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Home , Adapisoriculidae, Amphilestes, Amphitherium, Asfaltomylos, Australosphenida, Bishops (mammal)

Supplementary Information

Diversity Data The Database [1] was used as the principal source for taxonomic ranges of the early mammalian genera. Much of the data in the Paleobiology Database came from Kielan- Jaworowska et al. [2], Lofgren [3], Clemens [4], Archibald [5], Hartman [6], Fox [7], Eaton and Cifelli [8], Montellano [9], Pearson et al. [10], and Lillegraven and McKenna [11].

Dental Functional Types For our purposes, triconodont refers to a with three primary cusps in a linear or obtuse- angled arrangement, such as in eutriconodontans, amphilestids, and morganucodontans. Symmetrodont molars are those with three primary cusps in a triangular arrangement and no talonid. Tribosphenic molars have dual-function trigonids and talonids such as in true tribosphenic eutherians, metatherians, and stem boreosphenidans, as well as pseudo-tribosphenic australosphenidans. Upper molars of multituberculates possess two rows of cusps and upper molars of cimolodont multituberculates have three rows, although the two dental types are also distinguished by number of incisors and [2]. See Kielan-Jaworowska et al. [2] for descriptions of gondwanatherians, haramiyids, eupantotherians, and docodonts. One of the most contentious assignments for dental functional type involves the triconodonts (in the most general usage of the term) (see [71]). It should be noted, however, that even if alternative dental functional types were chosen for triconodont genera (e.g., if amphilestids were included with symmetrodonts instead of triconodontans), the overall diversity patterns of tribosphenic and multituberculates relative to other dental types in the (the main focus of this portion of the study) would not be altered (figure 1).

Lower Jaw Images: Extant from 39 mammalian species belonging to 32 families and 18 orders were studied. When choosing extant species to include in this study, three traits were taken into consideration: 1) diet type, 2) similarity to mammals, and 3) taxonomic diversity. Since one goal of the study was to use dietary information from extant species as analogs for the extinct species, it was important to include a full range of modern dietary types, and therefore some species were included simply based on their specific diets (e.g., the grass-eating capybara). Some species were chosen based on overall ecomorphological similarities to Mesozoic mammals. For example, many Mesozoic mammals (especially multituberculates) appear -like (i.e., their jaws possess a diastema, a small coronoid process, and procumbent incisors); therefore, eleven species of Order Rodentia were chosen. Other early mammals appear to be -like insectivores (i.e., they have sharp cusped teeth and a pronounced coronoid process), and so, two shrew species and many other small insectivores were included (a total of 15 insectivores). Kielan-Jaworowska et al. [2] describe eutriconodonts, which include the confirmed [12], as animalivorous and relatively large, indicating a carnivorous diet of more than just . Therefore, several modern, small, extant flesh-eating were included in the study.

Jaw Lengths of Extant Insectivores and Carnivores/Omnivores The distinction between insectivory and carnivory is more strongly related to body size in mammals than it is to dental or jaw specializations. To help distinguish insectivorous and carnivorous morphotypes, we tested for differences in jaw size between extant mammals belonging to these diet types. Jaw lengths of the extant taxa are recorded in table S2. Sources for these data are the same as those for dietary information and are listed in table S2. Jaw length was chosen as a proxy for body size

1 because jaws of extinct mammals were used as a proxy for body size and a measure of disparity in this study (figure S2), making the results more consistent with and comparable to the results of extinct mammals. The average jaw length of the extant insectivores (n = 15) is 39.7 mm, and the average jaw length of the extant carnivores/flesh-eating omnivores (n = 10) is 82.9 mm. The log values of the jaw lengths were used for statistical comparison of the two dietary types. A two-tailed t-test of the log values of the jaw lengths demonstrates that the mean insectivore jaw length is significantly shorter than the mean carnivore/flesh-eating omnivore jaw length (t = 3.36, p = 0.003). Since normal distribution of the data could not be confirmed, the jaw lengths of the two dietary types were also compared using a Mann- Whitney-Wilcoxon sum rank test, the results of which corroborated the significant difference between the two samples (U = 19, p < 0.05). These results support the assumption that an increase in average mammalian jaw length (i.e., body size) reflects the increased likelihood of carnivorous species within the mammalian fauna.

