Notes

1 Introduction

1. Twilight fan fiction has spawned E. L. Grey’s almost equally successful Fifty Shades trilogy. 2. Phelan conceives of the ethical position of the real reader as resulting from an interaction between what he terms ‘four ethical situations’: 1) that of the characters and their behaviour and judgments; 2) that of the narrator (the narrator is ethically positioned through being reliable or unreliable, as well as through different kinds of focalization); 3) that of the implied author (the implied author’s choice of narrative strategy will affect the audience’s ethi- cal responses to the characters and convey the author’s attitudes toward the authorial audience); and 4) that of the flesh-and-blood reader in relation to values, beliefs and locations operating in 1–3 (Phelan, 2005, p. 23). These positions are entwined, so that the real reader’s responses to one of these situations affect his or her responses to the others. 3. See Pringle (2006, p. 203) and Mendlesohn and James (2009, p. 30). 4. For instance, eight of the thirteen dwarf-names in The Hobbitt are taken directly from a list of names in Võluspá, a poem from the Elder Edda. The list also contains the name Gandálfr – hence The Hobbit looks like an imagina- tive answer to how that one elf came to be travelling with a company of dwarfs (Shippey, 2001, pp. 15–16). 5. Tolkien kept revising his mythology until his death. Acknowledging the complexity of ‘The Silmarillion’, as well as the fact that Tolkien never com- pleted any consistent version of his legendarium (Nagy, 2007, p. 609), this book uses The Silmarillion as a main point of entry to Tolkien’s mythology. The Silmarillion represents Christopher Tolkien’s ‘selecting and arranging’ of the complexity that is ‘The Silmarillion’ in order to ‘produce the most coher- ent and internally self-consistent narrative’ (S, p. vi). 6. Within narrative theory, the terms ‘focalization’ and ‘perspective’ are used somewhat interchangeably. Gerard Genette (1983), has distinguished between focalization and voice. In this book Bakhtin’s notion of heteroglos- sia is linked to the concept of implied author, and the characters’ voices are regarded as dialoguing with the central voice of the narrator. Here, ‘voice’ can also refer to ‘the synthesis of a speaker’s style, tone and values’ (Phelan, 2005, p. 219). It further draws on Mieke Bal’s refinement of Genette’s term ‘focalization’, and the notion that the subject of the focalizing is the focal- izer and the object of the focalization is the focalized (Bal, 2006, pp. 14–15), which reveals that Genette’s internal focalization deals with the subject of the gaze whereas external focalization deals with the object of the gaze. 7. A comparison between the literary and film versions of the texts remains outside the scope of this book. 8. In this book the word ‘argument’ denotes the sum total of narrative means employed (consciously as well as unconsciously) by the implied author

234 Notes 235

in his or her attempt to move the reader emotionally and intellectually towards certain standpoints on value. Thus, ‘argument’ in this context is a concept distinct from the strictly logical and rational arguments required in philosophical writings. It emphasizes the rhetorical function of the implied author, or his/her ‘encoding’ aspect (Shen, 2008). 9. Phelan defines narrative progression as ‘the synthesis of a textual dynamics governing the movement of a narrative from beginning through middle to end and a readerly dynamics consisting of the authorial audience’s trajectory of responses to that movement’ (Phelan, 2007, pp. 310–11). Phelan holds that narrative judgements (consisting of interpretive, ethical and aesthetic judgements) and narrative progression are responsible for the significant interrelation of form, ethics and aesthetics in the narrative experience (Phelan, 2007, p. 3). 10. Within modern ethical theory a main distinction is drawn between conse- quentialist moral theory, deontology and virtue ethical theory. Important points of reference in the discussion of ethical theory in this book are among others Consequentialism and its Critics (1988, ed. Scheffler), Nussbaum’s Love’s Knowledge (1992), A Companion to Ethics (2006, ed. Singer), Velleman’s ‘Love as a Moral Emotion’ (1999), Plato’s Republicc (2000), Aristotle’s The Nicomachean Ethics (2004), Chappell’s Ethics and Experience (2009), and Annas’ Intelligent Virtue (2011). 11. Imagery here connotes both the ‘mental pictures’ experienced by the reader, the ‘pictures made out of words’ in the text, and ‘all the objects and qualities of sense perception referred to [in the text] … whether by literal description, by allusion, or in the vehicles of its similes and metaphors’ (Abrams and Harpham, 2009, p. 151). 12. Dan Shen (2008) and Seymour Chatman (1990, p. 151) place the implied reader outside the text in their respective narrative communication diagrams, while James Phelan places the implied reader ‘inside’ the text, assuming that the real reader seeks to become the authorial audience (the author’s ideal reader); a text-internal instance. 13. The paranarratable: ‘what would not be told because of formal convention’ (Warhol, 2008, p. 226). 14. This books draws on Wolfgang Iser’s term ‘negation’, derived from his view of the literary text as a vehicle for bringing unfamiliar meaning into the world (Iser, 2006, p. 67). I understand Iser to mean that in order to express the unfamiliar, literature relies to some extent on the vocabulary of the familiar, in which it communicates, even if the familiar contexts are reas- sembled into new meanings. This means that contemporary social and ideo- logical values are encoded in the text, even though they may be negated. 15. The term coduction, coined by Wayne C. Booth (1988), connotes a similar transformation, which occurs to a reader or critic’s immediate emotional responses and appraisal of a narrative when engaging in critical conversation about such appraisals. 16. Currie shapes his scepticism towards the ethical role of literature on a Platonic mould. An argument or thought presented in a fictional text may seem right because it affects us emotionally and not because it is right in and of itself, Currie holds. ‘I suggest that one of the reasons we enjoy complexity in fiction (…) is that it provides the kind of distraction that lowers vigilance, 236 Notes

