Methodological Bases of Modern Soviet Soil Science and Its Future Development

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Methodological bases of modern soviet soil science and its future development

Boris G. ROZANOV Professor of Pedology, Mosco~v State University, 117234 Moscow, U.S.S.R.

SUMMARY

Methodological bases of modern Soviet soil science have been treated in the present article in light of its historical developmenl from DOKUTCHAEV’S times till present. Two main stages or trends were distinguished within this century of science development: the stage of soil inventary and the stage of soil management. Basic methodological concepts are being considered, starting from the soil definition in its present form, through the concept of soil evolution; the concepf of soil as a component of ecosystems of the Biosphere; the concept of elementary soil processes and current regimes of soil formation; the principles of mathematical modelling of soil processes. An attempt was made fo correlate fhe development of soil science with changing historical tasks of socioeconomic developmenf of fhe country.

Les bases methodologiques de la science du sol sovietique moderne sont fruit&es duns le present article a la lumibre de leur dtveloppement historique depuis l’tpoque de DOKUTCHAEV jusqu’a l’epoque actuelle. Deux principaux stades ou deux tendances onf et& distingues duns ce sibcle de ddveloppemenl scientifique : le shade de l’inventaire ef le stade de la gestion des ~01s. Les concepts methodologiques de base sont consid&% a partir de la forme acluelle de la definition du sol et a lravers le concepf de l’dvolution du sol, le concept du sol comme composante des dcosystemes de la Biosphere, le concept des processus elementaires et des regimes actuels de la formation du sol, et a travers les principes de la modelisation des processus pddologiques. Un essai de correlation est entrepris entre le developpement de la science du sol et les changements hisloriques des besoins socioeconomiques du developpement du pays.

MOTS CLBS : Science du sol sovietique. Histoire et concepts fondamentaux. Relation avec le materialisme dialec- tique. Inventaire et gestion des ~01s. Niveaux d’organisation. Developpement historique des processus. R6le du sol dans les Bcosystemes. Methodes de modelisation. Perspectives d’avenir.

BASIC CONCEPTS End of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th in the history of science in general, and the Talking about the present state of the Soviet soil natural science in particular, is characterised as science and its methodological basis, it is necessary a period of vigorous progressive development. The to proceed from the history of its development which reader is well informed, of course, about the main started at the eve of the 20th century by V. V. DOKU- milestones of the history of soil science, and there TCHAEV and the brilliant team of his disciples and is no need to describe it once more in a detail. followers. However, it is necessary to stress once more the

Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M., SC. Pddol., vol. XIX, no 1, 1982: 79-90. 79 B. G. ROZANOV point, that the methodological bases of modern methodological principles there are the main doctrines genetical soil science were laid down during that of the materialistic dialectics: period, when the ideas, approaches and methods - of the priority of fhe Maffer over the Know- of the materialistic dialectics were put into the service ledge; of natural science. The Russian naturalists of that - of the Mooemenf as the main form of existence period were basically materialists and dialectics. of the Matter; This is fully applicable to the Russian school of - soil science as well, which was initiated by of the general inferdependence and inferconnec- V. V. DOKUTCHAEV. fion of phenomena in Nature; The classics of Russian soil science-V. V. DOKU- -- of the causal deferminafion of natural pheno- TCHAEV, N. 81. SIBIRTSEV, P. A. KOSTYTCHEV, mena; P. S. KOSSOVITCH, K. D. GLINKA- as well as their -~ of the knoruledge as a reflection of the surround- disciples have formulated during the thirty years ing man reality. of 1880-1910 a number of basic principles of genetic soil science, which constitute the theoretical basement The connection of the methodology of modern of modern methodological approaches: soviet soil science with Marx-Lenin’s philosophy was specifically studied and underlined by a number -the concept of soil as an independenf natural of scientists (KOVDA, 1970; DOBROVOLSKI, 19SO). hisforical body of Nature, which develops with time An experience of decades of development of the from the parent rocks under the influence of factors theory of genetical soil science and of the practical of soil formation, among which the leading role utilization of its achievements in agriculture and is played by living organisms; soil amelioration have proved vitability and adequa- -the concept, of factors of soil formation as an teness of these basic principles, which did not loose interdependent and integrated complex of natural none of their leading role in the methodology of phenomena, under simultaneous and integrated modern soil science. On the contrary, they were action of which the soil is forming and developing; developed, deepened, concretized, enriched by sub- --the concept of hisforism of soil formation and sequent studies and constitute the theoretical basis of succession of stages of soil formation and of the soviet soil science at the present stage of evolution; its development. - the concept of unify of soil body as an indepen- There is neither necessity nor possibility to tell dent natural body and related to this concept the here the whole complicated and very instructive profile method of soil study, which proceeds from history of the soviet soil science for the past hundred a doctrine of soil profile as a unity of genetic soil years. A solid volume is necessary for this endeavour horizons; but the magasine article; this is a subject of special capital investigation. However, we shall turn to some -the concept of soil types and types of soil historical periods during the following narratives, formation as stages of soil-forming process on the as the modern doctrines, ideas, concepts and metho- long way of development and evolution; dological approaches are the result, of prolonged -the concept of the present soil cover as a stage and energetic scientific searches and studies, the of the global soil cover development in the history result of vigorous scientific discussions, some of of geological evolution of its surface; which took several decades of trials and errors. --the concept of soil zones and zonal types (associations of types) of soils as the main form of organization of the global soil cover reflecting TWO STAGES/DIRECTIONS OF SOIL SCIE;NCE the structure and history of the Earth’s surface DEVELOPMENT evolution (I); It is possible to distinguish two broad periods - the concept of soil classification and systematics in the history of the soviet soil science, which as a reflection of really existing in nature bonds essentially overlap each other in time. They can not (gzg;;,ical, genetical, evolutionary) between diffe- be limited by some concrete years: they are rather not the time periods, but sooner the main directions It is not difficult to see, that at the basis of these of st.udies, connected with certain socio-economic

(11 The present understanding of nature and forms of soil zonality is much wider and more rich than the originally formulated doctrine of latitudal regular global zones, but the principal basis of the concept has been preserved.

80 Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M., sir. Pidol., vol. XIX, no 1, 1982: 79-90. Soviet soil science and its future deuetopment mandate to science at this or that stage of develop- picks and hollows in the activities, there were ment of the society. The first period is still continuing periods of vigorous development and relative and indeed did not loose its importance, hut, on the stagnation. The history of soil science is rich in contrary, develops rather actively. The second various events. period have formed itself relatively not long ago Presently we are somewhere in the middle of and makes only first steps, constituting the basis the historic process of interrelationship of two of future development of soil science. science directions: inventarization of soils proceeds If the first period may be generally characterized as intensively, as well as the investigat,ion of their a period of invenfarizafion (characteristics, mapping, properties; we still do not yet get accurate maps classification, evaluation) of soils and soil cover, for all territories, we do not yet have generally the second may be also generally characterized as accepted satisfactory soil classification, we still a period of management and control of soils and soil do not know many things about soil properties cover. A new problem is now before the soil science, and their genesis. However, already accumulated which requires new methodological approaches as knowledge allowed us to pass into the second stage: well. to come to management of fhe soils and the processes The relationship of these two qualitatively diffe- going on in them. This transition went slowly and rent stages of the soviet soil science development inadvertently, hesitantly at the first steps, but it may be schematically illustrated by two inter- accumulates power more and more as the time connected cones with oppositely directed bases: passes. Already, a certain theoretical evaluation of this stage of science development is being attempted to make (Kovnn, 1.966, 1970, 1977, 1980).

