Table of Contents vii

Table of Contents

1 An overview of Food Preservation 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Food Preservation 2 1.2.1 Importance of Food Preservation 2 1.2.2 Duration of Preservation 3 1.3 Methods of Food Preservation 6 1.3.1 Inhibition 7 1.3.2 Controlling the Water Activity and the Structure. 8 1.3.3 Inactivation. 8 1.3.4 Preventing Re-contamination. 10 1.4 Examples of Food Preservation Techniques. 10 1.5 References 12 2 Postharvest Physiology of Fruits and Vegetables 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Harvesting: Determinants of Maintaining Quality 14 2.2.1 Maintaining Quality of Crops before Harvesting 14 viii A Guide to Food Preservation

2.2.2 Maintaining Quality of Crops During Harvesting 17 2.2.3 Maintaining Quality of Crops after Harvesting 18 2.3 Post harvesting: Mechanism of its Physiology 20 2.3.1 Process of Augmentation or Maturity 20 2.3.2 Metabolism and Respiration 20 2.3.3 Activation and Stress of Water Molecules 21 2.3.4 Ripening and Senescence 21 2.3.5 Cytokinin Effects 21 2.3.6 Physiological Disorder and Breakdown 22 2.4 Reference 23 3 Postharvest Treatment 24 3.1 Introduction 24 3.2 Post Harvest Handling Techniques 25 3.3 Transportation 27 3.4 Necessity of Pre cooling 27 3.4.1 Various Methods of Cooling 28 3.5 Treatment Given after Post Harvesting 29 3.6 Reference 31 4 Postharvest Handling of Grains 32 4.1 Introduction 32 4.2 Properties, Harvesting and Thrashing 33 4.2.1 Structure and Composition of Cereal Grains and Pulses 33 4.2.2 Harvesting and Threshing 37 4.3 Drying 38 4.3.1 Equilibrium Moisture Content 38 4.3.2 Grain Drying System 40 4.4 Storage and Handling 41 4.4.1 Grain Storage 41 4.4.2 Grain Handling 42 4.5 Milling of the Grains 42 4.6 Summary 42 4.7 References 42 5 Review on the Minimal Processing of the Fruits and Vegetables 43 5.1 Introduction 43 5.2 Changes and Responses to the Minimally Processed Foods. 44 5.2.1 Ethylene 44 5.2.2 Oxidative Browning 45 5.2.3 Water Loss 45 5.2.4 Respiration 46 5.2.5 Yellowing of Leaves in the Vegetables. 46 Table of Contents ix

5.2.6 Ascorbic Acid Oxidation 46 5.3 Ways to Extend the Shelf Life 47 5.3.1 Sanitation 47 5.3.2 1-Methyl Chloropropene 48 5.4 Edible Coating 49 5.5 Results of Minimal Processing 50 5.6 References 50 6 T echniques to Preserve Fish and Seafood 51 6.1 Introduction 51 6.2 The importance of Fish production, its Utilization and Trade 52 6.2.1 Global Fish Marketing and Distribution 52 6.2.2 Utilization of Fish 53 6.2.3 How Humans Get Benefited by Consumption of Fish 54 6.2.4 Commercialization of Seafood and Fish 54 6.3 Different Kinds of Spoilage in Fish and Seafood 55 6.3.1 Spoilage due to the Biochemical Changes of Fresh Fish and Sea Food 55 6.3.2 Characteristics of Fish Spoilage 56 6.3.3 Damage done due to Improper Mechanical Handling 56 6.3.4 Some of Biotic, Abiotic Factors for Fish Spoilage 57 6.3.5 Environmental Factors 57 6.4 Physiochemical Changes of Spoilage in Fish and Seafood 57 6.5 Future Prospects for Fresh Fish and Seafood Preservation 58 6.6 References 59 7 Management of Red Meat: Post harvesting 60 7.1 Introduction 60 7.2 Anatomy of the Framework of Muscle 61 7.3 Infection of Carcass of Red Meat 62 7.4 Disinfection of Carcass of Red Meat 63 7.5 Muscular Contraction 65 7.6 Post harvesting Storage System of Red Meat 66 7.7 Conclusion 67 7.8 Reference 68 8 Postharvest Handling of Milk 69 8.1 Introduction 69 8.2 Structure and Composition of Milk 70 8.3 Milk’S Quality Criteria 71 8.4 Raw Milk’s Microflora 71 8.5 How to Control Micro-Organisms in Raw Milk? 73 8.5.1 Sanitizing and Cleaning Process 74 8.5.2 Process to Cool Down Milk 74 x A Guide to Food Preservation