helping thereby to generate an illusion of learning. Paradoxically, the sheer complexity of great narrative art, so often taken as a sign of cognitive rich- ness and subtlety, may increase its power to spread ignorance and error’ (Currie, 2014). 17. Wrongness: ‘a sense that the world as a whole has gone askew’ (Clute and Grant, 1999, p. 339). 18. Thinning: ‘a fading away of beingness’ (Clute and Grant, 1999, p. 339). 19. Recognition: ‘the moment at which (…) the protagonist finally gazes upon the shrivelled heart of the thinned world and sees what to do’ (Clute and Grant, 1999, p. 339). 20. Return: ‘the recovery of the land’ (Clute and Grant, 1999, p. 339). 21. Mendlesohn holds that portal-quest narratives are ‘structured around reward and the straight and narrow path’ and so are ‘a sermon on the way things should be’ (Mendlesohn, 2008, p. 5). 22. Attebery draws on Cawelti here (Cawelti, 1976). 23. Saler’s temporal placement of the New Romance coincides with Clute’s tem- poral location of the origin of modern fantasy (see Clute and Grant, 1999, p. 338). 24. For a discussion of the definition of transmedia relative to adaptation and franchise, see Hutcheon and O’Flynn (2013, pp. 179–206). 25. On this view fantasy – and its fanzines and fan conventions – have prepared people for the contemporary cultural and technological reality that requires the ability to mentally inhabit multiple worlds simultaneously.

2 Ethics and Form in The Lord of the Rings

1. There are many editions of The Lord of the Rings, since Tolkien, and later his son Christopher, corrected and revised the text (Sturgis, 2007, p. 386). The HarperCollins 50th Anniversary Edition is chosen because it is based on all the emendations made in previous printings, drawing on 50 years of Tolkien scholarship in order to achieve as accurate a text as possible (LotR xix). Furthermore, it is widely available, something which is important relative to this book’s project of examining the text as a popular work. 2. The description of the history of the Shire closely matches that of the early history of England (Shippey, 2003, p. 102). 3. Phelan distinguishes between the mimetic, thematic and synthetic compo- nents of character narration. The ways in which characters work as repre- sentations of possible people is their mimetic function (Phelan, 2005, p. 12). When characters work as representatives of larger groups of ideas they serve thematic functions, and when they work as artificial constructs within the larger construct of the work they serve synthetic functions (Phelan, 2005, pp. 12–13). All three functions may be activated simultaneously. 4. Due to Sam’s desire to see ‘Elven magic’ he and Frodo get to glance in Galadriel’s mirror. All Sam’s wishes come true. He is aware of this fact, and comments upon it (LotR 921, 934, 950, 954). 5. On the aesthetic role of sound in the moral argument(s) of The Lord of the Rings see also Guanio-Uluru (2013a). 6. Reading the front matter the reader’s entrance may take place earlier. Notes 237

7. They trace the view that evil ‘is nothing’ back to the Gorgias of Plato, c. 375 BC. 8. Plato’s contemporaries regarded moral and social law as changeable and cul- ture specific. Plato rejected this view, claiming that there is an unchanging moral reality, albeit one which is hard to access (the realm of Forms) (Buckle, 2006, pp. 161–2). 9. Christopher Tolkien stresses that the most remarkable thing about ‘The Music of the Ainur’ is how little it has changed in all its subsequent versions (Tolkien, 2002, Part One, p. 62). 10. This version is presented in The Silmarillion, and confirmed by Tolkien in one of his letters (Carpenter, 2006, p. 178). 11. Stephen Buckle notes: ‘For Aristotle a thing’s nature is its inner principle of change, and a change will be natural if it is the work of this inner principle. (…) Aristotle’s account does not imply that the natural (or real) is unchange- able; it requires only that changes occur as the result of the natural inner workings of a being’ (Buckle, 2006, p. 163). 12. Shippey has introduced into Tolkien criticism the concept of ‘asterisk real- ity’: philologists were able to make inferences on the basis of comparative grammar that allowed them to reconstruct older word forms though no records exist of their use (Shippey, 2003, p. 28). The * is the accepted sign for the reconstructed form. ‘Asterisk reality’ denotes cultures, practices and ways of life reconstructed from word changes and other linguistic evidence. 13. This particular aspect of tree-myth was shared by many early European cultures (see Frazer, 2009, pp. 83–5). 14. Variously translated as The Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil or as the Tree of (all) Knowledge. 15. This sense of moral order as closely associated with natural order evokes the Homeric tradition, based on a mythology supposing a single cosmic order. Sin, in this system, is related to the ‘wilful pride’ of overstepping the cosmic, natural and moral order of the universe (MacIntyre, 2007, p. 10). Tolkien’s mythology, as well as the definition of good and evil in The Lord of the Rings, can be said to rest on a similar notion of order. 16. The preservation of Lothlórien’s ancient beauty depends on Galadriel’s wielding of one of Sauron’s Rings of Power, so that Lothlórien too must van- ish as Sauron is destroyed. 17. Rivendell and Lothlórien are mild, sunny and flowering even in fall and winter, whereas Mordor is chilly and barren. 18. The morning before the downfall of Sauron the sun’s light is completely eclipsed by shadow, confusing the characters’ natural sense of time reckon- ing. This sense of evil as a confusion or eclipse of the natural sense of time occurs several times: when the company passes through the dark Mines of Moria, and for Gimli especially on the Paths of the Dead. 19. The model has been heavily criticized by modern anthropologists, but sur- vives in the idea of memes (see Lewens, 2007). 20. The distorting effects on the vision of the Dark Lord’s power is underscored by the account of how Denethor goes mad and kills himself after looking too frequently in his Palantír towards Mordor. 21. In sense 5 as defined by Collins Concise Dictionary and Thesaurus (1991): Theol. ‘Supernatural or mystical’. 238 Notes

