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Encyclopedia of

Immigrant and Cultures Around the World

Volume I" Overviews and Topics

Volume II- Communities Encyclopedia of Diasporas

Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World Volume !: Overviews and Topics Volume !i: Diaspora Communities

Edited by

Melvin Ember Human Relations Area Files at Yale University Carol R. Ember Human Relations Area Files at Yale University

and lan Skoggard Human Relations Area Files at Yale University

Published in conjunction with the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) at Yale University Springer A C.I.E record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 0-306-48321-1

Printed on acid-flee paper.

© 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the writ- ten permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, Inc., 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, com- puter software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now know or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade , trademarks, service marks and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.

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1098765432 springeronline.com Advisory Board

ANDREW AFTER University of H. RUSSELL BERNARD University of , Gainesville ELIZABETH COLSON University of , Berkeley E. VALENTINEDANIEL Columbia University E. PAUL DURRENBERGER Pennsylvania State University JUDITH N. FRIEDLANDER Hunter College, City University of New York JACK GLAZIER Oberlin College W. PENN HANDWERKER University of Connecticut FAYE V. HARRISON University of Tennessee ENGSENG HO Harvard University PHILIP KILBRIDE Bryn Mawr HESUNG CHUN KOH East Rock Institute and Yale University MAXINE MARGOLIS University of Florida, Gainesville DONALD NONINI University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill HARALD RUNBLOM Uppsala University LEO SCHELBERT University of at Chicago CHEE BENG TAN The Chinese University in ROBERT THEODORATUS Colorado State University DAVID Y. H. Wu University of WALTER P. ZENNER (deceased) University at Albany, State University of New York ARISTIDE R. ZOLBERG New School for Social Research

Managing Editors Kathleen Adams and Jo-Ann Teadtke

The Encyclopedia of Diasporas was prepared under the auspices and with the support of the Human Relations Area Files, Inc. (HRAF), at Yale University. The foremost international research organization in the field of cultural anthro- pology, HRAF is a not-for-profit consortium of 19 Sponsoring Member institutions and more than 400 active and inactive Associate Member institutions in nearly 40 countries. The mission of HRAF is to provide information that facilitates the worldwide comparative study of human behavior, society, and culture. The HRAF Collection of , which has been building since 1949, contains nearly one million pages of information, organized by culture and indexed according to more than 700 subject categories, on the cultures of the world. An increasing portion of the Collection of Ethnography, which now covers more than 380 cultures, is accessible via the World Wide Web to member institutions. The HRAF Collection of Archaeology, the first installment of which appeared in 1999, is also accessible on the Web to member institutions. HRAF also prepares multivolume reference works with the help of nearly 2,000 scholars around the world, and sponsors Cross-Cultural Research: The Journal of Comparative Social Science. Contributors

K~ilfi Ab~mb(ihi, Faculty of Law, University of Leicester, Leicester,

Nobuko Adachi, Department, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois

Birgit Ammann, Berliner Gesellschaft zur Ftirderung der Kurdologie, Berlin,

James N. Anderson, Department of Anthropology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California

Joi~lle Bahloul, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Loretta V. Baldassar, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, University of Western , Crawley, Australia

Jiemin Bao, Department of Anthropology and , University of Nevada at Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada

Aviva Ben-Ur, Department of Judaic and Near Eastern Studies, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts Allison Blakely, Department of History and African American Studies Program, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts

Marie-Eve Blanc, Department of History, Universit6 de Montr6al, , Quebec and Institute for Research on South-East , Universit6 de Provence, ,

Joseph Bosco, Department of Anthropology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong Steven Bowman, Department of Judaic Studies, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio

Gwyn Campbell, PRATIC, UFR/SLA, University of Avignon, Avignon, France

Henry D. Min-hsi Chan, Department of Chinese and Southeast Studies, University of Sydney, Katoomba, Australia David A. Chappell, Department of History, University of Hawai'i, Honolulu, Hawaii

Lara Tien-shi Chert, National Museum of , Osaka,

Rina Cohen, Department of Sociology, York University, , Ontario

Yvonne Daniel, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts Carole Boyce Davies, African-New World Studies and English Departments, Florida International University, Miami, Florida Dorsh Marie de Voe, Anthropology Department, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California

Jigna Desai, Department of Women's Studies, University of Minnesota, , Minnesota

vii viii Contributors

Shlomo Deshen, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Andrey Dikarev, Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Louis-Jacques Dorais, Department of Anthropology, Universit6 Laval, Quebec City, Quebec Jorge Duany, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico Verne A. Dusenbery, Department of Anthropology, Hamline University, St. Paul, Minnesota Noel J. Farley, Department of Economics, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania Samih K. Farsoun, Department of Sociology, American University, Washington, D.C. Donna R. Gabaccia, Department of History, University of , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Jack Glazier, Department of Anthropology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio Dieudonn6 Gnammankou, Centre d'Etudes Africaines, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Pads, France Emily Gottreich, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California Marilyn Halter, Institute for the Study of Economic Culture, Boston University, Brookline, Massachusetts Karen Leigh Harris, Department of Historical and Heritage Studies, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Michael D. Harris, Department of Art, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Amir l-Iassanpour, Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario Donald R. Hill, Departments of Africana/Latino Studies and Anthropology, State University of New York at Oneonta, Oneonta, New York Renre Hirschon, St. Peter's College, University of Oxford, Oxford, England Christopher Houston, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, Hugh Johnston, Department of History, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia Robert V. Kemper, Department of Anthropology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas Gaim Kibreab, South Bank University, , England Philip L. Kilbride, Department of Anthropology, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania Choonmie Kim, Department of Japanese Language and Literature, Korea University, Seoul, Korea German Nikolaevich Kim, Department of Korean Studies, Kazakh National al-Farabi University, Almaty, Republic of Kwang-ok Kim, Department of Anthropology, Seoul National University, Shillim-dong, Kwanak-gu, Korea Lisa N. Konczal, Department of Sociology and Criminology, Barry University, Miami Shores, Florida Melvin J. Konner, Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, Natalya Kosmarskaya, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia Bruce La Brack, School of International Studies, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California Contributors ix