INVENTARIZATION characteristics . . . mapping . . . classification . . . SOIL DEFINITION

evaluation . . . / The DOKUTCHAEV’S genetical methodology based . . . conceptualisation . . . methodology . . . on the principles of materialistic dialectics helped in many respects to the progressive development of soil management. We have in mind, first of a!l, the DOKUTCHAEV’S soil definition and the doctrine systemanab’sisrJladelling . . . s~~~~~~~pefiie) of factors of soil formation, which were formulated by him during 1879-1901 (DOKUTCHAEV, 1879, 1881, 1899, 1901). Being originated at the junction of different b TIME branches of the natural science, the genetical soil science has absorbed the methodological approaches of these sciences and, on this basis, has worked We can not say when the first period will stop out its own methodology, at the basis of which there and will it stop at all or not; most probably, it will is a dialectic principle of causal interdependence continue forever, as endless is the process of knowing of phenomena which is the central idea of the itself of the surrounding man reality. We can not doctrine of factors of soil formation. Exactly due say when the second period has started, as its to such met,hodological approach, in the genetical elements may be traced into the very first works soil science from the DOKUTCHAEV’S times, not of the classics of soil science. However, at some a substrate-attributive definition of the main stage we suddenly and unexpectedly recognised subject of study, soil, was adopted, but Ihe functional the coexistence of these fwo stages/directions and have definition, and not in the terms of causal internal seen that the second one started to develop quickly bonds, but in terms of ezternal functional bonds involving more and more efforts and resources. of management: The above illustrated relationship finds more and S=f (cl, 0, r, p, t...). more reflection and concretization in scientific plans and programmes, in the state financing of science, Although at this approach the internal mechanisms in concentration of efforts of scientists on the of a process may appear hidden from us, nevertheless solving of these or those scientific problems. we may get, enough reliable picture of external Naturally, the historic development of these two functional bonds of a system and its environment. directions of soil science and their concrete rela- It is well known, that the functional bonds of tionship was never so smooth and regular as it is the system and its environment are particularly shown at the above scheme; vice versa! there were important for the processes of management. Such

Cah. O.H.S.T.O.M., sir. Bdot., vol. XIX, no 1, 198%: 79-90. 81 B. G. ROZ_41VOV approach permits to describe systems with assis- 10 level of atomic interactions ; tence of generalized model of two-dimentional vector 20 level of molecular-ionic interactions; (NOWK, 1964) : 30 level of elementary soil particles ; 40 level of micro- and macro- aggregnles, soil new formations outcome-f (entry). and inclusions; 50 level of soil genetical horizons; We did not fully appreciate yet all the conse- 60 level of soil indiuiduum (soil profile, soil body, pedon); quences of such a “cybernetical” approach to soil 70 level of elementary soil area: dellnit,ion which further considerable formalisation 80 level of the soil couer. and mathematisation of knowledge, and do not yet, fully know how to use it in practice, but its These concepts appeared as a basis for detailed advantages from the point of view of management studies of construction and structural organization of soil processes and soil fertility as a whole are of soil body (TARGULJAN et al., 1974; KORNBLUM, doubtless both theoretically and practically. Indeed, 1974, 1975; KARPATCHEVSKI et al., 1980), which if to think about this definition of natural soil (S) revealed the need for principally new approaches characterizing