22. The Men of Rohan are famous for their horsemanship, and battle is signalled by horn blowing and the flying of banners and standards. Combatants often clash man to man on horseback with drawn swords. 23. Coates considers the crusades to result from a stance to war rooted in mili- tarism, where war was considered a religious vehicle (Coates, 1997, p. 46). 24. Isildur cut the Ring from the physical hand of the fallen Sauron after he was defeated in the Second Age. Consequently, both Sauron and Frodo become Nine-Fingered. 25. Frazer traces cross-culturally the belief that the health of the king and the health of the land are associated, so that the king is replaced when showing signs of diminishing health (Frazer, 2009, Book II). In The Lord of the Rings the causal chain is reversed: as the land is showing signs of diminishing health, the king or ruler must be replaced. 26. In other versions of this tale, Melkor helped make the pillars for the lamps, but deceitfully made them out of ice (Tolkien, 2002, Part One, p. 87). 27. The story of Beren and Lúthien is echoed in the relationship between Arwen and Aragorn. 28. Galadriel is pardoned for following Fëanor and is allowed to return into the West. Tolkien also devised an account in which Galadriel fought against Fëanor and came to Middle-earth separately (Fisher, 2007, p. 228). 29. Elrond reveals that he has not called anyone to council to deliberate about the Ring, and implies that they have been summoned by providence (LotR 242). 30. A similar idea is presented through the experience of Sam when he is moved to abstain from killing Gollum by a feeling of pity. 31. According to Catholic doctrine, natural law is available through human reason, and is considered universal and unchanging. Human positive law includes both civil law and the ecclesial law created by the church to guide moral decision, and is a contextual application of natural law, and divine positive law (which is recorded in sacred scripture – this is the law of God and cannot be altered by any human). Human positive law may be altered by the church when appropriate (Crook, 2006, p. 29). 32. Characters in The Lord of the Rings may fight without much hope of a reward, but ultimately several of them are rewarded for their fight for the ‘right cause’: most prominently Aragorn wins Arwen and a double kingdom, whereas Sam gets his Rosie and a flourishing Shire. Thus, the readerr could infer that doing one’s duty may ‘pay off’ in terms of worldly happiness and prosperity. Opposed to such an interpretation, stands the stark example of Frodo. 33. The shortest definition for the Kingdom of God is ‘the rule of God’. It denotes an ethical community in which ‘right and wrong, good and bad are determined by the purposes of God’ – that is, the aim of the individual is obedience to what is perceived as God’s will (Crook, 2006, p. 80). 34. Langer argued that symbolism underlies all human knowing and under- standing and thus saw it as the central concern of philosophy. 35. Although this was no moral accomplishment on the part of Gollum, his life in a sense gains in moral significance and worth as he becomes the instru- ment that secures Sauron’s demise. Notes 239

3 Ethics and Form in

1. Partridge notes: ‘Popular relativism and the revision of traditional concepts of deity are of course encouraged by contemporary consumer-centric cul- tures that are driven by an insistence on variety and individual choice. (…) as a consequence, religion is increasingly a private rather than a public mat- ter’ (Partridge, 2004, p. 15). 2. ‘Occulture’ is a term coined by Partridge, formed by a conjunction of the words ‘occult’ and ‘culture’ (Partridge, 2004, p. 62). 3. Ironic regression: ‘layer upon layer of irony that complicates the reading by making all judgement, choice, and ranking of priorities difficult, not to say impossible’ (Lothe, 2000, p. 37). 4. Following Phelan’s taxonomy (Phelan, 2005), the narrator is here unre- liable at least in terms of underreading (narrator’s lack of knowledge or sophistication yields an insufficient interpretation of an event), but also potentially in terms of misregarding (unreliability on the axis of ethics and evaluation). 5. With a few exceptions, as when shifts in focalization are used deliberately to distract the reader from important clues in the text, for example in Philosopher’s Stone when focalization shifts to Ron, Hermione and then Snape to cover up the fact that Harry’s broom is cursed by Quirrell (Fife, 2005, p. 143). 6. The call for help resounds through much of Deathly Hallows, for instance when Harry and Ron are incarcerated in the cellar of Malfoy Manor. It also harks back to Dumbledore’s words to Harry in Chamber of Secrets, which he remembers whilst captive: ‘Help is always given at Hogwarts to those who ask for it.’ Here the call is answered and help arrives in the form of Dobby, whose death by Bellatrix’ knife gives rise to another cry for help, when Harry realizes he cannot prevent Dobby’s death: ‘Dobby – no – HELP!’ (DH 385, emphasis added). 7. Harry has been labelled ‘Undesirable No 1’ by the Ministry under Voldemort’s control. 8. In her book On Virtue Ethics this is how Hursthouse characterizes a Pakistani boy campaigning for children’s rights at the age of eleven in spite of a deprived childhood (Hursthouse, 2001, p. 143). 9. Jakob Elster has raised the objection (in personal correspondence) that this similarity between Plato and the fragmentation of Voldemort’s soul may be superficial, since Plato describes a psychological process that may affect anyone, whereas Voldemort’s fragmentation requires dark magic. In my view an important aspect of Voldemort’s predicament – seeing as great that which is in fact horrendous – is aptly characterized through this comparison with Plato. I thus regard the character of Voldemort as a metaphorical caricature of the view of the fragmented soul outlined by Plato. 10. ‘Do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul; rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell’ (Matt. 10:28). This statement seems to allude to the Devil (in hell) rather than God, but commentary uniformly holds it to refer to God (see for instance http://bible.cc/matthew/ 10-28.htm). 240 Notes

11. According to Rowling, she has ‘borrowed freely’ from the various myths of folklore (BBC, 2001). 12. In a narrative where evil is characterized by a split soul created through black magic and murder, Snape fears that killing Dumbledore may damage his own soul. 13. Tom Riddle sends the basilisk on Harry by commanding it in Parseltongue. Yet it never occurs to Harry to use Parseltongue to redirect the serpent – even if earlier the same year he did just that to prevent another snake from attack- ing a fellow student. 14. See Guanio-Uluru (2012). 15. Rowling’s extra-textual revelation that Dumbledore is gay further compli- cates the analysis of love in Harry Potterr (BBC News, 2007). The textual focus of this book means that I do not go into that debate here. 16. Shira Wolosky has argued that Kant’s distinction between respect for persons as ends versus the use of them as means ‘is fundamental to the opposition between Voldemort and Harry’ (Wolosky, 2012, p. 200). My argument here, that Dumbledore uses Harry and Snape as means to an end, demonstrates how Dumbledore in this respect mirrors Voldemort, blurring the binary of good and evil. 17. Snape worries for the effects on his soul when Dumbledore pressures him to perform euthanasia on him (DH 548). 18. Sidgwick’s view on esoteric morality has been defended by de Lazari-Radek and Singer, who argue that paternalism is not always wrong (De Lazari-Radek and Singer, 2010, p. 36). 19. ‘“You have used me.” “Meaning?”’ (DH 551). 20. In this sense the Hallows are a clear parallel to the Ring in The Lord of the Rings. 21. See ‘Situationism’ (Homiak, 2011). 22. I am indebted to James Phelan for this example and for the point about the implied author’s aesthetic development. 23. When asked if she believes in God, Rowling has said: ‘Yes. I do struggle with it; I couldn’t pretend that I’m not doubt-ridden about a lot of things and that would be one of them but I would say yes.’ When asked if she believed in an afterlife, she said, ‘Yes; I think I do’ (Runcie, 2007).