Geometric Morphometric Landmarks Seven landmarks were chosen for the lower jaws (figure S1). The great variety of jaw shapes limited the landmarks to only those that were nearly universal for all mammals. The one exception to universality was the angular process (landmark 7), which was lost in many Mesozoic species (e.g., most multituberculates and ‘symmetrodonts’). When the angular process was not present or clear, the most posteroventral point of the jaw ramus was chosen. The landmarks were designed to capture three major characteristics of the jaw: overall length and depth, temporalis attachment area, and pterygoids/masseter attachment area (figure S1). A large temporalis muscle is indicative of a carnivorous diet and this muscle attaches to the coronoid process, the tip of which is landmark 4. Therefore, the coronoid process is expected to be largest (i.e., landmark 4 is furthest from landmarks 2 and 5) in carnivores. Herbivores are more likely to have strong pterygoids and masseters, ideal for producing grinding movements of the jaw, and therefore a more pronounced angular process and smaller coronoid process is expected. A major difference between carnivore and herbivore jaws appears to be the distance between the condylar process (landmark 6) and the angular process (landmark 7). The results of this study indicate that this holds true for extant species (figure 2). Descriptions of the landmarks are given here: 1. Anterodorsal-most tip of the body of the lower jaw. (Teeth were ignored). 2. Point at which the base of the coronoid process meets the horizontal body of the jaw. 3. A straight line is drawn between landmark 1 and landmark 2. An additional straight line is drawn perpendicular to the line between landmark 1 and landmark 2. Landmark 3 is defined as the point at which this line meets the ventral edge of the jaw. 4. Dorsal-most point of the coronoid process. 5. Anteroventral-most point of the gap between the coronoid process and condylar process. 6. Posterodorsal-most point of the condylar process. 7. Posteroventral-most point of the angular process. If the posteroventral edge of the angular process was broad, then a central point of this edge was chosen, as in figure S1. If the species did not have a well-developed angular process, then the most posteroventral point of the jaw ramus was selected.

2 Mean Shape

4

Temporalis+ 6 A-achment++ 5

1 2 Jaw+Length/Depth+ Pterygoid/Masseter+ A-achment++ 7 3

Figure S1. The of an eastern (Scalopus aquaticus) illustrated using the seven landmarks of this study. The three triangles represent three target areas that could help distinguish different dietary types. The outline represents the consensus shape, produced by geometric morphometric analyses of the 39 extant mammals.

Jaw Lengths Geometric morphometric techniques, as performed in this study, are valuable in analyzing morphology but disregard the size of specimens. The average size of non-multituberculates was desired as a means of differentiating insectivores from potential carnivores. Therefore, jaw and lengths were recorded as proxies for body size. This information provided the added benefit of allowing supplementary disparity curves for non-multituberculates to be created (figures 5 and S2). Jaw images for determining length were obtained from the same sources as the jaws used for geometric morphometrics (see table S3), with any additional fragments used for length estimation taken from Kielan-Jaworowska [2]. Using the image and scale bar, lower jaw length was measured from the posterior-most end of the condylar process to the anterior-most point of the horizontal body of the jaw. All non-multituberculate jaws used in the geometric morphometric analysis were measured. To increase sample sizes in the time bins, an additional 25 jaw lengths were estimated using jaw fragments, for a total of 88 values. Since twelve genera spanned more than one time bin, the data set included a total of 100 occurrences considered in the time scale. The primary fragments used for estimations were ones in which teeth were attached and for which there existed intact jaws of closely taxonomically related species, which allowed for comparison in size (via tooth measurements) and jaw shape (via estimation of the placement of missing landmarks).

Tooth Lengths Though tooth lengths can vary considerably relative to body size and may be a less accurate indicator of size than jaw lengths, more tooth are available than jaw fossils, allowing for greater temporal resolution of results. Primary literature was searched for images that included intact first lower molars (m1). Since lower molars of one species can vary significantly in terms of size and shape, only confirmed first lower molars were recorded. In an attempt to bolster sample sizes in older time bins, lower molar holotype lengths were included for nine early lineage and docodont species of the Late

3 and . Anteroposterior m1 lengths were either obtained from measurements presented in the literature or calculated using the image and scale bar. Measurements were recorded at the genera level. If multiple samples of the same species or multiple species of one were discovered, then the largest measurement was used in order to minimize the chances of using lengths from a juvenile. Measurements from the Cretaceous were separated into smaller time bins (see figure 5) to better analyze the effect of the angiosperm radiation. A total of 135 m1 lengths were recorded. Twenty-nine genera had taxonomic ranges spanning multiple time bins, thus increasing the data set to 164 total occurrences considered in the time scale.

