Las Prácticas Individuales Y La Práctica De Consenso En La Historia De La Helmintología: Un Estudio a Partir De La Filosofía De La Ciencia De Philip Kitcher

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Las Prácticas Individuales Y La Práctica De Consenso En La Historia De La Helmintología: Un Estudio a Partir De La Filosofía De La Ciencia De Philip Kitcher Las prácticas individuales y la práctica de consenso en la historia de la helmintología: Un estudio a partir de la filosofía de la ciencia de Philip Kitcher Tesis doctoral Lic. Martín Orensanz Director: Dr. Guillermo Denegri Co-directora: Dra. Susana Gisela Lamas Ilustración del siglo XVI, del médico y cirujano Ambroise Paré. El texto que acompaña la imagen dice “La figura de un gusano que fue expelido mediante el vómito”. Ilustración del siglo XVII, del médico Edward Tyson. Se trata de una lombriz solitaria que fue encontrada en el intestino de un perro doméstico. ÍNDICE Introducción Capítulo 1 El conocimiento de los helmintos en la Época Antigua 1. Comentarios generales 2. Hipócrates 3. Aristóteles 4. La práctica de consenso en la Época Antigua Capítulo 2 La Edad Media 1. Comentarios generales 2. Avicena 3. Arnauld de Villaneuve 4. La práctica de consenso en la Edad Media Capítulo 3 El siglo XVI 1. Comentarios generales 2. Paracelso 3. Ambroise Paré 4. La práctica de consenso en el siglo XVI Capítulo 4 El siglo XVII 1. Comentarios generales 2. William Ramesey 3. Francesco Redi 4. Edward Tyson 5. Anthony van Leeuwenhoek 6. La práctica de consenso en el siglo XVII Capítulo 5 El siglo XVIII 1. Comentarios generales 2. Nicholas Andry de Boisregard 3. Antonio Vallisneri 4. Carlos Linneo 5. Marcus Elieser Bloch 6. Johann August Ephraim Goeze 7. La práctica de consenso en el siglo XVIII Capítulo 6 El siglo XIX 1. Comentarios generales 2. Karl Asmund Rudolphi 2 3. Johannes Japetus Steenstrup 4. Gottlieb Heinrich Friedrich Küchenmeister 5. Patrick Manson 6. La práctica de consenso en el siglo XIX Capítulo 7 El siglo XX 1. Comentarios generales 2. Herman von Ihering 3. Vernon Lyman Kellog 4. Maynard Mayo Metcalf 5. Harold W. Manter 6. Heinrich Fahrenholz 7. Lothar von Szidat 8. Wolfdietrich Eichler 9. Harry Draper Crofton 10. Daniel R. Brooks 11. Steven A. Nadler 12. La práctica de consenso en el siglo XX Capítulo 8 El siglo XXI 1. Comentarios generales 2. El grupo de Ryan F. Hechinger 3. El grupo de Kirill V. Galaktionov Bibliografía 3 Introducción Uno de los objetivos fundamentales de Philip Kitcher (1993) es rehabilitar la noción de progreso científico, concepto que había sido fuertemente criticado durante la segunda mitad siglo XX por diversos filósofos, historiadores y sociólogos de la ciencia.1 Asevera que existen ocho tipos específicos de progreso científico: conceptual, erotético, enunciativo, explicativo, atributivo, instrumental, metodológico, y organizativo. El ejemplo histórico que utiliza para ilustrar estas nociones es el de la teoría evolutiva de Darwin. La presente tesis doctoral constituye una crítica a la noción kitcheriana de progreso científico. En vez de negar la existencia de los ocho tipos de progreso que él propone, sostenemos que es posible identificar una serie paralela de ocho tipos de retrocesos científicos. El ejemplo histórico que utilizaremos para mostrar tanto los progresos como los retrocesos de la ciencia es el de la helmintología. Pero primero será necesario hacer algunos comentarios preliminares. Si se examinan las principales obras de filosofía de la ciencia que se elaboraron a lo largo del siglo XX, como las de Carnap (1950, 1952), Popper (1985), Kuhn (1970), Lakatos (1978), Feyerabend (1975), entre otras, se verá que la biología ocupa, en el mejor de los casos, un lugar marginal. En cambio, las ciencias que se suelen analizar son, casi siempre, la astronomía y la física. El ejemplo histórico que más se suele discutir es el pasaje de la astronomía ptolemaica a la copernicana. En cambio, la atención que se le dedica a la biología en esas obras es escasa. Debido a la falta de protagonismo que tuvo la biología en el seno de las discusiones filosóficas, la inauguración de la "filosofía de la biología" como disciplina autónoma recayó sobre otro grupo de autores. Varios de ellos eran biólogos profesionales. Las principales obras que contribuyeron al establecimiento de esta nueva disciplina filosófica fueron las de Mayr (1982, 1988), Maynard Smith (1986), Rostand (1985), Ruse (1979), y Sober (1996), entre otras. Siendo así, a lo largo del siglo XX hubo un desarrollo paralelo y relativamente independiente entre la filosofía de la ciencia en general y la filosofía de la biología en particular. Sin embargo, quedaba planteado el interrogante de si estas dos tradiciones podrían unificarse, o al menos si sus caminos se podrían entrecruzar de una manera más significativa. A principios de la década de los '90, la respuesta pareció ser afirmativa gracias a la publicación de dos trabajos fundamentales, el de Kitcher (1993) y el de Dupré (1993). Lo que ambas obras tienen en común es que por primera vez ubicaron a la biología en el centro de las discusiones filosóficas. La astronomía y la física perdieron su papel protagónico. Para responder a las clásicas preguntas epistemológicas como "¿Qué es