4 Ethics and Form in the Quest-Fantasy

1. Here, nature has won over industrial technology. In the context of human– nature relations this situation parallells the Ents’ thrashing of Isengard. 2. Having been affected by Dementors, there is the restorative power of choco- late – which in its power to re-boost morale can be read as a secular parallel to lembas. 3. Barthes’ terms nuclei and catalyst (Barthes and Duisit, 1975, p. 248) do not cover the narrative dynamics that I am pinpointing in these texts, since Barthes’ terms operate on the level of the development of the plot, whereas the central archetypal symbols in these primary texts function primarily in relation to the texts’ ethical aspects. The symbols become visible as an emphasis of form that underscores the ethical thematics of each narrative, Notes 241

and which possibly serve to engage the reader more deeply in these, given the power of archetypes to engage the emotions.

5 Ethics and Form in Twilight

1. Kokkola reads the grotesque portrayal of pregnancy and childbirth in Twilight as a ‘scare tactic’ typical of the morality of young adult romance (Kokkola, 2011, p. 176). 2. Granger is drawing on Albert Zuckerman (1993) here. 3. Walking out from a screening of Breaking Dawn, Part 1, I was literally laugh- ing: the hyperbolic Goth-drama of Bella’s delivery is just too over the top – very much ‘like the Goth version of a bad sit-com’ – but with the satirical glance provided through Jacob there is comic relief. 4. (Male) werewolves involuntarily ‘imprint’ on their ‘true (human, female) soul mates’ when first encountering them. The experience re-centres the life of the imprinter to revolve around that of the imprintee, and is characterized by the werewolf’s deep need to protect and please the imprintee. 5. In some early twentieth-century British films, Mormons were actually por- trayed as vampires in order to scare British girls from joining Utah Mormons (D’Arc, 2007). Thus, Twilight’s fictional ‘Mormon’ vampires exist against a back story of real life cultural stigma. 6. While the portrayal of race in Twilight may reveal embedded cultural ste- reotyping, racial bigotry has been a problematic issue in Mormon teachings. The book of Mormon, which was first published in the late 1820s, describes dark skin as a punishment from God for iniquity (2 Nephi 5:21). During the leadership of Brigham Young (1847–77), a church ban was instituted on con- ferring the priesthood on African American men (women have no right to priesthood, and their only avenue to salvation is through marriage), which also forbade their participation in temple rites – a ban that was not lifted until 1978 (Stack, 2013). 7. I am indebted to Torbjörn Tännsjö for the suggestion that Transhumanism is a relevant ethical intertext to Twilight. 8. There are visions of the posthuman that differ from the transhumanist one, see for instance Nichols (1988), Hayles (1999), Rahimi (2000) and Braidotti (2013). 9. See Meyers (2001) and Serio (1999). 10. Bella’s first guess regarding Edward’s superpowers is that he is akin to Superman.

6 Comparisons and Conclusion

1. Alternatively, drawing on the ideas of Pierre Bourdieu, one might regard Bella as a victim of ‘symbolic violence’ in her willingness to discard her own norms to accept those of the culturally and economically dominant Cullen elite (see Bourdieu, 1984). 2. In The Lord of the Rings it is not primarily the mind that checks destructive desire, but moral virtue; the ability to feel compassion is more important than the ability to control one’s mind. 242 Notes

3. Clute defines ’wainscot societies’ as ‘invisible or undetected societies living in the interstices of the dominant world’ (Clute and Grant, 1999, p. 991). 4. This function of symbols as ‘temporal prints’ is underlined by the observa- tion that the contemporaries Woolf (1882–1941) and Tolkien (1892–1973) both structure their narratives (Orlando and The Lord of the Rings) in terms of passing ‘ages’ that are linked by reference to a symbolic tree: in The Lord of the Rings it is The White Tree of Gondor, and in Orlando it is the poem ‘The Oak Tree’ that serves to narratively link disparate ages. Bibliography

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abortion, 173 Arpaly, Nomy, ix, 18, 112, 184 abstinence, 165, 182, 184, 189, 213, arrival, 37, 107 215, 222, 232 Arwen, 40, 78, 147 Adam and Eve, 47–8, 175–6 Asclepius, 127 addiction, 188, 215 ashvattah tree, 47 adult romance, 163, 166 asterisk reality, 45, 237 Aeschylus, 101–3 Attebery, Brian, 12, 18–19, 230–1 Oresteia, The Libation Bearers, 101 Augustine, 41–2, 51, 52, 224 aesthetics, 41, 59–60, 78, City of God, The, 224 see also narrative aesthetics Austen, Jane, 203 Age of Techne, 233 Northanger Abbey, 205 Agøy, Nils Ivar, ix Pride and Prejudice, 203–4 Ainur, 43–4 authorial audience, 31–2, 235 alchemy, 5, 87, 120, 121, 122, 126, 155 axis mundi, 60 Allen and Unwin, 25 Altes, Lisbeth Korthals, 15 Bahbha, Homi, 16 altruism, 112, 197, 225 Bal, Mike, 234 Andersen, Hans Christian, 182 Bakhtin, Mikhail M., 14–15, 234 Ugly Ducklingg, The, 163, 183 Beauty and the Beastt, 164, 228 Anderson, Douglas A., 32 Beauvoir, Simone de, 208 animism, 63 Second Sex, 208 animistic reason, 20 Bella, 183–4, 192–3, 205, 209–14 Annas, Julie, ix, 154, 235 choice, 194–6, Intelligent Virtue, 235 focalization/voice, 168–9 Anne Rice, 164, 201 martyrdom, 188 Interview with the Vampire, 164, Bennet, Elizabeth, 203–4 201–02 Beowulff, 45, 48 anthropocentrism, 49, 63 Beren and Lúthien, 64, 238 Apollo, 127 best-selling ethics, 1 apotheosis, 167 Beyond Good and Evil, 109 Apparition, 91, 153 Bible, the, 70, 71, 119, 174–6, 201 Aquinas, Thomas, 74, 75 Bilbo, 33, 34–5, 66, 70 Aragorn, 37, 82 Bildungsroman, 99, 139 and Arwen, 40, 147, 238 Black Gate of Mordor, 38, 39 moral reasoning, 67–9 black riders, 36, 38, 52 prophecy, 145–7 blameworthiness, 130 arbour vitae, 60 bling, 221 archetypes, 78–9, 157–8, 124–1, see also blockbuster, 169, 170 trees, shape-shifter, vampire, wise Bodhi tree, 47 old man Boellstorff, Tom, 20, 233 Aristotle, 9–10, 17, 44, 74, 81, 154, 237 Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus, Nicomachean Ethics, 74 41–2 Poetics, 9 Boethian view of evil, 41–2, 51