8.5.3 Thermization (Thermalization) 75 8.5.4 Anti-microbial Constituents 75 8.6 Clarification 76 8.7 Reference 76 9 Food Preservation Through Fermentation 77 9.1 Introduction: 77 9.2 Origin of Fermentation 78 9.3 Utilization of Fermentation 79 9.4 Fermentation as a Preservation Technique 79 9.4.1 Infection of Food Due to the Various Microorganisms 80 9.4.2 The Advantages of Fermented Foods: 82 9.5 Microorganisms Used in the Fermentation Procedure 83 9.5.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria: 83 9.5.2 Acetic Acid Bacteria 83 9.5.3 Yeasts 84 9.6 Classification of Fermented Products 84 9.7 Microbial Food Preservatives 84 9.8 Reference 85 10 Natural Antimicrobials for Food Preservation 86 10.1 Introduction 86 10.2 Basic principle for the Utilization of Natural Compounds as Antimicrobial. 87 10.3 Natural Antimicrobials (plant Origin) 88 10.3.1 Phytoalexins 88 10.3.2 Organic Acids 89 10.3.3 Phenolic compounds 89 10.4 Natural Antimicrobials (Microbial Origin) 90 10.4.1 LAB a Protective Cultures 91 10.4.2 Bacteriocins Produced by LAB 92 10.4.3 Natural Formation of Bacteriocins Producers 93 10.5 various aspects of legislation 93 10.6 Future prospective 94 10.7 Reference 95 11 Food Preservation and Anti-Oxidants. 96 11.1 Rancidity and Rancidification of Food Products. 96 11.2 Classification of Rancidity. 97 11.3 Anti-oxidant and its Importance. 98 11.3.1 Dietary anti-oxidants and their Disease Fighting Properties. 98 11.3.2 Synthetic and Natural Antioxidants Used as Food Preservatives. 99 Table of Contents xi

11.4 Antioxidants and Food Preservation. 103 11.4.1 Preservation of Oils and Fats. 103 11.4.2 Anti-oxidants and Fat Emulsions. 104 11.5 Anti-oxidants and Food Packaging. 105 11.6 References 105 12 pH Levels of Food and Food Preservation. 106 12.1 Introduction. 106 12.2 pH level and Micro Organisms 108 12.3 Mode of pH Activity. 108 12.4 pH, Heat Stability and Micro Organisms. 110 12.5 pH Levels and Preservatives. 110 12.6 Enzymes and pH. 110 12.7 pH and Food Components 111 12.7.1 pH and Gel Formation 111 12.7.2 pH Values and Protein. 112 12.7.3 Procedures to Control pH Levels in Food. 113 12.8 References 113 13 Nitrites in Food Preservation 114 13.1 Introduction 114 13.2 Antimicrobial Characteristics of Nitrites 115 13.3 Growth Stage 116 13.4 Factors Affecting the Efficacy of Nitrites 117 13.4.1 pH Effect on Nitrites 117 13.4.2 Effect of Oxygen 118 13.4.3 Effects of Other Food Components 119 13.4.4 Effect of Heating 119 13.5 Inhibition of the Phosphoroclastic System 119 13.6 Inhibition of Enzyme Systems 119 13.7 Nitrites interacting with Food Components 120 13.8 Improving Functional and Sensory Properties 120 13.9 Health Aspects 121 13.10 References 122 14 Modified – Atmosphere Packaging of Produce 123 14.1 Introduction 123 14.2 Modified – Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 124 14.2.1 Advantages of Modified - Atmosphere Packaging Technology 125 14.2.2 Disadvantage of Modified – Atmospheric Packaging Technology. 125 14.2.3 Different types of Gases Used in MAP 126 14.3 Active Packaging 126 xii A Guide to Food Preservation