Michel S. Laguerre, Berkeley Center for Globalization and Information Technology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California Ioanna Laliotou, Department of History, Archaeology and Social Anthropology, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece Robert Lawless, Department of Anthropology, Wichita State University, Wichita, Kansas Jo-Anne Lee, Department of Women's Studies, University of the Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia Mark Leopold, Department of Anthropology, University of London, London, England Li Minghuan, Institute of Anthropology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Xiaoping Li, Department of Social Sciences, Columbia College, , British Columbia Tatjana Lichtenstein, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario Eriberto P. Lozada, Jr. Department of Anthropology, Davidson College, Davidson, North Carolina Rosey Wang Ma, Institute of Malay World and Civilization, Universiti Kebangsaan, Kuala Lumpur, Janet MacGaffey, Department of Anthropology, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania Paul J. Magnarella, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida Maxine L. Margolis, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida Christopher McDowell, Information Centre about Asylum and , King's College, London, England Adam McKeown, Department of History, Columbia University, New York, New York Shahrzad Mojab, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario Wendy Ng, Sociology Department, San Jose State University, San Jose, California Donald M. Nonini, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina P~il Nylri, Humanities Center Central European University, , Rody Ofiate, Programa de la Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente, City, Mexico Aihwa Ong, Department of Anthropology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California Ellen Oxfeld, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont Dominic A. Pacyga, Liberal Education Department, Columbia College, Chicago, Illinois Valentina Pagliai, Department of Anthropology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio Anastasia N. Panagakos, Department of Anthropology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California Kyeyoung Park, Department of Anthropology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California Ceri Peach, School of Geography, Oxford University, Oxford, England Arvind Rajagopal, Department of Culture and Communication, New York University, New York, New York x Contributors

Padma Rangaswamy, South Asian American Policy Research Institute, University of Illinois, Clarendon Hills, Illinois Susan J. Rasmussen, Department of Anthropology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas Rafael Reyes-Ruiz, Anthropology Department, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio Eric Richards, Department of History, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia Sonia Ryang, Department of Anthropology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland Saskia Sassen, Department of Sociology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Leo Schelbert, University of Illinois at Chicago, Evanston, Illinois Kirsten Schelbert, University of Illinois at Chicago, Evanston, Illinois Werner Schiffauer, Comparative Social and , European University Viadrina Frankfurt/Oder, Frankfurt/Oder, Germany Nina Glick Schiller, Department of Anthropology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire Teresita Ang See, Kaisa-Angelo King Heritage Center, Intramuros, Manila, Philippines Yossi Shain, Department of Government, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., and Harold Hartog School of Government and Policy, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel Dianna J. Shandy, Department of Anthropology, Macalester College, St. Paul, Minnesota Lucio Sponza, University of Westminster, Essex, England Dhananjayan Sriskandarajah, Magdalen College Oxford, Oxford, England Anne I-I. Sutherland, Anthropology Department, University of California, Riverside, California King-fai Tam, Modern Languages and Literature, Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut Mely G. Tan, Bina Swadaya Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia Chee-Beng Tan, Department of Anthropology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong Nicholas Tapp, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia Darshan S. Tatla, Centre for South Asian Studies, University, Coventry, England l-leidi Thomann Tewarson, Department of German Language and Literatures, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio Mandy Thomas, Centre for Cross Cultural Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia Khachig Tololyan, Department of English, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut Chee Kiong Tong, Department of Sociology, National University of Singapore, Singapore Yuan-chao Tung, Department of Anthropology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan Nicholas Van Hear, Centre on Migration, Policy and Society, University of Oxford, Oxford, England Milton Vickerman, Department of Sociology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia l)sten Wahlbeck, Department of Sociology,/~bo Akademi University, ,~bo, Contributors xi

Rinaldo Walcott, Department of Sociology and Equity Studies, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario Anthony R. Walker, Anthropology and Sociology Unit, The University of Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Negara Brunei Darussalam, and Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Fiji L. Ling-chi Wang, Asian American Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California Pnina Werbner, School of Social Relations, Keele University, Keele, England Daphne Winland, Department of Anthropology, York University, Toronto, Ontario Thomas C. Wright, Department of History, University of Nevada at Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada David Y. H. Wu, Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, Taiwan Xu Xin, Department of Religious Studies, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China Kevin A. Yelvington, Department of Anthropology, University of Southem Florida, Tampa, Florida In-Jin Yoon, Department of Sociology, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea John Zucchi, Department of History, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec Preface