Mean jaw length (mm) 40 Standard error Disparity

30

20

10 Angiosperm Radiation 0

Late TriassicEarly Jurassic

late Early Cretaceousearly Late Cretaceouslate early

Figure S2. Average (mean) jaw lengths and length disparity (standard deviation) for non-multituberculate Mesozoic mammals (based on 90 distinct genera). The following are age ranges (Ma) for the time bins [13]: : 237-201.3, : 201.3-174.1, Middle Jurassic: 174.1-163.5, Late Jurassic: 163.5-145.0, early Early Cretaceous: 145.0-126.3, late Early Cretaceous: 126.3-100.5, early Late Cretaceous: 100.5-83.6Mean, and tooth late Late length Cretaceous (mm): 83.6-66.0. 3.0 Standard error Disparity 4 2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 Angiosperm Radiation

Aptian Berr/ValaHaut/Barr Coni/Sant Ceno/Turo Late Triassic Early Jurassic Late Jurassic Middle Jurassic

Table S1. Assignments of dental functional type for Mesozoic families. Genera are listed in parentheses for families that are .

Dental Functional Type Major Groups Families Tribosphenic Ausktribosphenidae, Steropodontidae, Kollikodontidae, incertae sedis (including Monotremata (Ambondro and Asfalotomylos), Shuotheridia, Henosferidae, incertae and Shuotheridia) sedis (Kryoryctes) Stem Boreosphenidans Aegialodontidae, incertae sedis (Tribactonodon), Kermackiidae, Pappotheriidae, Holoclemensiidae, incertae sedis (Hypomylos, Slaughteria, Tribotherium), Picopsidae, incertae sedis (Falepetrus, Palaeomolops, Potamotelses, Zygiocuspis) Metatherians , incertae sedis (Atokatheridium, Khuduklestes, Oxlestes), incertae sedis (Anchistodelphys, Iugomortiferum, Kokopellia), Asiatheriidae, Alphadontidae, Pediomyidae, Peradectidae, Stagodontidae, Glasbiidae, , incertae sedis (Sinbadelphys), incertae sedis (Adelodelphys), incertae sedis (), incertae sedis (Hatcheritherium), incertae sedis (Arcantiodelphys), Eutherians Otlestidae, incertae sedis (, Montanalestes), Bobolestidae, incertae sedis (Eozhelestes), Asioryctidae, Kennalestidae, incertae sedis (Daulestes), , incertae sedis (Deccanolestes), Gypsonictopsidae, Nyctitheriidae, Cimolestidae, , Arctocyonidae, Periptychidae, Perutheriidae, incertae sedis (Schowalteria), incertae sedis (Sahnitherium), incertae sedis (Kharmerungulatum), , incertae sedis (Acristatherium), incertae sedis (Juramaia) Gondwanatherians Ferugliotheriidae, Sudamericidae Cimolodont incertae sedis (, Bryceomys, Cedaromys, Dakotamys, Ameribaatar, ), Djadochtatheriidae, Sloanbaataridae, incertae sedis (Bulganbaatar, , ), , Eucosmodontidae, Microcosmodontidae, Taeniolabididae, Kogaionidae, incertae sedis (Uzbekbaatar, Viridomys), , Neoplagiaulacidae, Cimolodontidae, Corriebaataridae, incertae sedis (Avashishta) Plagiaulacoid Allodontidae, Zofiabaataridae, incertae sedis (Glirodon), (and Arginbaatarid) , indet. (Mojo), Hahnodontidae, Pinheirodontidae, , Eobaataridae, Kermackodontidae, Albionbaataridae, incertae sedis (Passumys), incertae sedis (Janumys), incertae sedis (), incertae sedis (Argentodites), Arginbaataridae Haramiyid Theroteinidae, , Haramiyaviidae, Eleutherodontidae, incertae sedis (Kirtlingtonia), incertae sedis (Millsodon) Eupantotherian Dryolestoidea , Paurodontidae, Donodontidae, Mesungulatidae, (Stem Cladotherian) Brandoniidae, Amphitheriidae, incertae sedis (Chunnelodon), Vincelestidae, incertae sedis (Cronopio), incertae sedis (Barberenia) Peramuridae, incertae sedis (Afriquiamus, Arguimus, Arguitherium, Nanolestes), Mozomuridae Symmetrodont Kuehneotheriidae, incertae sedis (Trishulotherium), Woutersiidae, Amphidontidae, Bondesiidae, Thereuodontidae, Tinodontidae, incertae sedis (Atlasodon, Gobiotheriodon, Microderson), Spalacotheriidae, incertae sedis () Triconodont Mammaliaforms Morganucodontidae, incertae sedis (Purbeckodon, Paceyodon, Bridetherium), Megazostrodontidae, incertae sedis (), Sinoconodontidae Austrotriconodontidae, incertae sedis (Dyskritodon, Ichthyoconodon), Amphilestidae, , Jeholodenidae, , incertae sedis (Juchilestes), incertae sedis (Liaoconodon), incertae sedis (Condorodon), incertae sedis (Hakusanodon) Docodont , Reigitheriidae, Tegotheriidae, Simpsonodontidae, incertae sedis (Delsatia), incertae sedis (), incertae sedis (Itatodon), incertae sedis (Tashkumyrodon)