14.4 Packaging Materials Used for Modified - Atmospheric Packaging 127 14.4.1 Nature of the Products 128 14.4.2 Disposition of Metabolic Products 128 14.4.3 Permeability of the Packaging Products 129 14.5 The working of Modified – Atmosphere Packaging 130 14.6 Conclusion 131 14.7 Reference 131 15 Glass Transition and State Diagram of Floods 132 15.1 Introduction 132 15.1.1 Background 133 15.1.2 Glass Transition and Glassy state 133 15.2 State Diagrams and its Components 133 15.2.1 Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium State 135 15.2.2 Metastable Equilibrium 135 15.3 Different States of aterW in Foods 135 15.4 Theoretical Progression 136 15.5 Conclusion 136 15.6 Reference 137 16 Membranes in Food Preservation and Processing 138 16.1 Introduction 138 16.2 Principles that Govern Membrane Separation 139 16.3 Modules of Membranes 140 16.4 Membrane Separation System’s performance 141 16.5 Food Preservation and Processing Using Membranes in Food Industry 142 16.5.1 Application in case of Fruit Juices 142 16.5.2 Selection of Membrane 143 16.5.3 Concentration 143 16.5.4 Application in Dairy Industry and Quality of Ultra-filtered Milk 143 16.6 References: 144 17 Stickiness and Caking in Food Preservation 145 17.1 Introduction 145 17.2 Structure of Food Solids 146 17.2.1 Crystalline Structure 146 17.2.2 Amorphous Structure 146 17.2.3 Mixed Structure 146 17.3 Adhesiveness of Food Solids 147 17.3.1 Industries Producing Cereals 147 17.3.2 Industries Dealing with Confectionaries 148 17.3.3 Industries Dealing with Dairy Products 148 17.3.4 Industries Dealing with Powder Products 148 Table of Contents xiii

17.4 Adhesiveness in Packaging Equipments 149 17.5 Caking of Powders 149 17.5.1 Mechanisms Involved in Caking 149 17.5.2 Factors which are Responsible for Caking 150 17.6 Anti-caking Agents 152 17.7 Reference 153 18 Drying and Food Preservation 154 18.1 Introduction 154 18.2 Different Methods of Food Preservation 155 18.3 Drying as a process of Food Preservation 156 18.4 Dehydration as a Source of Drying 157 18.5 Methods of Drying for Food Preservation 158 18.6 Osmotic Dehydration 161 18.7 References: 161 19 Osmotic Dehydration of Foods 162 19.1 Introduction 162 19.2 Working Mechanism 163 19.3 Treatment by Salt Curing 165 19.4 Osmosis Effects on cells, Tissues and Biological Membranes 165 19.5 Application and Advantages of Osmotic Dehydration in Industrial Sector:- 166 19.6 Enrichment of Nutrients and Increased Product Shelf Life 166 19.7 Cost Cutting in Packaging and Distribution Segments: 166 19.8 Curbing the use of Harmful Chemicals 167 19.9 Enhancing the Overall Quality of the Product in terms of Colour, Flavour and Texture 167 19.10 Energy Efficient 167 19.11 The Factors that are Known to exert a Good Amount of effect on the Osmotic Dehydration Process 168 19.12 Problems Encountered While Applying Osmotic Dehydration Process in Food Industry 170 19.13 References 170 20 Activity of Water relating to Preservation of Food 171 20.1 Introduction 171

20.2 20.2 Measurement of Water Activity (aw) 173 20.3 Prophecy of Food Spoilage 174 20.4 Partially Moisturized Food 175

20.5 Tools for Calculation of Water Activity (aw) 175 20.6 Recent Advantages of Water Activity and its Quality Alternatives 177 20.7 References: 179 xiv A Guide to Food Preservation