it as a result (f) of integrated and to studies of soil constitut.ion in a complex of micro-: simultaneous action of living organisms (o), climate meso- and macro-morphological analysis wit,h the (cl), relief (r) and time (t) on the parent rock (p), utilization of precise analytical instruments directly the role of functional external bonds having deter- in the field. mining significance in our relationship to soil as These studies appeared as a realisation of the one of the main sources of life at the Earth’s surface system hierarchic approach to soil investigation becomes clear. and clearly demonstrated the complex hierarchy of morphological elements in soils and corresponding to them soil-formation processes. The concept of SOIL AS VERY COMPLEX STRUCTURAL soil morphons (horizontal, interhorizontal, extra- SYSTEM horizontal or ahorizontal) as complex or composite morphological elements and soil morphems as simple There is one more important aspect of the morphological elements was introduced (KORNBLUM, DOKUTCHAEV’S soil definition in its present more 1975). The genetical soil horizon appears in this elaborated form, which is also not fully appreciated hierarchic system of morphological elements as and used yet by soil scientists. The modern genetical certain polymorphon (repetition of monotypic mor- soil science proceeds from a concept of soil as very phons) or heteropolymorphon (repetition of het.ero- complex structural system, e.i. the system with typic morphons), represent,ing the largest subsystem endlessly great diversity of internal and external within the united genet.ical system of soil body. functional bonds? which has very complex hierarchic The results of a study of derno-podzolic soil of structural organization ( ROZANOV, 1967, 1975). For Moscow region by a complex of methods at micro-, a long time in soil science and particularly in agricul- meso- and macro-levels of it,s organization, which tural practices the concept prevailed that, by acting were published by V. 0. TARCULJAN and his upon any one factor (for example, either available colleagues (1974), represents an example of the new water supply or available nitrogen or phosphorus system-hierarchic integrated approach to soil inves- stock) it is possible to manage the processes of soil tigation, which was followed in many cases since fertility. Presently, such an approach is recognized then. In this study the authors attempted to as principally impermissible as it is not applicable discover the main combination of separate processes, in substance to very complex systems which do not which constitute general macro-process of soil permit changing of only one factor at a time, as formation, to characterize their distribution by the these systems are so dynamic and internally connec- horizons and to evaluate their role in the differentia- ted that a change of one factor becomes an immediate tion of soil profile. The following components were cause of changes of others, sometimes very numerous studied: factors. A concept of hierarchic levels of structural soil lo total mass (TM) in all horizons; organization, which has an important methodo- 20 intrapedat mass (IPM) there, where it was distinguishable logical significance, was developed on the basis morphologically from cutans on ped surfaces and from the matter filling up the cracks; of the above approach (ROZANOV, 1975 ; VORONIN, 30 infer-crack mass (ICM) for the horizons where the structure 1979). It was demonstrated that investigation of was weakly developed, but it was possible to separate soil as a natural body requires distinguishing the the matter filling up the cracks from inter-crack matter; hierarchic series of levels of structural organization 40 i&a-crack mass (INCM) of large cracks ; of soil, each of which demands specific methods 50 substance of various physically separable cutans and and approaches of study, control and management: new formations.