The word diaspora comes from the Greek word meaning "to scatter and to sow," and originally referred to the dispersal and settlement of outside of following the Babylonian (586 B.C.). Subsequently the term became associated with the whole catastrophic history of the Jews and their multiple expulsions from different European coun- tries over the centuries, culminating in of World War II. The Zionist movement sought refuge in the return to Palestine and the establishment of a Jewish state, and invocations of homeland and return have become key components in the diasporic imagination along with memories of the original dispersal. Nowadays, the term diaspora is also used to refer to other major historical dispersions, many of them involuntary, such as the forced removal of the Armenians by the Turks in the early twentieth century (1915-1922) and the forced removal of Africans by Europeans during the 400 years of the slave trade. Other mass movements of in recent times may also be called diasporas, even if the migrations were to some extent voluntary. For example, primarily economic forces propelled the movement of about 20 million people from China between the 1880s and 1920s to other parts of Asia and to the , Africa, Australia, and islands throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans. In many of these dispersals the migrants often retain the wish to return to their homelands. They maintain ties to family and friends back home, if possible. For better or worse, however, migrants find themselves living in and adjust- ing to life in multicultural or multiethnic societies. The diasporic are often themselves diverse---often migrants from the same country do not share the same language and culture. Even if they are different to begin with, they may come to feel a diasporic identity or consciousness because of how they are perceived and treated in their new locations. In recent times, scholars have begun to distinguish different types of diaspora, including "victim," "labor," "trade," and "imperial" diasporas. The Armenians, Jews, and Africans may have mostly been victims, the Chinese may have mostly moved to take advantage of labor opportunities, the Lebanese to trade, and the and British to extend and service empires. However, often these categories overlap; population movements can and have occurred for more than one reason. In addition, the recent diasporas may be less often one way. The new global communications grid has facilitated the retention of homeland connections--socially, economically, and politicallymwhich has changed the face of migration. Some diasporic communities play an active role in the of their homeland regions, and some -states have even begun to recognize their far-flung emigrants as important constituencies. The world has become more aware of what's going on in diasporic communities because they create their own distinct literatures, films, and fine arts, which are read and seen in many places around the world. Our goal in this encyclopedia is to give the reader a broad comparative perspective on diasporas, particularly in the last few hundred years. First we provide overviews of different diasporas and various general topics pertaining to diasporas. Then we provide portraits of cultural and social life in particular recent diaspora communities. No other single reference work comes close to matching the depth and breadth of cultural information on diasporic communities around the world. We are able to provide the information contained herein through the efforts of 120 contributorsm generally anthropologists, but also other social scientists~who usually have firsthand fieldwork experience with how diasporic communities vary (and are similar) around the world. Focusing on comparative topics and how particular diasporic communities vary is consistent with the mission of the Human Relations Areas Files (HRAF) to encourage and facilitate comparative worldwide studies of human society, culture, and behavior. Our aim is to leave the reader with a real sense of how different cultures deal with the varying and similar challenges of the diasporic experience, and what anthropology has contributed to understanding that experience.

°°° XIII xiv Preface

ORGANIZATION OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

A total of 59 thematic and comparative essays begin these volumes. These essays are grouped into three sections: Diaspora Overviews, Topics, and Diaspora Communities. Thirty-one diaspora overviews describe populations that have experienced voluntary or forced migration. Scholars discuss the social, economic, and political reasons peoples had for leaving their homeland and the places to which they dispersed, and briefly describe life in the new places. (For the major diasporas, cultural and community life is explored more extensively in the entries in the last section, on particular diaspora communities.) The 28 topical articles in the second section are divided into the arts in diasporas (visual arts, music, dance, literature, folklore), and identity, global cities, and types of diasporas. Finally, the last section contains 58 cultural portraits of particular diasporic communities, articles that describe cultural and social life in communities around the world. To facilitate comparison within and across diasporas, the cultural portraits generally describe a standard set of topics so that readers may readily compare differences and similarities. Although the encyclopedia focuses on six major diasporas--African, Chinese, Italian, Jewish, Korean, and South Asian--it also covers a wide range of other diasporas.

ORGANIZATION OF THE ARTICLES

The overviews and discussions of general topics in the first two sections of the work vary in how they are organized. The authors were encouraged by the editors to structure their discussions as they saw fit. On the other hand, the articles on specific diasporic communities follow the same format to provide maximum comparability. That is, the articles cover the same categories, the list of which we developed with the help of our Advisory Board (see the headings in the following list). A heading may be omitted if information on it is lacking or not applicable. The headings that follow are found in the vast majority of the articles to facilitate search and retrieval of information for comparisons and other purposes. Articles in the section describing particular diasporic communities generally describe the following categories:

Alternative Names. Alternative names and spellings. Native names. Pejorative names. Location, The destination place and its physical environment; neighboring cultures. The specific location of the diaspora communities may be discussed here or under demography. History, Country of origin and countries of dispersal. Why people left the original homeland. When they came to present location, route taken, other sites settled along the way. Type of diaspora: victim, trade, labor, colonial/imperial, cultural, or any combination. Key historical events and crises. Reverse migration. Multiple waves of migration. Demography. Population history: number who left, number who survived; the most recent reliable population figures or estimates. Distribution of population in host country. Language, The language(s) spoken and/or written by the culture, how it is related to other languages, including home language, and internal variation in language use. Culture and Community. In this subsection, authors generally describe the following aspects of cultural and social life:

Economic Activities Gender Roles and Status Preface xv

Housing and Use of Space Property and Inheritance Marriage, Family, and Households Socialization and Education Community Organization and Structure Social Stratification Political Associations and Activities Religious Beliefs and Practices Ceremonies and Holidays Arts Recreation and Leisure

Cultural Variation. Subcultural variation within the group in its current location based on class, gender, homeland district, period of migration, location, and so on. Differences between the specific community described in the section on culture and community and other coethnic or coreligious communities in the host country.

Relationships to Host Country, Homeland, and other Diasporic Communities. Specificsocial, cultural, political, and economic links and exchanges with homeland and other coethnic sites. Claims to multiple citizenships and residences. Extent of assimilation in host country. Degree and types of discrimination and persecution. Relations with other cultural groups, mixed marriages, conflict. Panethnic, transnational ties. Cultural influences on host country and home country. How the homeland is remembered or imagined. Persistence or change in culture over time.

Identity. Discussion of aspects of history, culture, and intercommunity relationships that are important in the construction of the group's identity, and multiple levels and contexts of diaspora formation and consciousness.

References. References to sources allow the reader to explore topics and cultures further.

