be better off if we were eating the nutritive value olmopanie worms. S. l/r. ./. Sci. 78, 33-35 dish of the late Emperor Hirohito insects ourselves, instead of dousing Duffey, S. S. (1980) Sequestration of plant (Mitsuhashi, 1988). the world in pesticides'. In addition, natural products by insects. A. Rev. Entomol. There is currently an effort to incor- the Food Insects Newsletter (DeFoliart, 25,447-477 has porate several insects that were impor- 1988-1991), a desktop operation, Dufour, D. L. (1987) Insects as food. A case tant in aboriginal diets into the met with wider enthusiasm than anti- study lrom the northwest Amazon. Am. Australian cuisine (Irvine, 1989). In cipated, the mailing list having grown Anthropolog is t 89, 383-397 Canada, attempts are under way to from 100 names with the initial issue Finke, M. D., DeFoliart, G. R. and Benevenga, (1989) Use ol a four-parameter logistic apply industrial methods to the pro- in 1988 to > 1700 in early 1992. The N. J. model to evaluate the quality of the protein Newsletterhas proved to be a valuable duction of insects as food (Kok, Shiv- from three insect species when fed to rats. "/. hare and Lomaliza,l99l). The French source of information for university Nutr.ll9,864 871 book, Ddlicieux Insectes, by Comby and secondary school teachers who Goodman, W. G. (1989) Chitin: a magic bullet? (3),6-7 (1990), is selling so well that it is being want to incorporate the subject into Food Insetts Neu,slett.2 translated into German and Italian their courses, as well as for news- Gorham, J. R., Ed. (1991) Ecolosy and Man- agement of Food-lndu,stry Pe.sts. FDA Tech. editions. papers, magazines, radio and tele- Bull. 4, Association of Official Analytical Commercially grown insects avail- vision. With this increasing attention Chemists, Arlington, VA, 595 pp pet part and the mass able to fanciers (from bait and on the of educators Holden, S. (1986) Edihle Caterpillars a Poten' food stores) in the USA and Europe media, there is good reason to expect tial Agroforestry Resource? Unpublished include the cricket, Acheta domesticus, that the current momentum in public mimeo. As, Norway, 4pp. [printed in Food Insects Newsletl. (l 991) 4 (2), 3-41 the mealworm, Tenebrio molitor L. (a education on the subject of insects as Irvine, G. (1989) Putting insects on the Austra- beetle grub), and the greater waxmoth human food will continue. lian menu. Food Australia4l, 565 566 larva, Galleria mellonella (L.). More Kantha, S. S. (1988) Insect eating in Japan than 80 recipes based on these insects References (letter). Nature (Lond.) 336,316 317 and honey bee pupae (Apis mellifera) Kodondi, K. K., Leclercq, M. and Gaudin- are included in the tastefully executed Ashiru, M. O, (1988) The lood value ol the Harding, F. (1987) Vitamin estimations of cookbook, Entertaining with Insects, or larvae of Anaphe renata Butler (Lepidoptera: three edible species of Attacidae caterpillars Notodontidae). Ecol. Food Nutr. 22, 313-320 from Zaire. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 57. the Original Guide to Insect Cookery, defenses of 333 334 by Taylor and Carter (1976); unfortu- Blum, M. S. (1978) Biochemical insects. In: Biochemisty of Insects (Ed. by M. Kok, R., Shivhare, U. S. and Lomaliza, K. nately, the book is out of print. Dr Rockstein) pp.465-513, Academic Press, New (1991) Mass and component balances for Justin Schmidt, of the USDA's Carl York insect production. Can. Agric. Engng 33, I 8s-192 Hayden Bee Research Laboratory, Bodenheimer, F. S. (1951) Insects