82 Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M., St+. Pddol., vol. XIX, no 1, 1982: Y9-90. Soviet soil science nnd its future deuelopment

All these data furthered development, of factually Purely descriptive formula “present factors-present justified concept of genesis for the studied soil in processes-present properties” was replaced by a connection with the history of post-glacial evolution historical-dynamic formula “factors in their histokxzl of landscapes in this region. On this basis, a very developmenf--processes in their historical deveiop- important methodological conclusion was made ment-present properties”. Such understanding of soil concerning the relationship between soil properties formation furthered substantial deepening of the and its genesis. It was shown that t,he soil, which DOKUTCHAEV’S doctrine of factors of soil formation is observed and studied “today”, is not the adequate as a whole and allowed us to put the genetical product of only present combination of fact,ors analysis of soil formation onto a soil historical of soil formation, of the present environment. The basis. Decades of serious scientific discussion were results of long and complicat,ed evolution are required to make this presently self evident concept reflected, “recorded” integrally in the soil profile. generally recogni zed and adopted. Further development of this concept have lead The historical approach to the analysis of soil to formulation of a principle according to which and soil formation furthered broadening and deepen- in any given soil t,here is a combination of conser- ing of the concept of soil and soil cover evolution vative, stable features resulting from ancient, some- which was originally formulated by t,he classics times not act,ing any more processes, and modern, of Russian soil science. “alive” features which are being formed at present: The first scientific concepts of soil evolution “soil-memory” and “soil-momentum” (TARCULJAN, we find in DOKUTCHAEV’S works on Siberian (1882) SOKOLOV, 1978). The “soil-memory” of TARGULJAN and Russian (1883) chernozems. Indeed, these and SOKOLOV is not well known to soil scientist,s studies forced him to include time into the factors pedorelict, but those conservative, stable features of soil formation. Already at the first steps of soil of present-day soils (for example, granulometric science an evolutionary principle was formulated, and mineralogical differentiation of the profile into according to which the presently observed soil cover genetical horizons), which are formed in a long of the world should be considered only as one of history of soil formation, inherited and included t.he stages in its development, and separate soil into the profile of present-day soil. forms with which we have to deal at present could present other forms of soil formation in the past and can undergo substantial transformation in the CONCEPT OF SOIL EVOLU’I’ION future ( KOSSOVITCH, 1911). Later on, considerable The above described concepts appeared to be as factual material was accumulated by the Soviet the further development and deepening of the soil scientists concerning the evolution of some concept of historism of soit formation (Kovn~, soil types into the other and concerning the genetical 1969). The long existing doctrine of contemporanity, bonds between different soils. according to which the present-day soils reflect These evolutionary approaches and principles in their constitution and features the complex were utilized by V. A. KOVDA and his school in of present-day factors of soil formation and are formulating a consistent evolutionary concept of formed under its influence, was replaced by the soil formation and soil geography of the world, concept of history of soil formation, the basic in which, although geochemically interconnected, elements of which were already outlined by but up to a considerable degree genetically indepen- V. V. DOI~UTCHAEV (1883). According to this concept, dent evolutionary lines of soil formation of three the present-day soils are not necessarily adequate main morphosfructures of the globe have been to the present-day complex of factors of soil forma- considered: water-accumulative plains and lowlands, tion. On the comrary, the maj0rit.y of world soils including glacial, fluvioglacial, alluvial and colluvial are the ancient soils, which have passed in their plains; denudation high plains and plateaux; moun- evolution a number of stages of evolution which tain systems (KOVDA, 1965, 1973; KOVDA, ROZANOV, proceeded under the conditions quite different from SAMOILOVA, 1968; KOVDA, DOBROVOMKI, LOBOVA, the existing and under the influence of another ROZANOV, 1976 ; ROZANOV, 1977). complexes of factors of soil formation. The present According to three main morphostructures of day factors of soil formation are responsible for the land, three broad evolutionary lines of soil the present regimes and processes going on in development have been distinguished: hydromor- already formed soil profile which might have been phozzs, authomorphous and mountainous-erosion soil developed under different conditions and regimes formation, each with its own particularities and stages ( KOVDA, 1973). Correspondingly, the well known of soil evolution. Soil development in each of the formula “factors-processes-properties” is considered evolutionary lines is considered on the background now in a historical aspect and with many notes. of geological processes of formation and development

Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M., sir. Pkdol., uol. XIX, no I, 1982: 79-90. 83 B. G. ROZANOV _~_._ ~~~

TABLE 1

Evolution lines of soil formation (KOVDA, 1973; ROZANOV, 1977)

Farm”la of budget T Examples of main soil Evolution of substances in Geomorphic types at a given stage line soil formation (1) surfaces of land of evolution

3 4

Hydromorphous Hydroaccumulative S=f(P+Ab+Am+Ag),t marine coasts, deltas mangrove, marsh and soil formatiar soils estuaries, floodlands alluvial soils

Hydmmorphic S=f(P+Ab+Ag), t depressions and soils lowlands

Wesohydromorphic S-f (P+Ab:Ag) , t lowlands, slope meadaw-chernozemic. soil6 teils, above-flood meadaw-chestnut, river terraces meadow-sierozemicsoils

Paleohydromarphic S=f(P+Ab+&‘-AS) , t high river terraces, vertisols, solonetz, soils elevated lowlands brunizems

Proterohydro- S=f @+.a+& ‘Y&g) , t weakly dissected morphicsoils elevated plains

Reoauthomorphic S=f(P'+Ab-As),t highly dissected podzolic, pseudopodzolic soils elevated plains soils

Authomorphous Primitive-autho- S-f(L’+Ab-Am-AS),t yaung denudation lithosols, regosals soil formatior morphicsoils plains, highly an denudation dissected plateaux plains and plateaux Automorohic soils S=f(P+Ab-AS) , t denudatian plains bromearths, brown and plateaux aridic soils