5

Table S2. Taxonomic, dietary, jaw length, and source information for the 39 extant mammal species used in this study. Diet types are based upon the four categories defined in this study. “Carn/Omni” represents carnivores and flesh-eating omnivores. “Foli/Gramin” refers to folivores (leaf eaters) and graminivores (grass eaters). “Gran/Frugi” refers to granivores (grain eaters) and frugivores (fruit eaters). “IU Zoo. Lab” refers to the William R. Adams Zooarchaeology Laboratory at Indiana University. If the source for the diet of the species is different than that for the image, then the source for the diet is given in parentheses.

Common name Species name (Order) Dietary Jaw Source for Category Length Image (mm) (and Diet) Orycteropus afer (Tubulidentata) Insectivore 175 14 Southern African Atelerix frontalis (Erinaceomorpha) Insectivore 25 IU Zoo. Lab (31) Nine-banded Dasypus novemcinctus () Insectivore 67 IU Zoo. Lab (32) North American Badger Taxidea taxus () Carn/Omni 92 IU Zoo. Lab (33) Eastern Barred Bandicoot Perameles gunnii () Insectivore 58 15 Bobcat Lynx rufus (Carnivora) Carn/Omni 78 IU Zoo. Lab (34) Capybara Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris (Rodentia) Foli/Gramin 16 Chilean Shrew- Rhyncholestes raphanurus () Insectivore 20 17 Chilean Chinchilla Chinchilla laniger (Rodentia) Foli/Gramin IU Zoo. Lab (35) Crabeater Seal Lobodon carcinophaga (Carnivora) Carn/Omni 204 18 Eastern Chipmunk Tamias striatus (Rodentia) Gran/Frugi IU Zoo. Lab (36) Eastern Cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus () Foli/Gramin IU Zoo. Lab (37) El Monito del Monte Dromiciops australis () Insectivore 22 19 Four-toed Elephant-shrew Petrodromus tetradactylus (Macroscelidea) Insectivore 45 20 Common Genet Genetta genetta (Carnivora) Carn/Omni 60 21 Eastern Gray Squirrel Sciurus carolinensis (Rodentia) Gran/Frugi IU Zoo. Lab (38) Guinea Pig/Cavy Cavia porcellus (Rodentia) Foli/Gramin IU Zoo. Lab (39) Hairy-tailed Mole Parascalops breweri () Insectivore 22 IU Zoo. Lab (40) California Dipodomys californicus (Rodentia) Gran/Frugi 22 Least Weasel Mustela nivalis (Carnivora) Carn/Omni 28 IU Zoo. Lab (41) Little Brown Myotis lucifugus (Chiroptera) Insectivore 10 IU Zoo. Lab (42) Marmot Marmota monax (Rodentia) Gran/Frugi IU Zoo. Lab (43) Small Indian Mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus (Carnivora) Carn/Omni 45 23 Short-tailed Opossum Monodelphis kunsi (Didelphimorphia) Insectivore 15 IU Zoo. Lab (44) Philippine Treeshrew Urogale everetti (Scandentia) Insectivore 30 IU Zoo. Lab (45) Collared Pika Ochotona collaris (Lagomorpha) Foli/Gramin 24 Hairy-footed Pygmy Gerbil Gerbillurus paeba (Rodentia) Gran/Frugi 25 Pygmy Sloth Bradypus pygmaeus () Foli/Gramin 26 Spotted-tailed Quoll Dasyurus maculatus () Carn/Omni 67 27 Raccoon Procyon lotor (Carnivora) Carn/Omni 80 IU Zoo. Lab (46) Red Fox Vulpes vulpes (Carnivora) Carn/Omni 85 IU Zoo. Lab (47) N. American River Otter Lontra canadensis (Carnivora) Carn/Omni 90 IU Zoo. Lab (48) N. Short-tailed Shrew Blarina brevicauda (Soricomorpha) Insectivore 10 IU Zoo. Lab (49) Striped Skunk Mephitis mephitis (Carnivora) Insectivore 42 IU Zoo. Lab (50) Sugar Glider Petaurus breviceps () Insectivore 23 IU Zoo. Lab (51) Streaked Tenrec Hemicentetes semispinosus () Insectivore 32 28 White-footed Mouse Peromyscus leucopus (Rodentia) Gran/Frugi IU Zoo. Lab (52) Woodland/Pine Vole Microtus pinetorum (Rodentia) Foli/Gramin 29 Eastern Woodrat Neotoma floridana (Rodentia) Gran/Frugi 30

