Volume 69 1960 > Volume 69, No. 4 > the Development and Diffusion Of
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Volume 69 1960 > Volume 69, No. 4 > The development and diffusion of modern Hawaiian surfing, by Ben R. Finney, p 314‐331 ‐ i PLATE 1 PLATE 2 ‐ 315 THE DEVELOPMENT AND DIFFUSION OF MODERN HAWAIIAN SURFING By BEN R. FINNEY In this article, based on work which he undertook for the degree of M.A. at the University of Hawaii, Mr. Finney traces the decline and subsequent revival of surfing in modern Hawaii and discusses the diffusion of the sport to other countries in and bordering the Pacific. In the December 1959 issue of this Journal Mr. Finney published an account of surfing in ancient Hawaii. AFTER RECONSTRUCTING the salient features of some activity or institution of a culture long since modified or transformed by European influence, the subsequent history of that institution is often treated in terms of a somewhat melancholy narrative of decline and disappearance, or, at best, in terms of a “native survival” in the modern world. Continuing from a reconstruction of surfing as practised in Ancient Hawaii, 1 I hope to offer here not just a narrative of decline, or a description of survival, but an outline of the transformation of the traditional Hawaiian sport of he'e nalu into the equally vigorous and dynamic sport of modern surfing as known in Hawaii today. Furthermore, and by way of introduction, it might be added that while most studies involving acculturation have been largely concerned with the impact of influences from Western culture on non-European cultures, the European impact of surfing is only one dimension of the story presented here. The other dimension is concerned with how a non- European cultural form, the sport of Hawaiian surfing, has been adopted by Europeans and others to become an international sport practised today at beaches throughout the world. THE DECLINE OF HAWAIIAN SURFING To begin with, however, this narrative must necessarily be concerned with the rapid decline and near disappearance of surfing in Hawaii during the nineteenth century. Even as early as the 1840's surfing had become a rare sight in the Hawaiian Islands, 2 and in the following decade it was observed that Lahaina, Maui, was one of the few places where surfing was maintained with any degree of enthusiasm, and that even there it was rapidly passing out of existence. 3 - 316 Twenty years later at Hilo, one of the last strongholds of the sport on the island of Hawaii, it was reported that although one could still see the grand spectacle of surfing there, few of the younger generation of Hawaiians had learned the sport, and those who had were not considered to be distinguished surfers. 4 Surfing, however, fared better than other traditional Hawaiian games and sports, most of which, such as ulu maika (disk-rolling), kukini (foot-racing), and holua (land-sledding), had by this time entirely disappeared. Concern that the sport of surfing was likewise disappearing prompted the following statement in the last decade of the century: “The sport of surfriding possessed a grand fascination, and for a time it seemed as if it had the vitality of its own as a national pastime. There are those living . who remember the time when almost the entire population of a village would at certain hours resort to the sea-side to indulge in, or to witness, this magnificent accomplishment. We cannot but mourn its decline. But this too has felt the touch of civilization, and today it is hard to find a surfboard outside of our museums and private collections.” 5 The actual case, of course, is that surfing did not disappear. Nevertheless, an examination of the state of the sport around 1900 when its practice was at a low point, and before any trend for revival had begun, will present a striking contrast to the sport as known in Ancient Hawaii. First of all, as far as I have been able to ascertain from published and informant accounts, the sport had virtually been forgotten in the Hawaiian Islands, except for a few places on Oahu, Maui, and possibly Kauai. Surfing had even disappeared from the Kona coast of Hawaii where it had formerly been so popular. Luckily, for the course of surfing as we shall see, most of the surfing done in this period occurred at or near Waikiki Beach on Oahu. Furthermore, this remnant of surfing could no longer be considered in terms of a highly elaborated cultural peak, as was used to characterize traditional Hawaiian surfing. For instance, the associated ritual practices, the gambling, the chiefly privileges, and other facets of the traditional sport were now no longer integral parts of this remnant of surfing. In addition, it appears that the manufacture of certain kinds of surfboards had ceased and that important techniques of riding were no longer well known. By 1900 it seems that the large 16-foot olo boards of the chiefs were not being made, and that most, if not all, of the surfing was being done with alaia surfboards, or crude copies of them. It appears that these were all rather short, perhaps not over 8 feet in length; in fact, one report from 1905 states that the surfers at Waikiki were using any plank or board to ride the waves, and that these averaged only about 6 feet in length. 