Paleoauthomorphic S-f(F+Ab-Ag’-A& , t old denudation ferrallitic and sails plains and plateaux allitic soils - _ Mountainous- Mountainous S-f(P+Ab+Am+Ag).t rocky young and lithosols erosion soil primitive soils uplifted mountains formation on mountainslops S=f(P’+

(1) S =: soil, P = parent rock, Ab = biological accumulation, Am = mechanical accumulation, Ag = present geochemical accumulation, Ag’ = past geochemical accumulation, t = time of soil formation.

of the earth crust taking into account ancient and submerging territories a reversed change of stages present tectonic, hypergenic and denudation pro- of soil evolution may have place as well with the cesses, the processes of transformation and translo- gradual growth of geochemical accumulation in cation of products of weathering and soil formation. previously eluviated soils (for example, salinizat,ion A budget concept of soil formation was also utilized, and carbonatization of ferralites). as it was established that the main feature of soil Evolutionary-historical principles and concepts formation development and evolution is the gradual in this or that form play the leading role in modern change to fhe budget of matter and energy which Sooiet soil science, constituting the basis for soil is a result of interaction of little biological and large prognosis and amelioration. geological circulations of substances at the planet surface (see Table 1). The successive stages of evolu- SOIL AS A COMPONENT OF ECOSYSTEMS OF tion of the budget of substances in soil formation THE BIOSPHERE represent certain quantitafiue-qualitative steps of the process of evolution on the surface of the globe. Soil is presently considered by the Soviet soil The hydromorphous soil formation is usually replaced scientists dialectically both as element of the soil by neoauthomorphous in the processes of tectonic cover, a specific global coating, pedosphere, and as uplifts; at the same time, on the tectonically a component of t,he biosphere (KOVDA, 1971, 1973,

84 Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M., se+. Pc?dol., vol. XIX, no 1, 1982: 79-90. Soviet soil science and its future deuelopmenf