21 The Importance of Edible Coating in Food Preservation and Surface Treatment 180 21.1 Introduction 180 21.2 Permeability Properties of the Coating 181 21.3 Materials used in the Formulation of an Edible Coating 181 21.3.1 Lipids 181 21.3.2 Resins 182 21.3.3 Carbohydrates 182 21.4 Additives in the Coating Formulations 183 21.4.1 Plasticizers 183 21.4.2 Emulsifiers and Surfactants 183 21.4.3 Fungicides 183 21.4.4 Preservatives 184 21.4.5 Antioxidants 184 21.5 The Process of Fumigation and Treatment Through Gas 184 21.6 Quarantine Methods for Fruits 185 21.7 Technique of Coating and Preparation of Surface 185 21.8 How it is used in Fruits 186 21.9 Consumer Behavior 186 21.10 References 187 22 Encapsulation 188 22.1 Introduction 188 22.2 Basic Principle of Encapsulation 189 22.3 Advantages and Different ypesT of Microcapsules 190 22.4 Encapsulation Matrix 192 22.5 Techniques of Microencapsulation 192 22.6 References 195 23 The Importance of Pasteurization in the Food Preservation 196 23.1 Introduction 196 23.2 Types of Pasteurization 197 23.3 The testing of Pasteurization 197 23.4 Instruments of Pasteurization 198 23.4.1 Post Packaging Pasteurization 198 23.4.2 Pasteurization of the Unpacked Liquids 199 23.5 Ways of Achieving the Desired Pasteurization 201 23.6 Quality of the Pasteurized Products 201 23.7 Pasteurized Food Packaging 202 23.7.1 Returnable Bottles 202 23.7.2 Cartons 202 23.7.3 Glass Bottles 203 23.7.4 Cans 203 23.7.5 PET Bottle and Other Containers 203 23.8 References 203 Table of Contents xv

24 Sterilization of Food and Procedures of Canning 204 24.1 Introduction 204 24.2 Methods used for Sterilization 206 24.3 Distribution of Temperature within a Retort System 207 24.3.1 Retort A (Designed for Water Immersion) 208 24.3.2 Retort B (Water Spray) 209 24.4 The Primary Principles of Canning 209 24.5 References: 211 25 Cooking 212 25.1 Introductions 212 25.2 Cooking 213 25.2.1 Ingredients 214 25.2.2 Health and Safety 214 25.3 Methods of Cooking 215 25.4 History of Cooking 216 25.5 Modern Cooking 217 25.6 References 218 26 Food Preservation by Freezing 219 26.1 Introduction 219 26.2 Preservation Mode 220 26.3 Frozen Foods Quality 220 26.3.1 Quality and Rate of Freezing 220 26.3.2 Microbial Aspects 221 26.3.3 Physical Alteration and Quality 222 26.4 References 225 26.5 Introduction 226 26.6 Art of Freezing-Melting Process 226 26.7 Historical Development 227 26.8 Classification of FM Process 228 26.8.1 Direct Contact Freezing 228 26.8.2 Indirect Contact Freezing 228 26.8.3 Comparison between Direct and Indirect FM Process 229 26.8.4 Vacuum Freezing 230 26.9 Application of Freezing-Melting in Food Industry 230 26.10 Reference 232 27 Sterilisation and Microwave Pasteurisation of Foods 233 27.1 Introduction 233 27.2 Principles of Microwave Heating 235 27.2.1 Microwave Generation 236 27.3 Benefits of Heating using Microwaves 237 xvi A Guide to Food Preservation