USING THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

This reference work can be used by a variety of people for a variety of purposes. It can be used both to gain a general understanding of the anthropology of diasporas and to find out about particular diasporic cultures and topics. A list of references is provided at the end of each entry to facilitate further investigation. Beyond serving as a basic reference resource, the Encyclopedia of Diasporas also serves readers with more focused needs. For researchers interested in comparing diasporic cultures, this work provides information that can guide the selection of particular communities for further study. For those interested in international studies, the bibliographies and reference lists can lead quickly to the relevant social science literature as well as provide a state-of- the-art assessment of knowledge about diasporas around the world over the last few hundred years. For curriculum developers and teachers seeking to internationalize the curriculum, this work is a basic reference and educational resource as well as a directory to other materials. For government officials, it is a repository of information not likely to be available in any other single publication; in many cases, the information provided here is not available at all else- where. For students, from high school through graduate school, it provides background and bibliographic information for term papers and class projects. And for travelers, it provides an introduction to the diasporic communities in places they may be visiting. xvi Preface

DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We dedicate this work to our colleague and advisor, Walter Zenner, who passed away during the project. We thank the many other people who helped us. Eliot Werner, formerly at Plenum, played an important role in the planning of this project. The Advisory Board made valuable suggestions about the outline for the cultural portraits and possible topics to be covered in the thematic essays and overviews, and suggested potential authors. The editors were responsible for the final selection of authors and for reviewing the manuscripts. For managing the project at HRAF, we are indebted to Kathleen Adams and Jo-Ann Teadtke. We thank Teresa Krauss and Sean Lorre for overseeing the production process at Kluwer/Plenum and Tracy van Staalduinen for her efficient handling of the production of this encyclopedia. Finally, and most of all, we thank all of the contributors for their entries. Without their knowledge and commitment, this work would not have been possible.

Melvin Ember, President Carol R. Ember, Executive Director Ian Skoggard, Research Associate Human Relations Area Files at Yale University Contents

PART I: DIASPORA OVERVIEWS

African Diaspora in Asia ...... Gwyn Campbell African Diaspora in Europe ...... 15 Dieudonn~ Gnammankou African Diaspora in the Americas ...... 24 Kevin A. Yelvington

Armenian Diaspora ...... 35 Khachig Tololyan

British Diaspora ...... 47 Eric Richards Chilean Diaspora ...... 57 Thomas C. Wright and Rody O~ate

Chinese Diaspora ...... 65 Adam McKeown ...... 76 Daphne Winland

Greek Diaspora ...... 85 loanna Laliotou Hakka Diaspora ...... 92 Eriberto P. Lozada, Jr. Hmong Diaspora ...... 103 Nicholas Tapp Hui Diaspora ...... 113 Rosey Wang Ma

Irish Diaspora ...... 124 Philip L. Kilbride and Noel J. Farley

Israeli Diaspora ...... 136 Rina Cohen

Italian Diaspora ...... 143 Donna R. Gabaccia

Jewish Diaspora in China ...... 152 Xu Xin

xvii xviii Contents

Jewish Diaspora in Europe and the Americas ...... 164 Melvin J. Konner

Jewish Diaspora in the Ancient World, Africa, and Asia ...... 178 Melvin J. Konner

Jewish Diaspora in the Greek World ...... 192 Steven Bowman Korean Diaspora ...... 201 In-Jin Yoon

Kurdish Diaspora ...... 214 Amir Hassanpour and Shahrzad Mojab

Oceanian Diaspora ...... 224 David A. Chappell

Palestinian Diaspora ...... 233 Samih K. Farsoun

Philippine Diaspora ...... 244 Robert Lawless

Polish Diaspora ...... 254 Dominic A. Pacyga Post-Soviet ...... 264 Natalya Kosmarskaya Sikh Diaspora ...... 273 Darshan S. Tatla South Asian Diaspora ...... 285 Padma Rangaswamy Swiss Diaspora ...... 296 Leo Schelbert Tuareg Diaspora ...... 308 Susan J. Rasmussen Yorhbfi Diaspora ...... 317 KO16 Ablmbckla

PART II" TOPICS

ARTS IN DIASPORAS

Art of the African Diaspora ...... 329 Michael D. Harris

Chinese Diaspora Memoirs in the United States ...... 341 King-fai Tam Contents xix

Dance in the African Diaspora ...... 347 Yvonne Daniel

Literature of the Korean Diaspora in Japan ...... 356 Choonmie Kim

Music of the African Diaspora in the Americas ...... 363 Donald R. Hill

South Asian Diaspora in Film ...... "...... 373 Jigna Desai

Women and Literature in the African Diaspora ...... •...... 383 Carole Boyce Davies

DIASPORA POLITICS AND IDENTITY

Chinese Diaspora Politics and Its Fallout in a Cyber Age ...... 392 Aihwa Ong

Creating a Diaspora within a Country: in ...... 403 Christopher Houston

Diasporas and Human Rights ...... 415 Paul J. Magnarella

Diasporas and International Agencies ...... 422 Mark Leopold

Diasporic Consciousness among African- ...... 429 Jack Glazier

Emerging Diaspora Consciousness among African- in Toronto ...... 438 Rinaldo Walcott

Hindu Diaspora in The United States ...... 445 Arvind Rajagopal

Jewish American Identity and Israeli Security: Diasporic Connections ...... 455 Yossi Shain

Jews among Christians in Germany ...... 465 Heidi Thomann Tewarson

Pakistani Migration and Diaspora Religious Politics in a Global Age ...... 475 Pnina Werbner

Sikh Positionings in Australia and the "Diaspora" Concept ...... 485 Verne A. Dusenbery