253 254 Index

Bond, James, 86 Christian beliefs and values, 45–9, 54, Bombadil, Tom, 27, 47, 54–60, 76, 57–8, 71–2, 75, 80–1, 87, 113–14, 80, 84 119, 121, 134, 141–2, 156–7, 175, The Book of Trees, 60 186, 214 Booth, Wayne C., 7, 15, 213, 235 Christie, Agatha, 124 Boromir, 37, 60, 61, 68 chromosome pairs, 189, 191, 216 Bostrom, Nick, 199–200, 217 Cinderella, 164, 228 Bourdieu, Pierre, 241 City of God, The, 224 Breaking Dawn, 164, 168, 169, 171, Cloak of Invisibility, 107–8 176, 181, 183, 187, 195, 207, Clute, John, 12–13 221 Coates, A. J., 238 plot summary, 173 coduction, 235 Brontë, Emily, 203, 205 collective unconscious, 19 Wuthering Heights, 203, 205, comedy, 231 230 coming-of-age stories, 141, 227, 230–2 Buddah, 47 Commitment in Reflection, 18 Buffy the Vampire Slayerr, 209 communication model of narrative, 7 Byatt, A. S., 152 A Companion to Ethics, 235 completion, 40, 79–84, 140–4, 214–8 Campbell, Joseph, 2, 150–1 consequentialism, 69, 118, 129–130, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, 2 134, 142 cannibalism, 186 Consequentialism and its Critics, 235 Carlisle Cullen, 184, 222 courtly love, 163, 166 altruist, 197, 225 cross-over literature, 232 carnivalesque subversion, 88 crusades, 58, 238 catalyst, 240 cultural feminism, 210, 216 Cawelti, John, 236 cultural infantilism, 88 Chanel, 202 Currie, Gregory, 9, 235–6 Chappell, Timothy, ix, 10–11 Ethics and Experience, 235 Dante, Alighieri, 205 character, 73 Inferno, 205 as concept, 143–4 dark fantasy, 165–6 Hobbit character, 33–5 dark magic, 98, 222 innate character traits, 110 deconstruction, 16 and phronesis, 154–7 deep ecology, 62–3, 152 character functions, 236 dementors, 153 mimetic, 27, 138, 236 dendrolatry, 60 thematic, 54, 123 deontological constraints, 70 synthetic, 138, 143, 174, 236 deontology, 69–70, 75, 130 Chatman, Seymour, 235 Derrida, Jacques, 16 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 203 designer clothes, 189, 198 childbirth, 213–14 destiny, 29, 66–7, 81, 181, 213 children’s fantasy, 139, 141, detective genre, 86, 124 158 Dobby, 134, 136, 141, 239 children’s literature, 87, 88 doubt, 67–9, 99, 144, 150, 156, 174, chivalric tradition, 58, 238 213 Chomsky, Noam, 79 Dracula, 209 Christ figure, 71, 113, 122, 185, Dracula-myth, 16 221 The Dream of the Rood, 48 Index 255