27.4 Factors which Affect the Heating in Microwaves 238 27.4.1 Frequency 238 27.4.2 Dielectric Properties 238 27.4.3 Content of Moisture 238 27.4.4 Mass 239 27.4.5 Temperature 239 27.4.6 Location and the Geometry of Foods 240 27.4.7 The Thermal Properties 240 27.4.8 Secondary Flow inside a Curved Pipe 241 27.5 Microwave Heating’s Industrial Applications 241 27.5.1 Tempering of Poultry, Meat and Fish 241 27.5.2 Bacon’s Pre - Cooking 242 27.5.3 Cooking Sausages 243 27.5.4 Baking 243 27.6 References 243 28 Ohmic Heating in Food Preservation 244 28.1 Introduction 244 28.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Ohmic heating 245 28.3 Applications and Cost of Ohmic Heating 246 28.3.1 Application 246 28.3.2 Cost 247 28.4 Ohmic Heating Process Modeling 247 28.4.1 Basic Equations 247 28.4.2 Microbial Death Kinetics 248 28.4.3 Vitamin Degradation Kinetics 249 28.5 New Utility of Ohmic Heating 249 28.5.1 29.5.1 Blanching 249 28.5.2 Evaporation 249 28.5.3 Dehydration 250 28.5.4 Fermentation 250 28.5.5 Extraction 250 28.6 References 250 29 Preservation of the Food Using the Light Energy 251 29.1 Introduction 251 29.2 Food preservation by UV rays 252 29.2.1 Fruits and Vegetables 252 29.2.2 Juices 253 29.2.3 Meat 253 29.2.4 Fish and Seafood 254 29.3 Quality Deterioration by the UV rays 255 29.3.1 Oxidation 255 29.3.2 UV in Sanitation 255 Table of Contents xvii

29.3.3 UV mode of Action 256 29.3.4 Effects on the Flavours 256 29.4 Photoreactivation 256 29.5 Visible Lights 257 29.6 References 257 30 Food Preservation using Magnetic Field 258 30.1 Introduction 258 30.2 The Principles of Magnetic Field and Magnetism 259 30.3 Generation of the Magnetic Field 262 30.3.1 Field Generated by the Electric Current 262 30.3.2 Technique of utilizing the Static Magnetic Field (SMF) 262 30.3.3 Technique to use the Oscillation Magnetic field 263 30.3.4 Ultra-High Magnetic Field 263 30.4 Preserving foods with the help of magnetic fields 264 30.4.1 Pasteurization 264 30.4.2 Method to inactivate microbial 264 30.4.3 Sterilization by magnetic field 264 30.5 Reference 265 31 Combined Techniques Involved in Food Preservation 266 31.1 Introduction: 266 31.2 Hurdle Effect and Hurdle echnologyT 267 31.2.1 The chief hurdles used in food preservation 268 31.2.2 Various Hurdles in Food Preservation 269 31.3 Basic Aspects of Food Preservation 269 31.3.1 Homeostasis 270 31.3.2 Metabolic Exhaustion 271 31.3.3 Stress Reaction 271 31.3.4 Multi-target Preservation 271 31.4 Applications of Hurdle Technology in Developed Countries 272 31.4.1 Food Fermented through Hurdle Technology 273 31.4.2 Heating of the Foods through Hurdle Technology 273 31.4.3 Chilling or Freezing of foods through hurdle technology 274 31.5 Applications of Hurdle Technology in Developing Countries 274 31.5.1 Preservation of Fruits in Latin America 274 31.5.2 Preservation of Fruits in China 275 31.5.3 Indian Diary Products 275 31.6 Reference 275 32 The Process of Hurdle Technology for Gentle and Fruitful Preservation of Foods 276 32.1 Introduction 276 32.2 Dynamics of Hurdle Technology 277 xviii A Guide to Food Preservation

32.3 Mild Preservation 278 32.4 Evolution of Hurdle Technology 278 32.5 Importance of Maintaining Balance in Hurdle Technology 278 32.6 Mechanism of Hurdle Technology for the Preservation of Food 279 32.7 Principles of Hurdle Technology 281 32.8 Hurdle Effect 282 32.9 Role of Hurdle Technology in Food Preservation 282 32.10 Conclusion 283 32.11 References 283 33 Incorporating Packaging as a Preservation Technique 284 33.1 Introduction 284 33.2 Purpose of Packaging 285 33.2.1 Product Containment 287 33.2.2 Preservation by Maintaining Quality 288 33.2.3 Presentation 288 33.2.4 Protection During Processing 289 33.3 Environmental Considerations 289 33.3.1 Environmental Damage 290 33.3.2 Reuse 290 33.3.3 Recycle 290 33.3.4 Reduce 291 33.4 The Road Ahead 291 33.5 Reference 291 34 Materials Used for the Packaging of Food 292 34.1 Introduction 292 34.2 Variety of Materials which are used for Packaging 293 34.2.1 Usage of Plastic Materials 294 34.2.2 Usage of Metals 296 34.2.3 Usage of Glass for Food Preservation 297 34.2.4 Usage of Papers, Timbers, and Cardboards 297 34.3 References 298 35 Food Packaging Interaction 299 35.1 Introduction 299 35.2 Safety and Interaction of Food Packaging 300 35.3 Migration of Components Present in Product Package 301 35.3.1 Migrating Substances 301 35.3.2 Plasticizers 301 35.3.3 Thermal Stabilizers 301 35.3.4 Surface Modifying Property and Slip Additives 301 35.3.5 Antiaging Additives 302 35.3.6 Optical Modifying Property 302 Table of Contents xix