Tamil Diaspora Politics ...... 492 Dhananjayan Sriskandarajah xx Contents

GLOBAL CITIES

Global Cities and Diasporic Networks ...... 500 Saskia Sassen

Hong Kong ...... 506 Bosco

Jews in Kaifeng, China ...... 515 Xin Xu

Miami Diasporas ...... 524 Lisa N. Konczal

TYPES OF DIASPORA

Asylum Diaspora: in ...... 534 Christopher McDowell

Chaordic Diasporas ...... 544 Pnina Werbner

Congolese Traders: Unofficial Immigrants in France ...... 551 Janet MacGaffey

Diasporas and Globalization ...... 559 Donald M. Nonini

Long-Distance Nationalism ...... 570 Nina Glick Schiller

Refugee Diasporas or Refugees in Diaspora ...... 580 Nicholas Van Hear

PART III: DIASPORA COMMUNITIES

African Diaspora in the Netherlands ...... 593 Allison Blakely

Brazilians in the United States, , Europe, Japan, and Paraguay ...... 602 Maxine L. Margolis

Cape Verdeans in the United States ...... 615 Marilyn Halter

Caribbeans in the ...... 624 Ceri Peach

Chinese in Australia ...... , ...... 634 Henry D. Min-hsi Chan

Chinese in Canada ...... 645 Xiaoping Li and Jo-Anne Lee Contents xxi

Chinese in Europe ...... 656 Li Minghuan

Chinese in Hungary ...... 664 Pdl Ny(ri

Chinese in ...... 673 Ellen Oxfeld

Chinese in Japan ...... 680 Lara Tien-shi Chen

Chinese in Korea ...... 688 Kwang-ok Kim

Chinese in Malaysia ...... 697 Chee-Beng Tan

Chinese in Papua New Guinea ...... 706 David Y H. Wu

Chinese in Russia ...... 715 Andrey Dikarev

Chinese in Singapore ...... 723 Chee Kiong Tong

Chinese in ...... 732 Karen Leigh Harris

Chinese in Tahiti ...... 742 Yuan-chao Tung

Chinese in ...... 751 Jiemin Bao

Chinese in the Philippines ...... 760 Teresita Ang See

Chinese in the United States ...... 769 L. Ling-chi Wang

Eritreans in Sudan ...... 785 Gaim Kibreab

Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia ...... 795 Mely G. Tan

Filipinos in Japan ...... 808 James N. Anderson

Greeks in Canada ...... 818 Anastasia N. Panagakos

Haitians in the United States ...... 828 Michel S. Laguerre xxii Contents

Indians in Fiji ...... 836 Anthony R. Walker

Italians in Australia ...... 850 Loretta V. Baldassar

Italians in Canada ...... 864 John Zucchi

Italians in Great Britain ...... 874 Lucio Sponza

Italians in the United States ...... 883 Valentina Pagliai

Jamaicans in the United States ...... 894 Milton Vickerrnan

Japanese in ...... 907 Nobuko Adachi

Japanese in the United States ...... 918 Wendy Ng

Jews from Rhodes in Central and Southern Africa ...... 925 Ren6e Hirschon

Jews in ...... 934 Tatjana Lichtenstein

Jews in France ...... 944 Jo~lle Bahloul

Jews in America ...... 950 Aviva Ben-Ur

Jews in Morocco ...... 966 Emily Gottreich

Koreans in Japan ...... 974 Sonia Ryang

Koreans in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Russia ...... 983 German N~'kolaevich Kim

Koreans in the United States ...... 993 Kyeyoung Park

Kurds in Finland ...... 1004 Osten Wahlbeck

Kurds in Germany ...... 1011 Birgit Ammann Contents xxiii

Latinos in Japan ...... 1019 Rafael Reyes-Ruiz

Mexicans in the United States ...... 1027 Robert V. Kemper

Neo-Orthodox Jews of Germany ...... 1038 Shlomo Deshen

Nuer in the United States ...... 1046 Dianna J. Shandy

Puerto Ricans in the United States ...... 1055 Jorge Duany

Roma in the United States ...... 1068 Anne H. Sutherland

Sikhs in Canada ...... 1075 Hugh Johnston

Sikhs in the United Kingdom ...... 1083 Darshan S. Tatla

Sikhs in the United States ...... 1094 Bruce LaBrack

South Asians in Malaysia and Singapore ...... 1105 Anthony R. Walker

Tibetans in India ...... 1119 Dorsh Marie de Voe

Turks in Germany ...... 1130 Werner Schiffauer

Vietnamese in Australia ...... 1141 Mandy Thomas

Vietnamese in Canada ...... 1149 Louis-Jacques Dorais

Vietnamese in France ...... 1158 Marie-Eve Blanc

Cultural and Alternative Names Index ...... 1169

Subject Index ...... 1173 Glossary

acculturation. The process of extensive borrowing of culture when two or more cultures are in contact. In conditions where there is a majority culture and one or more minority cultures, there may be substantial pressure for minority cultures to adopt customs of the majority culture. However, there usually is borrowing in both directions. adaptive. Refers to a trait that enhances survival and reproductive success in a particular environment. Usually applied to biological evolution, the term is also often used by cultural anthropologists to refer to cultural traits that enhance reproductive success. aflinal kin. One's relatives by marriage. ancestor veneration. See ancestor worship. ancestor worship. Veneration or reverence of ancestor spirits; ancestor spirits may be called on for help or may be given sacrifices to have them refrain from harming the living. animism. A term used by Edward Tylor to describe a belief in a dual existence for all things--a physical, visible body and a psychic, invisible soul. animist. A person with animistic beliefs. See animism. animistic beliefs. See animism. anthropology. A discipline that studies humans, focusing on the study of differences and similarities, both biological and cultural, in human populations. Anthropology is concerned with typical biological and cultural characteristics of human populations in all periods and in all parts of the world. assimilation. The process of absorbing or taking on the cultural values, attitudes, and behaviors of another cultural group. association. An organized group not based exclusively on or territory. barrio. A neighborhood in a city; used in countries where Spanish is spoken by a significant proportion of the population bilateral kinship. The type of kinship system in which individuals affiliate more or less equally with their mother's and their father's relatives; descent groups are absent. bilingual. Using or knowing two languages. bride price. A substantial gift of goods or money given to the bride's kin by the groom or his kin at or before the marriage. Also called bride wealth. bride wealth (or bridewealth). See bride price. caste. A ranked group, often associated with a certain occupation, in which membership is determined at birth and marriage is restricted to members of one's own group. chain migration. The process through which new immigrants are brought to the host country with the help of rela- tives or friends who are already there. The help usually consists not only of information, but financial aid and other assistance. chief. A person who exercises authority, usually on behalf of a multicommunity political unit. This role is generally found in rank societies and is usually permanent and often hereditary. chiefdom. A political unit with a chief at its head, integrating more than one community, but not necessarily the whole society or language group. circumcision. For boys or men circumcision refers to a genital operation in which the fold of the skin coveting the top of the penis is removed; for girls or women the fold coveting the clitoris, or all or part of the clitoris, or parts of the labia may be removed.

