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'This Is Ground Control': the Invention of Mission Control Centers in The ‘This is Ground Control’: The Invention of Mission Control Centers in the United States and Europe by Michael Peter Johnson A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, Alabama May 7, 2012 Keywords: Space history, NASA, ESA, control, Cold War Copyright 2012 by Michael Peter Johnson Approved by James R. Hansen, Chair, Professor of History William F. Trimble, Professor of History Ralph Kingston, Associate Professor of History Abstract This dissertation examines the invention of mission control centers by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the European Space Agency, particularly during the Cold War. The control rooms of Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, and the European Space Operations Centre, in Darmstadt, Germany, lie at the heart of this discussion. The three control centers developed individually, however each contain certain similarities yet important differences based on their particular political, economic, and spaceflight, needs. Spaceflight history normally focuses on the astronauts and spacecraft in space. This dissertation instead looks at the history of spaceflight through its ground systems, where the majority of the spaceflight work takes place. It will ask how controllers have fashioned workplaces and workspaces. While all mission control centers fulfill the same basic task of monitoring spacecraft, minor and major differences have lead to some dramatic differences in the construction of the centers. This work tackles three centers with very different missions: American human spaceflight, American robotic spaceflight, and finally European robotic spaceflight. Both domestic and international politics play an important role in the discussion. Because space agencies require large budgets, decisions to locate space centers in certain locations involve politically-charged debates and recommendations. Internationally, ii spaceflight efforts became quickly engrained in the Cold War. The Americans space program, which was large enough to pay for its projects and involved in a competition with the Soviet Union, reluctantly pursued relationships with outside space programs. The European space program, on the other hand, relied upon cooperation with other space programs due to its limited budget and fundamentally international characteristic. As budgets have lessened and the world community has changed to more acceptance of international collaboration, the dynamic has changed in spaceflight to embrace cooperative projects as essential. Each of the control centers necessarily has learned to adapt to an ever-changing political landscape. iii Acknowledgments I would like to start by thanking the many faculty members who have inspired me and helped me complete this dissertation. My committee of Dr. James Hansen, Dr. William Trimble, and Dr. Ralph Kingston all provided invaluable suggestions and encouraged me to look at the history of spaceflight from a different perspective. Other members of the Department of History at Auburn University guided me in various ways. In particular I thank Dr. David Carter for his help with paperwork and the other minutiae of graduate school. Like so many others, I would never have completed this work without research trips to archives and libraries across the United States and Europe. While I would like to acknowledge all of the individuals who helped me, I would especially like to recognize Shelly Kelly at the University of Houston-Clear Lake, Julie Cooper at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Jane Odom and Elizabeth Suckow at NASA Headquarters, Nathalie Tinjod and Mélanie Legru at ESA Headquarters, and Jean-Marie Palayrut at the European University Institute. While at the centers I had the privilege to interview a number of controllers who brought a more personal side to my research, particularly Jim McClure and Ron Sharp of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, John Aaron and Gene Kranz of the Johnson Space Center, and Manfred Warhaut, Wolfgang Wimmer, Howard Nye, Wolfgang Hell, and Paolo Ferri of the European Space Operations Centre. I am also grateful to Jay Malone and the History of Science Society for their generous fellowship, without which my research trips would have been virtually impossible. iv At both the University of North Texas and Auburn I have had the privilege to meet and work with some wonderful colleagues whom I am proud to call friends. In particular, Cody Smith, Justin Lamberson, and Bianca Mercado kept me in check in Denton, while Josh Barronton, Abby Sayers, Charles Wexler, Hector Montford, and so many others helped me keep a healthy balance in my doctoral work. I extend a special thank you to Adrianne Hodgin Bruce for encouraging me and hosting our “all-Texas” writing group. A number of other friends at St. Michael the Archangel Catholic Church in Auburn provided me with support. CSO and the Young Adults Group are full of great people. I spent many Sunday nights with wonderful choir members. I am especially thankful for Fr. Bill Skoneki and Fr. Jim Morrison. Last but certainly not least, my family has been there for me throughout this long process. Chris and Heather, Rob and Carrie, and Julia have always been that perfect balance of siblings, friends, morale-boasters, and ego-checkers. They brought further joy into my life with two “production” nephews and nieces: Cooper, Sydney, Joseph, and Caroline. My parents, David and Eileen, have been my editors, my cheerleaders, and my compass. Thank you from the bottom of my heart for all that you have done for me. v Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................... iv List of Illustrations ...................................................................................................................... vii List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. viii Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: The Centers ............................................................................................................. 30 Chapter 2: Control Center Buildings ........................................................................................ 69 Chapter 3: Control Rooms ...................................................................................................... 102 Chapter 4: Control Room Work ................................................................................................ 157 Chapter 5: Communications Networks ..................................................................................... 181 Chapter 6: International Politics ............................................................................................... 207 Chapter 7: Air Traffic Control .................................................................................................. 233 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 249 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 255 vi List of Illustrations 1-1: Aerial View of the Johnson Space Center .......................................................................... 41 1-2: Aerial View of JPL ............................................................................................................. 52 1-3: Aerial View of ESOC ......................................................................................................... 62 2-1: Houston MCC ..................................................................................................................... 73 2-2: SFOF-1967 ......................................................................................................................... 81 3-1: Flight Director Console .................................................................................................... 109 3-2: Apollo Mission Control from the Trench ......................................................................... 113 3-3: Back Rows ......................................................................................................................... 118 3-4: White FCR ......................................................................................................................... 123 3-5: Blue FCR ........................................................................................................................... 125 3-6: FCR 1................................................................................................................................. 126 3-7: SFOF “Dark Room”-1964 ................................................................................................. 132 3-8: SFOF “Dark Room”-1981 ................................................................................................. 133 3-9: Operations Room ............................................................................................................... 136 3-10: The Main Control Room at ESA’s Space
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