as Human Tucson, Arizona, USA, has research- Food,W. Junk, The Hague, 352 pp Ledger, J. (1987) The eighth piague returneth! The locusts are comingt. Afr. Wildl.4l,20I-210 ed methods of harvesting honey bee Chavunduka, D. M. (1975) Insects as a source drone pupae and the possibility of of protein to the African. Rhodesian ,Sci. News Malaisse, F. and Parent, G. ( 1980) Les chenilles 9,217-220 comestibles du Shaba m6ridional (Zaire) (J. developing markets for the pupae Belges 61,2 24 (1990) Dilicieux Insectes. Les Pro- Naturalistes personal communication. Comby, B. Schmidt. tiines du Futur. Editions Jouvence, Gendve, Massieu, G., Guzman, J., Cravioto, R, O. and leel). 156pp Calvo, J. (1958) Nutritive value of some primi- Comment 399 tive Mexican foods. "I. Ant. Diet. Assoc.27, Oliveira, J. F. S., de Carvalho, J. P., de Sousa, Ramos-Elorduy, J. and Pino, J. M. (1990) 212,214 R. F. X. B. and Simao, M. M. (1976) The Contenido calorico de algunos insectos species insects comestibles de Mexico. Retta Soc. Quim. Massieu, G,, Cravioto, R. O', Guzman, J. and nutritional value ol lour of consumed Ecol. Food Nutr. 5, Mexico 34,56-68 Olivera, H. (1959) Contribucion adicional al in Angola. 9t-97 estudio de la composicion de alimentos Mexi- Ritter, K. S. (1990) Cholesterol and insects. canos. Ciencia 19. 53-66 Orr, B. (1986) Improvement of women's Food Insects Newslett. 3, l, 5, 8 health linked to reducing widespread anemia. Mitsuhashi, J. (1984) Insects of the lEdible Int. Health News1,3 Ruddle, K. (1973) The human use of insects: Shoin, Tokyo, lVorlfl(in Japanese) Kokin examples from the Yukpa. Biotropica 5, 270pp Ozimek, L., Sauer, W. C,, Kozikowski, V.' 94-101 Mitsuhashi, J. (1988) Rice with cooked wasps: Ryan, J. K., Jorgensen, H. and Jelen, P, (l 985) (1988) Emperor Hirohito's favorite dish. Food Nutritive value of protein extracted from Sutton, M. Q. Insects as food: aborigi- nal entomophagy in the Greal Basin. Ballena Insects Neu'slett. I (2), 2 honey bees. J. Food Sci. 50, 1327-1329, 1332 Press Anthropol. Papers No. 33, Ballena Press, Muyay, T. (1981) Les Insectes comme Aliments Menlo Park. California. I l5 pp Pemberton, R. W. (1988) The use of the Thai de I'Homme. Puhn. Ser. II, Vol,69, CEEBA, giant waterbug, Lethocerus indicus (Hemip- Bandundu, Zaire,177 pp Taylor, R. L. and Carter, B. J. (1976) Enter- tera: Belostomatidae), as human food in taining with Insects, or: The Original Guide to Nakagaki, B. J. and DeFoliart, G. R' (1991) California. Pan-Pacif. Entomol. 64, 81-82 Insect Cookery, Woodbridge Press, Santa of diets lor mass-reating Acheta Comparison Barbara, California, 160pp domesticus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) as a Phelps, R. J., Struthers, J. K. and Moyo, S. J. novelty food, and comparison ol food conver- ( L. I 975) Investigations into the nutritive value Turk, D. (1 990) Leguminous trees as forage for efficiency with values reported lor live- sion of Macrotermes falciger (Isoptera: Termiti- edible caterpillarc. Nitrogen Fixing Tree stock. Econ. Entomol. 84, 891-896 "/. dae). Zoo lo g ic a afr ic ana 10, 123-132 Research INiffal] Proiect Reports 8,75-77 National Academy of Sciences (1979) Tropical Legumes: Resources for the Future, National Quin, P. J. (1959) Foods and Feeding Habits of Wirtz, R. A. (1984) Allergic and toxic reactions Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. t he Pedi, W itw atersrand University, Johannes- to non-stinging . A. Rev. Entomol. 362pp burg, Republic of South Africa, 278 pp 29.47-69