XXV xxvi Glossary . A set of kin whose members believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor or ancestress but cannot specify the links back to that founder; often designated by a totem. Also called a sib. clan exogamy. A rule specifying that a person must marry outside his or her clan. class. A category of persons who have about the same opportunity to obtain economic resources, power, and prestige. code switching. The use of two or more varieties of a language or different languages in the same conversation. . The control by one nation of another territory or people; the controlled territory may be referred to as a colony. commercialization. The increasing dependence on buying and selling, with money usually as the medium of exchange. compadrazgo. A fictive kinship relationship established primarily through baptism in which a child's sponsor becomes a "co-parent" and establishes a relationship with the child's parents as well as with the child. concubinage. The custom of a socially recognized nonmarital sexual relationship between a married man and a woman (concubine) who has lower status than the man's wife. Creole languages. Full-fledged languages that evolved from pidgins (see Pidgin) in situations of culture contact, usually between a colonial power and laborers or slaves. Much of the vocabulary of a Creole language comes from the colonial language but the grammar is distinctive. crime. Violence not considered legitimate that occurs within a political unit. cross-cousins. Children of siblings of the opposite sex. One's cross-cousins are the father's sisters' children and the mother's brothers' children. culture. The set of learned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals that are characteristic of a particular society or population. descent rules. See rules of descent. dialect. A variety of a language spoken in a particular area or by a particular social group. diaspora. A people dispersed by whatever cause to more than one location. The people dispersed to different lands may harbor thoughts of return, may not fully assimilate to their host countries, and may maintain relationships with other communities in the diaspora. diffusion. The borrowing by one society of a cultural trait belonging to another society as the result of contact between the two societies. diglossia. The widespread existence of two very different forms of the same language within the same society spo- ken in different social contexts (e.g., formal versus informal) or by different groups of people (e.g., by different genders). divination. Getting the supernatural to provide guidance. dowry. A substantial transfer of goods or money from the bride's family to her husband. enculturation. See socialization. endogamy. The rule specifying marriage to a person within one's group (kin, caste, community). esoteric religion. Religion based on knowledge of secret texts which are known only to the initiated. . A social group perceived by insiders or outsiders to share history, a common origin, language, reli- gion, and other aspects of culture. ethnicity. The state of belonging to a group of people perceived by themselves or others to share common origins, language, history, and cultural differences from other groups such as a difference in religion. Since different groups are doing the perceiving, ethnic identities often vary depending on whether one is inside or outside the group. ethnic stratification. A type of social stratification where different ethnic groups in a society have different access to advantages. ethnonym. An alternative for a culture or ethnic group. Glossary xxvii ethnocentric. The judgment of other cultures solely in terms of one's own culture. . The attitude that the customs and ideas of another culture can be judged in the context of one's own. ethnographer. A person who spends some time living with, interviewing, and observing a group of people so that he or she can describe their customs. ethnography. A description of a society's customary behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes. ethnology. The study of how and why recent cultures differ and are similar. ethos. The dominant assumptions or sentiments of a culture. exogamy. The rule specifying marriage to a person from outside one's own group (kin group or community). extended family. A family consisting of two or more single-parent, monogamous, polygynous, or polyandrous families linked by a blood tie. extensive cultivation. A type of horticulture in which the land is worked for short periods and then left to regenerate for some years before being used again. Also called shifting cultivation. family. A social and economic unit consisting minimally of a parent and a child. fatwa. Religious edict pronounced by an Islamic religious leader. female genital mutilation. Usually refers to a societally mandated genital operation that removes some part of the female genitalia or alters the genitalia. See circumcision and infibulation. fieldwork. Firsthand experience with the people being studied, and the usual means by which anthropological information is obtained. Regardless of other methods (e.g., censuses, surveys) that anthropologists may use, field- work usually involves participant--observation for an extended period of time, often a year or more. folklore. All the myths, legends, folktales, ballads, fiddles, proverbs, and superstitions of a cultural group. Generally, folklore is transmitted orally, but it may also be written. fraternal polyandry. The marriage of a woman to two or more brothers at the same time. gender. Two or more classes of persons who are believed to be different from each other according to supposed differences in sexual identity; society has different roles and expectations for different genders (most societies have two genders~male and female~but others have more than two). gender differences. Differences between female and male members of society that reflect cultural expectations and experiences. gender division of labor. Rules and customary patterns specifying which kinds of work the respective genders perform. gender roles. Roles that are culturally assigned to genders. gender status. The importance, fights, power, and authority of a particular gender. gender stratification. The degree of unequal access by the different genders to prestige, authority, power, fights, and economic resources. genitor. The biological father. Compare with pater. ghosts. Supernatural beings who were once human; the souls of dead people. gods. Supernatural beings of nonhuman origin who are named personalities; often anthropomorphic. halal. Lawful, meat of an animal slaughtered in a ritually appropriate way. headman. A person who holds a powerless but symbolically unifying position in a community within an egalitarian society; may exercise influence but has no power to impose sanctions. hectare. A unit of measurement equal to 10,000 square meters. hometown association. Association of mutual support by migrants from one home region. homosexuality. Defined broadly as sexual relationships between people of the same sex; however, cultures differ widely in the ways they define and treat these relationships and the people who engage in them. horticulture. Plant cultivation carried out with relatively simple tools and methods; nature