Dumbledore, 89, 95, 106, 115, 117, Facebook, 223 136–7, 140–1 the fantastic, 12 denouements, 97–8 Fantasy and Mimesis, Responses to ideas of power, 110–2 Reality in Western Literature, 17–18 moral reasoning, 128–33 Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion, 16 Dungeons and Dragons, 20–1 fairy tale patterns, 164 Dursleys, 89–93, 99, 108, 152 Beauty and the Beastt, 164, 228 Duty, 69–71, 146 Cinderella, 164, 228 dwarfs, 43 Snow White, 164 Ugly Ducklingg, The 164, 183 Eärendil’s star, 64–5 familiar, 127 easternization, 88 Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Eclipse, 169, 171, 173, 180, 183, 187, Them, 4 195 fantasy genre, 1, 3, 12–15 eco-gothics, 198, fantasy literature, 5, 12–15, 229, 232 ecology, 63, 149, 151–2 and collective evil, 17 Edward, 179–80, 183, 184, 204, 223 prophecy, 89, 98, 145–8 narrative voice, 172 structural approach, 2 trustworthiness, 192–3 Faramir, 61, 74 Elbereth, 63 farewell, 40, 137 Elder Edda, 45, 234 fascism, 104, 105, 121, 150 Elder Wand, 107–8, 127 fashion industry, 214, 215 elixir of life, 97 fate, see destiny Elrond, 37, 51, 60, 66, 69, 78 Faulkner, William, 203 Elster, Jacob, ix, 239 Fawkes, 127 elves, 41, 43–5, 59, 62, 76 Fëanor’s curse, 64–65 encapsulated interestt, 130 feedback-loop, 10 enchantment, 87 The Fellowship of the Ringg, 27 disenchantment, 87 female initiation, 230 re-enchantment, 87 feminism, 16, 163, 207–14, 216 Entmoot, 66 feraculture, 62 entrance, 35, 96, 104 fertility myths, 49–54 Ents, 46, 66, 82 fictionalism, 20 Entwives, 46, 78 Fifty Shades of Grey, 234 environmentalism, 62–3, see ecology filtering consciousness, 27 Epic of Gilgamesh, 227 Fire and Ice, 204–5 equal opportunity, 208 First Age, 43, 45, 59 esoteric morality, 130 Flamel, Nicolas, 97, 140 ethical argument, 6, 234–5 Flaubert, Gustave, 205 ethical polysemy, 163 Madame Bouvary, 205 ethics, 7 Flieger, Verlyn, 82 best-selling ethics, 1 focalization, 3, 34, 38–9, 77, 93–4, Ethics and Experience, 235 106, 166–72, 192–3, 215, 225, eucatastrophe, 77–8, 83 234 Eucharist/communion, 122, 168, 221 focalization shifts, 27 euthanasia, 123, 240 focalized, 234 existentialism, 87, 142 focalizer, 234 exposition, 32, 37, 94, 106 forms of reading, 9 external focalization, 103, 234 Fourth Age, 25, 29, 44 256 Index frame narrator, 38 Grindelwald, 133 franchise, 236 Guerníca, 17 Frankenstein, 198 Gupta, Suman, 121, 136 Frankenstein-myth, 16 Frazer, James Georg, 53–4, 74–5 hacking, 223–4 The Golden Bough, 63 Hagrid, 95, 96, 152 Freud, Sigmund, 18 Hallows, 100, 108, 133, 154 Frodo, 27, 28, 39, 40, 64–5 Hammond, Wayne G., 32 free will, 66 Hardin, Russel, 130 moral reasoning, 67 Harry Potter, 92, 96–8, 139–40 Frost, Robert, 204 as focalizer, 93–4 Fire and Ice, 204–5 moral character, 112–13 fuzzy sett, 12 moral choice, 133–6 soul, 115 Galadriel, 37, 48, 64–5, 71–2, 238 Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Galadriel’s phial, 38, 56, 64–5, 82 96, 97, 121, 127, 144 Gandalf, 37, 53, 55–6, 61, 71, 119 Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, 4, laughter, 76–7 85, 92, 97, 110, 124, 133, 137–40, moral reasoning, 66–7 143, 156, 220 wise old man, 148–9 cover, 100 Garden of Eden, 47, 48–9, 175–6 epigraph, 100–3 gender roles, criticism, 161–3 narration, 103–4 Genesis, 43–5, 47, 174 progression, 100–8 Genette, Gerard, 28, 103, 234 Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, 4, genocide, 17, 121 98, 99, 110, 117, 121, 141 genre, 14–15 Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, germ-line engineering, 200 98, 116, 123, 125, 138 Ginnungagap, 45, 46 Harry Potter and the Order of the Glaucon, 42 Phoenix, 95, 98, 117, 124, 127 global instability, 35, 94, 96, 97, 103, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, 178–9 95, 97, 108, 109, 121, 140, 143, Glorfindel, 36, 56 239 Godrick’s Hollow, 106 Harry Potter and the Prisoner of The Golden Bough, 63 Azkaban, 98, 102 Golding, William, 17 Harry Potterr series, 1, 4–5, 219 Gollum, 27, 28, 32, 38, 52, 61, 83, genre, 86–7, 158 151 implied author, 94, 99, 116, 119, good will, 184 126, 137 Gorgias, 237 love, 111–12, 129–30, 224–7 Goth, 206, 215, 217, 222, 226, 228, narration, narrative perspective, 229, 241 89–94, 114–5, 136–7 gothic novel, 222 religious controversies, 85–6 Government house utilitarianism, 130 self-sacrifice, 87, 142 Granger, John, 5, 122, 163 soul, metaphysics, 116–20 Great Apostasy, 175 primary and secondary worlds, 91 Grey, E. L., 234 progression, 94–100 Fifty Shades of Grey, 234 prophecy, 147–8 Grey Havens, 40, 57 surprise ending, 96, 124, 142 Grímismál, 47 Harry Potter theme park, 4 Index 257

Healing/return, 236 Iser, Wolfgang, 235 Hermione, 96, 99, 151 Isildur, 61, 238 The Hero with a Thousand Faces, 2 heteroglossia, 14–15, 31, 234 Jackson, Peter, 4 High Elves, 36, 40 Jackson, Rosemary, 16, 18 Hillis Miller, Joseph, 16 Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion, The Hobbitt, 33, 45, 234 16 hobbits, 33–4, 50 Jacob, 170, 177, 179–80, 187, 193–4, Hogwarts, 91, 97, 102, 106, 110, 113, 223, 226 117, 125, 128, 137, 152 imprinting, 206–7 Holocaust, 17 as narrative device, 174 Homeric natural order, 50, 237 as narrator, 170, 194 Horcrux, 100, 106, 108, 113, 116, socio-economic status, 179 117, 134, 140, 154 Jewish eschatology, 119 horror fiction, 203, 222, 228 Joyce, James, 13 horticulture, 62 Ulysses, 13 house elves, 99 Jung, Carl Gustav, 78, 158 human positive law, 238 just war theory, 57 Hume Kathryn, 17–18 Fantasy and Mimesis, Responses to Kant, Emmanuel, 129, 240 Reality in Western Literature, 17–18 King Learr, 30 Hursthouse, Rosalind, 113 King of Gondor, 58, 60, 62 On Virtue Ethics, 113 Kingdom of God, 74–5, 238 hybrid ethic, 142 Langer, Susanne K., 79, 238 icon, 18–19 Last Judgement, 150 imagery, 6, 235 launch, 38, 42, 120, 178 immersive fantasy, 12, 13, 14 liberal feminism, 210 immortality, 60, 111, 120, 126–7, 140, Le Guin, Ursula, 17, 20 175, 212, 220, 227 leit-motif, 61, 207 implied author, 7–8 lembas, 71, 240 implied reader, 8, 235, see also Levinas, Emmanuel, 16 authorial audience The Libation Bearers, 101 imprinting, 173, 181, 195, 206–7, Lima, Manuel, 60 228, 241 The Book of Trees, 60 incest, 186 liminal fantasy, 12, 13, 16, 213, 219, Inferno, 205 223 initiation, 34 literature Intelligent Virtue, 235 aesthetic and cognitive complexity, interaction, 38, 99, 106 11 internal focalization, 104, 234 effects on ethical ability, 9–10 Interview with the Vampire, 164, local instability, 35 201–02 The Lord of the Rings, 1, 2–4, 145, 151, intrusion fantasy, 12, 13, 14, 163–4, 219, 241 166, 218, 232 aesthetics, 41–2, 50, 59, 78, 236 ironic distance, 89–90, 95, 206 compassion, 72, 83, 146 ironic imagination, 20 duty, 69–71, 146 ironic regression, 89, 99, 158, 239 environmentalism, 62–3 irony, 8, 90, 92, 99, 206, 213 focalization, 26–8, 38–9, 49, 157 258 Index