35.3.7 Oligomers and Monomers 302 35.3.8 Contaminants 302 35.4 Factors of Migration 303 35.4.1 Polymeric Temperature of Glass Transition 303 35.4.2 Migrants’ Solubility 303 35.4.3 Dispersion into Bulk of Food 303 35.5 Interaction between Food and Materials Used in Packaging 304 35.6 Interaction between Food and Paper 305 35.7 Interaction between Food and Plastic 305 35.8 Packaging and Stickiness 305 35.9 Reference 305 36 Hygienic and Sanitation in Food Industry 306 36.1 Introduction 306 36.2 Hygienic Design 307 36.2.1 Improving Design 307 36.2.2 Factory 308 36.3 Sanitation 310 36.3.1 Need for Sanitation 310 36.3.2 Establishment of Sanitary Practices 310 36.4 References 312 37 Evaluation of Hazards: Food Preservation 313 37.1 Introduction 313 37.2 Program of Evaluation of Hazards 314 37.3 Scope of HACCP 315 37.4 Principles of HACCP 316 37.5 Types of Hazards 316 37.5.1 Hazards of the Chemical Factors 316 37.5.2 Hazards of the Biological Factors 316 37.5.3 Hazards of the Physical Factors 317 37.6 Sources and Measures of Hazards 317 37.7 Conclusion 318 37.8 Reference 319 38 Good Manufacturing Practices 320 38.1 Introduction 320 38.2 Activities Compiled Under Gmp 321 38.3 Some Basic Principles of Goods and Manufacturing Process 322 38.4 Foundation of Good Manufacturing Practices 323 38.5 Manufacturing Procedures that Renders a Substantiate Effect 323 38.6 Procedures of Food Control that Renders a Substantiate Effect 323 38.7 Fundamental Steps Required for Proper Implementation of GMP 323 xx A Guide to Food Preservation

38.8 Activities Practiced Under GmP 324 38.8.1 Organisation and Personnel Management 325 38.8.2 Training and Personal Hygiene 325 38.8.3 Recruitment of the Personnel’s 325 38.8.4 Training of Hygiene Imparted to the Personnel’s 325 38.8.5 Construction of the Infrastructure and other Building Facilities 326 38.8.6 Equipment’s 326 38.8.7 Choice and Control the Various Materials 327 38.8.8 Operational Control and Production 328 38.8.9 Controls Mandated to be Carried Out During Actual Operation 328 38.8.10 Control and Monitoring Checks of the Final Product: 329 38.8.11 Packaging and Delivery Of the Final Product 329 38.8.12 Appropriate Storing and Distribution of the Final Products 329 38.9 Quality Control 330 38.10 Documentation 332 38.10.1 Documents Regarding the Instruction of the Various Process 332 38.10.2 Programs 332 38.10.3 Various types of Reports and Records 332 38.11 Cleanliness and Sanitation 332 38.12 Calibration and Maintenance of the Equipments 333 38.13 Customer Feedback Redressal 333 38.14 Audits, Redressal and Recalling Procedure 334 38.15 Reference 334 39 Management of Profits and Quality 335 39.1 Introduction 335 39.2 Commercial Requirements 336 39.2.1 Revenue – Cost – Assets 336 39.2.2 Price, Margins and Costs 337 39.2.3 Technical Impacts on the Business 338 39.2.4 Technical Responsibilities 339 39.3 Quality Management 340 39.3.1 Sources of the Quality Problem 340 39.3.2 Quality Processes 341 39.4 References 341 Index 342