is allowed to replace nutrients in the soil, in the absence of permanently cultivated fields. infibulation. Female genital surgery that involves stitching together the vulva, leaving only a small opening for the passage of urine and menstrual blood. Usually done following circumcision. See circumcision. xxviii Glossary initiation rite. A ceremony that marks the entry of a person into a group or marks the individual's passage into a new status (e.g., boyhood to manhood). Male initiation rites are often group initiations involving some traumatic event (e.g., hazing, tests of manliness, genital surgery); female initiation rites are usually more individual. intensive agriculture. Food production characterized by the permanent cultivation of fields and made possible by the use of the plow, draft animals, or machines, fertilizers, irrigation, water-storage techniques, and other complex agricultural techniques. internal warfare. Warfare within a society. joint family. A type of extended family with at least two married siblings in the same generation; can also contain parents. joking relationship. By custom, joking, teasing, and even disrespect is allowed or sometimes required between par- ticular types of kin (e.g., a man and his wife's younger sisters). junior levirate. A custom whereby a man is obliged to many his elder brother's widow. kindred. A bilateral set of close relatives. kommitti. A rotating credit society or burial society. See rotating credit associations. levirate. A custom whereby a man is obliged to marry his brother's widow. See junior levirate. lineage. A set of kin whose members trace descent from a common ancestor through known links. machismo. A strong or exaggerated sense of manliness. magic. The performance of certain rituals that are believed to compel supernatural powers to act in particular ways. mana. A supernatural, impersonal force that inhabits certain objects or people and is believed to confer success and/or strength. market or commercial exchange. Transactions in which the "prices" are subject to supply and demand, whether or not the transactions occur in a marketplace. marriage. A socially approved sexual and economic union, usually between a man and a woman, that is presumed by both the couple and others to be more or less permanent, and that subsumes reciprocal fights and obligations between the two spouses and between spouses and any future children. matriarchy. A old general term for the disproportionate holding of power or authority by women; since there are many domains of authority and power, anthropologists now generally identify more specific institutions or cus- toms such as the presence of matrilineal descent, matrilocal residence, the proportion of leaders or heads of household who are women, inheritance by women, and so on. matriclan. A clan tracing descent through the female line. matrifocal family. A woman-centered or woman-dominated family consisting minimally of a mother and her chil- dren. matrilateral. Pertaining to the mother's side of the family, as in matrilateral cross-cousins or matrilateral parallel cousins. matrilineage. A kin group whose members trace descent through known links in the female line from a common female ancestor. matrilineal descent. The rule of descent that affiliates an individual with kin of both sexes related to him or her through women only. matrilocal residence. A pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near the wife's parents. Often referred to as uxorilocal residence in the absence of matrilineal descent. medium. Religious practitioner (usually part-time) who is asked to heal, divine, and communicate with spirits while in a trance. mestizo. A person of mixed European and Native American heritage; this term is usually used in . middleman trader. A person who buys goods from producers and sells to retailers or consumers. monogamy. Marriage between only two spouses (usually one man and one woman) at a time. monolingual. Using or knowing one language. Glossary xxix monotheism. The belief that there is only one high god and that all other supernatural beings are subordinate to, or are alternative manifestations of, this supreme being. multilingual. Using or knowing several languages. natal home. Where a person was born and (usually) grew up. negotiation. The process by which the parties to a dispute try to resolve it themselves. neolocal residence. A pattern of residence whereby a married couple lives separately, and usually at some distance, from the kin of both spouses. norms. Standards or rules about acceptable behavior in a society. The importance of a norm usually can be judged by how members of a society respond when the norm is violated. nuclear family. A family consisting of a married couple and their young children. oath. The act of calling on a deity to bear witness to the truth of what one says. oikumene. The inhabited and interconnected world of immigrant groups from a particular homeland, from the Greek root "oikos" meaning 'home'. A related term is ecumene meaning 'universal' or 'from the whole world'. paradigm. A general concept or model accepted by an intellectual community as an effective way of explaining phenomena. parallel cousins. Children of siblings of the same sex. One's parallel cousins are father's brothers' children and mother's sisters' children. pastoralism. A form of subsistence technology in which food getting is based directly or indirectly on the maintenance of domesticated animals. pater. The socially defined father. Compare with genitor. patriarchy. An old general term for the disproportionate holding of power or authority by men; since there are many domains of authority and power, anthropologists generally identify more specific institutions or customs such as the presence of patrilineal descent, patrilocal residence, the proportion of leaders who are men, inheritance by men, and so on. patrician. A clan tracing descent through the male line. patrifocal family. A family centered on or dominated by one or more men. patrilateral. Pertaining to the father's side of the family, as in patrilateral cross-cousin or patrilateral parallel . patrilineage. A kin group whose members trace descent through known links in the male line from a common male ancestor. patrilineal descent. The rule of descent that affiliates an individual with kin of both sexes related to him or her through men only. patrilocal residence. A pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near the husband's parents. Often referred to as virilocal residence in the absence of patrilineal descent. peasants. Rural people who produce food for their own subsistence but who must also contribute or sell their sur- pluses to others (in towns and cities) who do not produce their own food. pidgin. A code created when people who speak different languages are brought together and need to interact. Pidgins have simple or no grammar and are not considered full-fledged languages. However, they sometimes evolve into full-fledged languages. See Creole languages. political economy. The study of how external forces, particularly powerful state societies, explain the way a society changes and adapts. polyandry. The marriage of one woman to more than one man at a time. polygamy. Plural marriage; marriage to more than one spouse