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Title of Thesis Or Dissertation, Worded GRAVE CONCERNS: DECAY, DEATH, AND NATURE IN THE EARLY REPUBLIC by STEVEN G. LEONE A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of History and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2018 DISSERTATION APPROVAL PAGE Student: Steven G. Leone Title: Grave Concerns: Decay, Death, and Nature in the Early Republic This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of History by: Matthew Dennis Chairperson Daniel Pope Core Member Marsha Weisiger Core Member Gordon Sayre Institutional Representative and Sara D. Hodges Interim Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded June 2018 ii © 2018 Steven G. Leone This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs (United States) License. iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Steven G. Leone Doctor of Philosophy Department of History June 2018 Title: Grave Concerns: Decay, Death, and Nature in the Early Republic While multiple questions drive this project, one fundamental query lays at its center. How did American approaches to mortality, their own and others, during the early national period (roughly 1770 to 1850) shape both their understanding of themselves and their environment? The answer to that question exposes a distinct set of values revolving around preparation for death, and acknowledgment and respect for their own (and others mortality), which Americans imbibed from various and disparate sources. More specifically, the first half of the project examines how the letters they wrote and read, the sermons they listened to, the mourning rituals they practiced, the burial grounds they utilized, and the novels and poetry they consumed all combined to create a shared knowledge base and approach to death during the early republic. Uniquely, these principles found strength through a conscious linking of mortality to the natural world. Americans understood their own death as part of a larger, both positive and negative, perfected natural system created and perpetuated by God. The American approach towards mortality, however, was not static and the nineteenth century bore witness to the emergence of a sentimentalized, sanitized, and less human inclusive vision of mortality during 1830s and beyond. Ironically, nature remained central to the way Americans experienced death, however, in a consciously iv aesthetic, romantic, controlled manner. It is written into the present where rolling and manicured lawns combine together with still ponds to create bucolic scenes of peaceful rest among scenes of beauty. The old, grim, but no less natural lessons of worms, dirt, decay, and dissolution no longer hold sway, ignoring the vital and humbling connection between human bodies and the natural world that was understood in the early republic. This shift (and the focus of the second half of the dissertation), was spurred on by numerous interrelated but distinct factors ranging from urban growth, disease, foreign immigration, and changing cultural sentiments. Americans during the 1830s, 40s, and 50s redefined their relationship to death and in doing so consciously turned away from a vibrant, dynamic, and humbling vision of mortality grounded in the natural world. v CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Steven G. Leone GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene Rutgers, State University of New Jersey at Newark Connecticut College, New London DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy, History, 2018, University of Oregon Masters of Arts, History, 2011, Rutgers, State University of New Jersey at Newark Bachelor of Arts, History and Philosophy, 2006, Connecticut College AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Early National and nineteenth Century American History American Environmental History PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Instructor of record, Department of History, University of Oregon, Eugene, 2014, 2016 Graduate Employee, Department of History, University of Oregon, Eugene, 2011-2018 GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS: Graduate Teaching Fellowship, History, 2011-2016 University of Oregon Dissertation Fellowship, College of Arts and Sciences, 2016 American Society for 18th Century Studies Boston Athenaeum Research Fellowship, Boston Athenaeum, 2015 University of Oregon Research Fellowship, History, 2014 vi Leah Kirker Memorial Teaching Award, History, 2014 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It will come as no surprise that this project, while only bearing my name under the title, was inherently collaborative and dependent on numerous people. I would like to take a few moments to thank those institutions and people so integral to the work you are about to consider. No amount of gratitude will ever be enough concerning my mentor, adviser, and friend, Matthew Dennis, who over the past years has shepherded, encouraged, critiqued, and supported me and this project at every instance and in every permutation I presented to him. Thank you Matt. I would also like to recognize the individual members of my committee: Marsha Weisiger, Gordon Sayre, and Daniel Pope. Without your words of encouragement, boundless patience, and unique insights (as updates dwindled and progress slowed) this entire project would have remained as distant and hazy as it was so many years ago during those halting and initial first steps. All of you have and will continue to leave an indelible mark on my approach to the historian’s craft. I also owe a debt of gratitude to Neil Maher whose contagious energy, enthusiasm, and friendship during this project’s earliest days gave me the confidence to believe in myself and continue pushing my (then) thesis down avenues that are essential to its DNA today. Without the support of the University of Oregon, the College of Arts and Sciences, the Graduate School, and the Department of History this project would not exist. The financial and academic support provided by these different facets of the University of Oregon were not just important, but critical to my ability to research and write the dissertation. I benefitted from a generous research grant from the Department of History in 2014 and was honored to receive a yearlong Dissertation Fellowship from the viii College of Arts and Sciences in 2016. I would also like to thank the American Society for 18th Century Studies and the Boston Athenaeum who generously provided me a research fellowship in 2015. More specifically, I would like to express my appreciation for the entire staff of the Boston Athenaeum and, particularly, Mary Warnement and Carolle R. Morini who were so gracious and helpful during my summer there. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the archivists and staff at the Virginia Historical Society in Richmond, Virginia, and at the New York Historical Society in New York, New York, whose professionalism and knowledge were crucial to my research. While there are countless others that warrant thanks, I would like to finish by acknowledging the contributions of my friends and family. Without you all, getting through those early morning writing sessions and late night paper grading moments would have been impossible. To that end, I would like to particularly thank Tara Keegan, Ernest Anastasio III, Miles Redding, Jerome Garcia, Christopher Smith, Kenneth Surles, and John Bedan you will never know just how much I needed all of you. I also want to recognize my family: Linda, Michael, Karl, Lindsey, Maureen, Melissa, Delores, Kordelia, Trey, Grant, and Lennox. All of you cheered me when I failed and celebrated for me when I succeeded. Lastly, and unsurprisingly, I would like to thank my mother and father, Barbara and Dominick, it is understatement to say I could not have done this without the both of you. Your love and unswerving confidence in me will never be forgotten. Truly and deeply, thank you. ix For Barbara and Dominick, you never wavered. x TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. GRAVE CONCERNS .............................................................................................. 1 II. DUST TO DUST ..................................................................................................... 17 III. FOOD FOR THE WORMS ................................................................................... 49 IV. THE GREEN TURF SWELLS ABOVE THY MOLDERING CLAY................. 84 V. NOXIOUS EXHALATIONS ................................................................................. 112 VI. PEOPLE OF LOW CHARACTER ....................................................................... 145 VII. HIDDEN FROM MORTAL EYES ..................................................................... 175 VIII. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 217 REFERENCES CITED ................................................................................................ 223 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Title page from A Funeral Sermon Delivered at Newbury-Port, Dec. 30, 1770 (Newburyport: T. and J. Fleet, 1771), showing the distinct skull and crossed bones. ........................................................................................ 45 2. Title page from Death the Lot of All! (Hartford: Hudson and Goodwin, 1806), depicting a weeping willow, grasses, and urn. ...................................................... 47 3. “A Plan of Charles Town with its Entrenchments and those made
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