6 Table S3. Information concerning the 87 genera of extinct mammals used in the geometric morphometric jaw analysis (figure 3). Due to the scope of this study, time bins are constrained to the Mesozoic Era, although some genera may have persisted into the . If the source for the age or formation of the is different than that for the image, then the source for the age is given in parentheses.

Clade Genus Time Bin(s) Source for Image (and Age) Mammaliaforms Early Jurassic 2 Late Triassic, Early Jurassic 2 Late Triassic, Early Jurassic 2 Early Jurassic 2 Early Jurassic 2

Australosphenida Early Jurassic 2 Early Cretaceous 2 Pseudotribos Middle Jurassic 53 Middle Jurassic 2 Henosferus Late Jurassic 54

Docodonta Late Jurassic, Early Cretaceous 2 Late Jurassic 55 (2) Castorocauda Middle Jurassic 56

Incertae sedis Volaticotherium Middle Jurassic 57

Incertae sedis Fruitafossor Late Jurassic 58

Haramiyida Late Triassic 2

Multituberculata Meketibolodon Late Jurassic 2 Kuehneodon Late Jurassic 2 Paulchoffatia Late Jurassic 2 Zofiabaatar Late Jurassic 2 Ctenacodon Late Jurassic, Early Cretaceous 59 (2) Plagiaulax Early Cretaceous 2 Sinobaatar Early Cretaceous 60 (2) Liaobaatar Early Cretaceous 61 Heishanobaatar Early Cretaceous 62 Early Cretaceous, Late Cretaceous 2 Late Cretaceous 2 Chulsanbaatar Late Cretaceous 2 Kamptobaatar Late Cretaceous 2 Nemegtbaatar Late Cretaceous 2 Stygimys Late Cretaceous 2 Sloanbaatar Late Cretaceous 2 Nessovbaatar Late Cretaceous 2 Djadochtatherium Late Cretaceous 2 Catopsbaatar Late Cretaceous 2

Amphilestheria Middle Jurassic 2 Juchilestes Early Cretaceous 63 Early Cretaceous 2 Middle Jurassic 2 Manchurodon Middle Jurassic 2 Middle Jurassic 2 Liaotherium Middle Jurassic Late 2

7 Genus Time Bin(s) Source for Image (and Age) Late Jurassic, Early Cretaceous 64 (2) Yermakia Early Cretaceous 65 Early Cretaceous 2 Heishanlestes Early Cretaceous 66 Maotherium Late Jurassic 67 Early Cretaceous 2 Yanoconodon Early Cretaceous 68

Eutriconodonta Early Cretaceous 69 Repenomamus Early Cretaceous 12 Early Cretaceous 2 Late Jurassic, Early Cretaceous 2 Late Jurassic, Early Cretaceous 2 Liaoconodon Early Cretaceous 70 Argentoconodon Middle Jurassic 71 (88)

Stem Cladotherians Early Cretaceous 64 (2) Vincelestes Early Cretaceous 2 Late Jurassic 2 Amblotherium Late Jurassic, Early Cretaceous 72 (2) Crusafontia Early Cretaceous 2 Krebsotherium Late Jurassic 2 Laolestes Late Jurassic, Early Cretaceous 64 (2) Late Jurassic 73 (2) Cronopio Late Cretaceous 74 Paurodon Late Jurassic 75 (2) Brancatherulum Late Jurassic 72 (2)

Metatheria Sinodelphys Early Cretaceous 75 Eodelphis Late Cretaceous 2 Late Cretaceous 76 (2) Late Cretaceous 77 (2) Late Cretaceous 2 Asiatherium Late Cretaceous 78

Eutheria Eomaia Early Cretaceous 79 Prokennalestes Early Cretaceous 2 Late Cretaceous 80 Montanalestes Early Cretaceous 81 Juramaia Late Jurassic 82 Protungulatum Late Cretaceous 83 Zhelestes Late Cretaceous 84 Late Cretaceous 2 Kulbeckia Late Cretaceous 85 (2) Barunlestes Late Cretaceous 2 Asioryctes Late Cretaceous 2 Daulestes Late Cretaceous 86 (2) Late Cretaceous 2 Sasayamamlos Early Cretaceous 87

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