simultaneously. polygyny. The marriage of one man to more than one woman at a time. polytheistic. Recognizing many gods, none of whom is believed to be superordinate. postmarital residence rules. Rules that specify where a couple should live after they marry. xxx Glossary prehistory. The time before written records. prestation. Anything (material things, services, entertainment) given freely or in obligation as a gift or in exchange. priest. Generally a full-time specialist, with very high status, who is thought to be able to relate to superior or high gods beyond the ordinary person's access or control. A woman priest may be referred to as a priestess. primogeniture. The rule or custom by which the first-born inherits. . The practice of female veiling and seclusion. race. In biology, race refers to a subpopulation or variety of a species that differs somewhat in gene frequencies from other varieties of the species. All members of a species can interbreed and produce viable offspring. Many anthro- pologists do not think that the concept of "race" is usefully applied to humans because humans do not fall into geographic populations that can be easily distinguished in terms of different sets of biological or physical traits. Thus, "race" in humans is largely a culturally assigned category. racism. The belief that some "races" are inferior to others. raiding. A short-term use of force, generally planned and organized, to realize a limited objective. rank society. A society that does not have any unequal access to economic resources or power, but with social groups that have unequal access to status positions and prestige. rastafarianism. Originally a Jamaican religion, especially of the poor, whose adherents worship former Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie as God and emphasize the centrality of Africa to people of African descent. reciprocity. Giving and taking (not politically arranged) without the use of money. redistribution. The accumulation of goods (or labor) by a particular person or in a particular place and their subse- quent distribution. religion. Any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether that power rests in forces, gods, spirits, ghosts, or demons. reverse migration. The movement of immigrants back to their homeland. revitalization movement. A religious movement intended to save a culture by infusing it with a new purpose and life. rite. A ceremonial act or series of actions. rite of passage. A ritual associated with a change of status; see initiation rite. ritual. A ceremony, usually formal, with a prescribed or customary form. rotating credit association. A mutual aid society in which members agree to make regular contributions for the purpose of giving lump sums to individual members to do something significant. Lump-sum distributions are rotated among the members. rules of descent. Rules that connect individuals with particular sets of kin because of known or presumed common ancestry. segmentary lineage system. A hierarchy of more and more inclusive lineages; usually functions only in conflict situations. sex differences. The typical differences between female and male members of a species that are most likely due to biological differences. sexual division of labor. See gender division of labor. shaman. A religious intermediary, usually part-time, whose primary function is to cure people through sacred songs, pantomime, and other means; sometimes called "witch doctor" by Westerners. shamanism. A religion characterized by the importance of the shaman as the intermediary between people and their gods and spirits. shifting cultivation. See extensive cultivation. sib. See clan. siblings. A person's brother(s) and/or sister(s). slaves. A class of persons who do not own their own labor or the products thereof. Glossary xxxi socialization. A term used to describe the development, through the direct and indirect influence of parents and others, of children's patterns of behavior (and attitudes and values) that conform to cultural expectations. social stratification. The presence of unequal access to important advantages depending on the social group one belongs to. See class and caste. society. A group of people who occupy a particular territory and speak a common language not generally understood by neighboring peoples. By this definition, societies do not necessarily correspond to . sociology. A discipline that focuses on understanding social relations, social groups, and social institutions. Usually focuses on complex societies. sorcery. The use of certain materials to invoke supernatural powers to harm people. spirits. Unnamed supernatural beings of nonhuman origin who are beneath the gods in prestige and often closer to the people; may be helpful, mischievous, or evil. state. A political unit with centralized decision making affecting a large population. Most states have cities with public buildings, full-time craft and religious specialists, an "official" art style, a hierarchical social structure topped by an elite class, and a governmental monopoly on the legitimate use of force to implement policies. stereotype. A mental picture or attitude that is an oversimplified opinion or a prejudiced attitude. subculture. The shared customs of a subgroup within a society. sublineage. A smaller division of a lineage; when the core members (e.g., men in a patrilineal system) live together in the same locality, they are referred to as a localized sublineage. subsistence economy. An economy relying principally on food that its people collect or produce for themselves. subsistence patterns. The methods humans use to procure food. supernatural. Believed to be not human or not subject to the laws of nature. swidden. A plot under extensive cultivation. syncretism. The combination of different forms of belief or practice; usually refers to the blending of elements from different religions as a result of contact. taboo (also tabu). A prohibition that, if violated, is believed to bring supernatural punishment. . The extension of activities beyond national boundaries. Economic and political relationships today are often transnational. With respect to migration, there is an enormous movement of people back and forth between national boundaries and the migrants often maintain ties with both their host and homeland communities and with others in a global community. tribal organization. The kind of political organization in which local communities mostly act autonomously, but in which there are kin groups (such as ) or associations (such as age-sets) that can temporarily integrate a number of local groups into a larger unit. . A territorial population in which there are kin or nonkin groups with representatives in a number of local groups. ultimogeniture. The rule or custom by which the last-born inherits. urbanization. The process of developing or acquiring the characteristics of city life. uxorilocal residence. See matrilocal residence. virilocal residence. See patrilocal residence. warfare. Violence between political entities such as communities, districts, or nations. witchcraft. The practice of attempting to harm people by supernatural means, but through emotions and thought alone, not through the use of tangible objects. zikr. "Remembrance" of God's name through repeated recitation.