6 Also, in terms of riding skills, there is some evidence that the expert technique of riding along a wave at an angle was no longer practised, the surfers at this time riding straight in on the broken waves. 7 It is evident then that not only was - 317 there a tremendous decrease in the amount of surfing activity in Hawaii, but also that in terms of the quality of the sport, surfing by the beginning of this century was an impoverished remnant of a once highly elaborated pastime. What happened in Hawaii to cause this decline and impoverishment of Hawaiian surfing? This question, often asked in Hawaii by those acquainted with the history of surfing, and almost as often answered by pointing an accusing finger at the missionaries or some single entity, is really part of the larger question of the rapid cultural transformation which took place in Hawaii during the nineteenth century. This transformation, which has been documented by Kuykendall 8 in its political and economic aspects, and reviewed by Handy 9 in terms of the cultural manifestations more familiar to anthropological analysis, will not, however, be treated here. Instead, only those particular facets of the general cultural transformation which are of particular pertinence to surfing will be discussed. The most obvious, though sometimes overlooked, factor to consider in relation to the course of Hawaiian culture in the last century is that of population decline. By 1900 the number of Hawaiians had dropped from an estimated 300,000 in 1778 to less than 40,000 (including part-Hawaiians), and then comprised only 25.7% of the total population of the Hawaiian Islands. 10 Aside from merely the decreased number of Hawaiians left to pursue any pastimes whatsoever, the social and cultural disorganization implied in such a sharp drop in population cannot be overlooked in considering the diminution in surfing activity. Of internal cultural events that may be singled out as affecting surfing and other traditional activities, the formal “breaking,” or abandonment of the tabu (kapu) system in 1819 looms large. Using the analogy that the tabu system had been the keystone of the arch supporting the traditional culture of Hawaii, 11 this event has been treated in terms of a cultural revolution in which, with the abandonment of the regulatory powers of the tabus, and hence the traditional religion, disorganization soon followed in family life, the class structure, in everyday economic life, and so on. 12 While many may be critical of this concept of cultural revolution, and the implication that it happened or was initiated overnight with the breaking of the tabus, as far as the decline of surfing is concerned, this abandonment can be seen as crucial. Aside from the immediate effect of removing the formal basis for deities in sports, surfing ritual, and the like, the most striking effect of this event was the lapsing of the Makahiki festival, celebrated for the last time in 1819 just prior to the abandonment of the tabu system. The Makahiki, a harvest festival of three-months duration in which all sports, including surfing, 13 were formally celebrated in great tournaments, had been one of the most significant factors providing for - 318 a formal integration of sports into Hawaiian society. However, with the lapse of the Makahiki, the great sports tournaments were never again celebrated; never again was there to be such public enthusiasm for the games and sports of Hawaii. The breakdown of the integration of Hawaiian society with the dislocation of the reciprocal relations between commoners and chiefs is also discussed by Handy 14 and is of relevance to our discussion here. During the first decades of the nineteenth century, the ali'i, or chiefs, eager to possess the luxuries introduced by the foreigners, contracted for more and more foreign goods, thus going deeply into debt to the traders. Then, under pressure to pay, the chiefs, utilizing their traditionally sanctioned right to command labour and tribute from the commoners, forced their subjects to pay heavy taxes and to perform such labours as scouring the mountains for the scented sandalwood, a most valuable trade item. So, instead of the traditional system whereby ideally the commoners provided the goods and services to the chiefs who in turn redistributed much back to the people, or at least used it for the public good, the system shifted to one of an exploitative character; e.g., the traders leading the chiefs into debt, and the chiefs forcing the commoners to provide the trade goods to pay off those debts.