la ciencia?", "¿Existe el 1 Philip Kitcher tiene una obra extensa que abarca varios temas. En sus libros, se ha ocupado de la refutación del creacionismo (Kitcher, 1982), la filosofía de la matemática (Kitcher, 1983), los problemas filosóficos de la sociobiología (Kitcher, 1985), la filosofía de la ciencia en general (Kitcher, 1993), la filosofía de la genética (Kitcher, 1996), la filosofía de la biología (Kitcher, 2003), los problemas filosóficos que surgen a partir de la ópera de Richard Wagner (Kitcher y Schacht, 2004), la obra de Darwin y su impacto en los ámbitos religiosos (Kitcher, 2007a), un análisis de la novela Finnegan’s Wake de James Joyce (Kitcher, 2007b), los problemas de la ética (Kitcher, 2011a), reflexiones en torno a la relación entre la ciencia y la democracia (2011b), la filosofía del pragmatismo (Kitcher, 2012), un análisis de la novela Deaths in Venice de Thomas Mann (Kitcher, 2013), y el humanismo secular (Kitcher, 2014). Además de estos libros, Kitcher también tiene más de 170 artículos publicados, donde analiza con mayor detalle los distintos temas de sus libros. A grandes rasgos, podemos decir que su obra abarca seis temas principales: la filosofía de la ciencia en general, la filosofía de la matemática, la filosofía de la biología, la refutación del creacionismo, la filosofía de la literatura, y la filosofía política. Aquí nos enfocaremos principalmente en su filosofía de la ciencia en general, expuesta en su libro El avance de la ciencia (Kitcher, 2001). 4 progreso científico?", "¿Qué es el método científico?", entre otras, estos autores sugieren que es necesario comenzar por el análisis filosófico e histórico de la biología, no de la astronomía o la física. En particular, y sobre todo en la obra de Kitcher (1993), el ejemplo clásico de la revolución copernicana cede su lugar al del surgimiento de la teoría evolutiva de Darwin. El motivo principal por el cual hemos elegido a una disciplina biológica particular, no a la biología en su conjunto, reside en la distinción que traza Kitcher (1993) entre comunidades y subcomunidades científicas. Una comunidad científica, como la de la biología, está compuesta por numerosas subcomunidades especializadas. La comunidad general le atribuye distintos grados de autoridad a diversos grupos en función de los temas particulares que cada uno ellos investiga. Cada subcomunidad posee autoridad respecto de su tema particular. La comunidad entera está dispuesta a aceptar las respuestas que cada subcomunidad elabora para las preguntas significativas de su área particular. El ejemplo que Kitcher brinda es el de la subcomunidad de los paleontólogos de vertebrados. No todos los biólogos son especialistas en el tema de la transición de los reptiles a los mamíferos, pero todos ellos están dispuestos a aceptar la información que brinda al respecto la subcomunidad de los paleontólogos de vertebrados. Dentro de esa subcomunidad puede haber desacuerdos entre los especialistas respecto de la transición de los reptiles a los mamíferos. En ese caso, la subcomunidad en cuestión le atribuye autoridad a un grupo todavía más reducido, el de los paleontólogos de vertebrados que son especialistas en el tema de la transición de los reptiles a los mamíferos y no, en cambio, los paleontólogos de vertebrados que son especialistas en la transición de los peces a los anfibios, por ejemplo. La comunidad general de los biólogos produce un consenso virtual, entendido como un acuerdo compartido por toda la comunidad respecto de los temas que trata una subcomunidad particular. En el ejemplo anterior, toda la comunidad de los biólogos tiene un consenso virtual respecto de la transición de los reptiles a los mamíferos, y ese consenso virtual surge porque se le atribuye autoridad a la subcomunidad de los paleontólogos de vertebrados que se ocupan de investigar ese tema. La función del consenso virtual es la de evitar que cada científico individual tenga que ser un experto en todos los temas de la comunidad; es decir, que evita que un biólogo tenga que ser un experto en zoología, botánica, paleontología, genética, ecología, biología molecular, etc., al mismo tiempo. Cuando el biólogo individual necesita información detallada respecto de algún tema particular, acude a la subcomunidad que se especializa en ese tema. También es posible que dentro de una subcomunidad se acepten ciertas hipótesis o teorías pero sin que la comunidad de los biólogos le otorgue autoridad respecto de ese tema. En este último caso, esas hipótesis o teorías no forman parte del consenso virtual. La relación entre la comunidad general y las subcomunidades que la componen es el motivo por el cual no se puede utilizar como ejemplo únicamente a una ciencia en general, como la biología. Es necesario indagar los detalles de la relación entre la biología y las subcomunidades que la constituyen. Cada una de estas subcomunidades tiene su propia historia particular, que se relaciona de diversas maneras con la historia de la biología en general. He elegido como caso de estudio a la helmintología porque en la historia de esa subcomunidad son particularmente notorios los ocho tipos de retroceso científico que definiremos más adelante.
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