The Lord of the Rings – continued Næss, Arne, 63 free will, 44–5, 66–7, 81 Nagini, 127 implied author, 54–5, 58, 59, 130 narration, reliable and unreliable, 234 prophecy, 145–7 narrative aesthetics, 6–7 self-sacrifice, 72–3 narrative ethics, 15–17 the good, 59–60 ethics of alterity, 15, 16 virtue, 73–5 political approaches, 15, 16–17 Lothe, Jacob, ix, 239 pragmatist and rhetorical ethics, 15 Lothlórien, 48–9, 50, 62, 71, 237 narrative perspective, see focalization Love as a Moral Emotion, 235 narrative voice, 3, 15, 30–1, 84, 104, Love’s Knowledge, 205, 235 168–72, 186, 206, 215, 216, 234 narrator MacDonald, George, 15 as communicative instrument, 8 MacIntyre, Alisdair, 15, 237 ethical position, 234 Madame Bouvary, 205 reliable or unreliable, 234 male initiation, 230–1 Native American beliefs, 191 Manechian view of evil, 41, 42, 67 natural law, 45, 69, 81, 176, 238 Manes, 41 negation, 57, 58, 235 Marquez, Gabriel Garcia, 13 Neo-Aristotelian, 10 martyrdom, 186, 188, 213, 217, 221 Neo-Platonism, 41, 42, 237 materialism (ethics), 118 newborn vampires, 173, 202, 205 materialism (consumerism) 220–1, 197 New Moon, 168, 169, 173, 185, 187, memes, 237 195, 204 Mendlesohn, Farah, 12, 13, 215, 223, New Romance, 20 235, 236 New Testament, 31, 113, 119, 142 Rhetorics of Fantasy, 18 New York Times Bestseller-list, 4 The Merchant of Venice, 203 Nicomachean Ethics, 74 metamorphosis, 122–8 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 109, 142 Metamorphosis, 227 Beyond Good and Evil, 109 method, 6–11 Nikolajeva, Maria, ix, 88 Meyer, Stephenie, 5–6 Noble Savage, 190, 192 Midnight Sun, 168, 172, 183, 195, Norse mythology, see Old Norse 206 mythology Midgard, 46 Northanger Abbey, 205 Midnight Sun, 168, 172, 183, 195, 206 nuclei, 240 A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 195, 203 Nünning, Ansgard, 7 mimesis, 17, 19 Nussbaum, Martha, 9–10, 15, 129, Ministry of Magic / MOM, 99, 106 205, 235 mistaken identity, 124–5 Love’s Knowledge, 205, 235 moral reform, repentance, 51–2, 119–20 Mordor, 50–2 object of the focalization/gaze, 48, More Fruits of Solitude, 100 234 Morgoth, 45 occlumency, 223 Mormonism, 163, 175–6, 214, 222 occulture, 88, 239 The Morphology of the Folktale, 2 Odin, 46, 47 motherhood, 225 Old Norse mythology, 45–8, 57, 73, motherhood mystique, 208 80 Mud-bloods, 17, 104 On Fairy Stories, 15, 43, 59, 77 Murdoch, Iris, 17, 18, 196 Orcs, 43, 45, 52 Index 259

Oresteia, 101 Prince Charming, 164 original sin, 175, 222 Professor Snape, 97, 103, 105, 108, Orlando: A Biography, 16, 209–14, 216, 122–4, 125, 136–7, 140, 156 218 progression, 31, 235 Orwell, George, 17 prophecies, 145–8, 178 Ostwalt, Conrad, 87, 120 Propp, Vladimir, 2, 12 Secular Steeples, 87 The Morphology of the Folktale, 2 ‘other’, 180–1 Prose Edda, 45–6, 73 ouroboros, 127 prosimetrum, 3, 31, 79 Ovid, 227 pulp fiction, 86 Metamorphosis, 227 pure-blood, 104 Pynchon, Thomas, 17 pacifism, 57–8, 80, 84, 146–7 paganism, 86, 121–2 queer theory, 16 Palantír, 46, 237 Quileute, 190–1, 226 paranarratable, 235 paranormal romance, 1, 165 radical feminism, 210 parody, 205 Ragnarök, 73 parseltongue, 110 readerly dynamics, 31, 235 Partridge, Christopher, 87, 120, 239 readerly hospitality, 11 The Re-Enchantment of the Westt, 87 rebirth, 122, 126–8 paternalism, 240 recognition, 12, 236 patriarchy, 208, 225 Red Book of Westmarch, 26 Patronus Charm, 98, 153 re-enchantment, 87 Penn, William, 100, 102 The Re-Enchantment of the Westt, 87 More Fruits of Solitude, 100 reincarnation, see rebirth Pensieve, 106, 109 religion in popular culture, 87 Phelan, James, 6, 7, 142, 235, 236 Renesmee, 185, 192, 217, 226 principles of his literary approach, Republic, 9, 42, 117, 205, 235 10, 13, 15 research questions, 6 phoenix, 126–8 Resurrection Stone, 108, 138 phronesis, 154–5 rhetorical theory of narrative, 6 Pierce, Charles Sander, 18 Rhetorics of Fantasy, 18 Plato, 9, 42, 50, 117, 205, 237, 239 Ring of Gyges, 42 Gorgias, 237 Ring of Power/ Ruling Ring, 40, 56–7 Republic, 9, 42, 117, 205, 235 inscription, 45 Poetics, 9 Ringwraiths, 153 polysemy, 163, 223 rites of passage, 231 polytheism, 63 Roman Empire, 186 portal-quest fantasy, 11, 12, 13, 166, romantic drama, 139, 163, 215, 218 215, 223, 224, 232 232 position, 2, 234 Romeo and Juliett, 203–4, 230 post-colonial theory, 16 Ron, 96, 151 post-human, 199, 214, 241 Rorty, Richard, 15 postmodern, 13, 131, 137 Rowling, J. K., 4–5, 240 postsecularism, 26 Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find praiseworthy, 222 Them, 4 Pride and Prejudice, 203–4 The Tale of the Three Brothers, 107, primary world, 91 134 260 Index

Saler Michael, 26 soul, 115, 116–20, 220–1 Sam, 56–7, 62, 65, 76–7 spirituality/ spiritual, 55, 57, 87–8, as focalizer, 27–8, 39 182 moral reasoning, 68–9 Spivak, Gayatri, 16 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 142 stable irony, 90, 213 Saruman, 39–40, 51, 57, 62 stewardship, 62–3 satire, 89–90, 92, 93,206, 212, 215, Stoker, Bram, 209 220 Dracula, 209 Sauron, 26, 36, 46, 57, 62, 75, 77, 81 story archetypes, 19 disembodied evil, 42 Strategies of Fantasy, 12 Saussure, Ferdinand, 79 Sturluson, Snorri, 45–6 Scheffler, Samuel, 235 Prose Edda, 45–6, 73 Consequentialism and its Critics, 235 subconscious, 19, 178 science fiction, 13, 229 sub-creation, 43, 82 Scull, Christina, 32 subject of the focalization/gaze, 48, Second Age, 43, 59 234 secondary world, 91 Superman, 241 Second Sex, 208 supermodel, 197, 215 Secrets and Lies, 131, 133 supernatural fictions, 12 Secular Steeples, 87 surrealism, 12 secular, 86, 120, 200, 240 survivor’s narratives, 17 self-flagellation, 186 sustainability, 198 self-loathing, 198 symbolic violence, 241 Shakespeare, William, 30, 195, 203–4 Syse, Henrik, ix King Learr, 30 The Merchant of Venice, 203 The Tale of the Three Brothers, 107, 134 A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 195, Tales of Beedle the Bard, 107 203 Taoism, 187 Romeo and Juliett, 203, 204, 240 TDF, see Template Dark Fantasy shape-shifter, 125, 149, 158, 227, 228 Team Edward, 2, 161, 166–7, 168, 169 shape-shifting, 122–8, 180 Team Jacob, 2, 162, 166–7, 168, 170, Shelley, Mary, 198 171 Frankenstein; or, The Modern Template Dark Fantasy, 161, 165–6, Prometheus, 198 180, 229 Shen, Dan, 7 textual dynamics, 31, 235 shipping/shippers, 162, 167 theological determinism, 66 Sidgwick, Henry, 240 thinningg, 236 Silmarillion material, 3, 25, 43–5 Third Age, 25, 29, 43 Silmarils, 64–5 thumos, 117 The Silmarillion, 2–4, 25, 41, 43–5, 49, Todorov, Tzvedan, 16, 213 64–5, 79, 80 Toker, Leona, ix, 18 Singer, Peter, 130, 240 Commitment in Reflection, 18 A Companion to Ethics, 235 Tolkien, J. R. R., 2–3, 15 Sirius Black, 101, 105, 124 On Fairy Stories, 15, 43, 59, 77 situationism, 240 The Fellowship of the Ringg, 27 skin colour, 189–91, 216 The Hobbitt, 33, 45, 234 slash fiction, 167 philological approach, 3, 59, 79 Snow White, 164 The Silmarillion, 2–4, 25, 41, 43–5, Socrates, 18 49, 64–5, 79, 80 Index 261 tragedy, 231 Valar, 43–4, 45, 63–4 transcendence, 57 vampire, 121–2, 220–3 transhumanism, 199–200, 217, 241 Velleman, J. David, 129–30 transmedia, 236 Love as a Moral Emotion, 235 treaty-negotiation, 190 video-games, 21 Tree of Knowledge, 4, 47, 175–6, virtual worlds, 21, 223 237 virtue ethics, 71, 73–5, 144, 154, 235 Treebeard, 27, 47, 56, 62 Voldemort, 92, 95–6, 97–9, 101–2, trees, 60–5, 157, 149 121–2, 129, 140–1, 142, 150, 220 as narrative structuring device, 157, character, 109–12 242 fascism, 104–5 Trelawney, Sybill, 98, 147 as focalizer, 103–4 Triwizard Tournament, 112 Volturi, 192, 209, 223 trust, 128, 130–1, 133–4, 149 Võluspá, 234 truth, postmodernist, 131–3, 193 Von Franz, Marie-Louise, 25, 153, Twilight series, 1, 5, 178, 182 161, 178 aesthetics, 6, 167, 168 Vonnegut, Kurt, 17 axes of value, 188–9 voyage, 44, 122, 133 fashion, 182, 197, 214–5 feminism, 207–14 wainscot society, 229, 242 the good, 185, 229 Warner Brothers, 5 implied author, 169, 170, 187, Weber, Max, 20, 87 193–4, 215 White Tree of Gondor, 60–2, 126, 157 narration, 166–72, 215 Williams, Bernard, 130 plot summary, 173–4 wise old man, 148–9, 155, 229, 230 self-sacrifice, 182, 186, 201, 213, Wizengamot, 132 214 Woolf, Virginia, 16, 209, 242 Twilightt, 168, 169, 172, 173, 183, 184, Orlando: A Biography, 16, 209–14, 195, 221 216, 218 The Twilight Saga: New Moon, 162 wrongness, 236 Wuthering Heights, 198, 203, 205, 230 Ugly Ducklingg, The, 163, 183 www.pottermore.com, 4 Ulysses, 13 uncanny, 18 Yggdrasil, 4, 47, 60 unity of the virtues, 197 young adult romance, 163, 166, 217, unreliable narration 240 misregardingg, 239 misreportingg, 215 zero focalization, 28 underreadingg, 215, 239 zombie, 221 urban fantasy, 165 Zuckerman, Albert, 241