1974, 1980). At the same time it is considered as kinds of the global systems, living matter 2 envi- a subsystem in natural and anthropogenic ecosystems ronment, and the living matter, atmosphere, litho- ( GILMANOV, 1977; BAZILRVITCH, 1979; FEDOROV, sphere, hydrosphere and pedosphere are the main GILMANOV, 1980). Such three-dimentional approach segments of the biosphere, closely interconnected to soil furthered particularly fruitful development among each other by the flows of substance and of studies concerned with the problems of biological energy; productivity of the global land (BAZILEYITCH, 20 homeoslaticity of the biosphere or its selfregula- RODIN, 1965: 1967, 1970; KOVDA, 1966, 1971, 1974, tion which conditions its certain stability, elasticity 1977; BAZILEVITCH, 1979) and creating the mana- and resistance to external influences; geable ecosystems, one of the main mechanisms 30 stability energy flow and accumulation, which of management of which is soil. conditions the stability of funct.ion of ecosystems The consideration of soil as a component of the and the biosphere as a whole; biosphere during recent decades appeared very productive? particularly in the studies of biological 40 expanding reproduction of the biosphere in the and geological circulations of substances and energy process of its historical evolution and growth of flows on biogeochemical cycles. natural diversity of forms of life and ecosystems; According to these concepts, the soil cover forms 50 biogeochemical circulation of subsfances; a specific biogeochemical coating at the Earth’s 60 heferogenousness of the biosphere in space and surface which, being a component of the biosphere time (KOVDA, 1980). and a product of interaction between living matter and parent rocks, represents an area of concentration These concepts have lead to formulation of of organisms and energy assimilated by them, as a doctrine of new complex system, biosphere 2 man. well as the products of their metabolism and destruc- The study of anthropogenic impact.s on the biosphere tion (KOVDA, 1974). Organisms and soils function and its components, including the soil cover, const,i- in the biosphere in united ecosystems supporting tuted a basis for the understanding of functions the existence of life itself at the Earth. The main of anthropogenic ecosystems, particularly agroeco- functions of the biosphere in relation to soil are: sysfems, which support the existence and development of t,he mankind. At this basis, the main 10 continuous process of biogenic accumulation, principles of management of the anthropogenic transformation and redistribution of solar energy ecosystems have been formulated. coming onto the Earth; The soil cover is the most important link in 20 support of the global circulation of chemical mechanism of the biosphere and its product at the elements, particularly such biophyles as oxigen, same time, which plays an immediate role in such hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potas- functions of biosphere ecosystems as synthesis, sium, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, copper, cobalt, transformations, destruction and mineralization of iodine, etc. organic matters, accumulation of energy and its redistribution over the global surface, selective The most important result of these functional absorption and accumulation of chemical elements, processes is the formatiofi and accumulation of support of biogeochemical circulation of substances soil humus, the stock of biogenic carbon and energy which provides the stability of environment for in which are similar to that of the total biomass organisms, including man. of the Earth’s land. During the last fourt,y years the soviet soil scien- Developing and furthering the ideas of V. I. VER- tists (B. B. POLYNOV, iY. P. REMESOV, V. A. KOVDA, NADSKI on the biosphere and its global functions, S. V. ZONN, N. I. BASILWITCH, E. _II. SAMOILOVA, the soviet soil scientists, basing on the concept of T. I. EVDOKIMOVA, K. M. SMIRNOVA, V. N. MINA, soil cover as a component of the biosphere, have L. A. GRISNINA, iM. A. GLASOVSKAJA, et nl.) have made a considerable input into the study and accumulated great factual material on the biological theoretical generalization of the newest problems circulation of substances in the biosphere ecosystems. of the biosphere at the time of the technical revolu- The cycles of especially important biophyles and tion and ecological crises. A concept of the main their changes under the impact of economic activity features and functions of the biosphere was furthered of man were investigated. These studies const.ituted from these points of view, including: the basis both for the understanding of mechanisms 10 multitude of the componenfs of the biosphere, of natural ecosystems functioning and for the in myriads of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems management of the anthropogenic ecosystems as of which the assimilated solar energy, populations well (EVDOKIMOVA et al., 1976). of authotrophic and heterotrophic organisms, soil It was demonstrated that the biological produc- cover, waters and earth crust form one of highest tivity of the planet is based on the global land on

Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M., stk. Pddoi., uol. XIX, no 1, 1982: 79-90. 85

6--l B. G. ROZANOV normal and balanced functioning of organisms and onto change of properties and growth of effective soil cover in the biosphere and, first of all, on the soil fertility in accordance with the requirements historically developed cycles of substances and of cultivated plants, from one side, and the measures flows of energy. As far as man does not interfere on the most complete utilization of soil fertility with the biosphere, it functions as a selfregulating and solar energy, from the other. It was demons- sysfem, producing biomass, regulating composition trated that,, besides the culturization of soils and and properties of soils, hydrosphere and atmosphere. increase of their fertility, the important factors Interference of man by way of agriculture, animal of growth of soil productivity and the output. of husbandry, forestry, water economy, construct,ion, agricultural production are: mining, pollution by wastes, by way of extraction 10 improvement of structure of ploughed lands and consumption of a part of biological product,ion with the utilization of most productive species and requires organised and scientifically justified mana- varieties of plants, taking into account natural gement of the biosphere and its components (I~ovn.4, conditions and economic requirements; 1980). At the present level of knowledge and techno- logy, out of all main components of the biosphere, 20 increasing biological productivity of plants soil is the most easily manageable componenf (soil in crop rotat.ions on account of density of their treatment, fertilizers, ameliorations, regulation of stands and their regular distribution over the soil regimes). Particulafly through soils it is the area; most easy to provide general conditions of stability 30 utilization of soils and agroclimatological of the biosphere and its ecosystems, namely the resources during the whole warm period of the expansion of flow of the anthropogenic energy and year for obtaining additional organic production provision of the optimal conditions of plant growth. of intermediate crops. In relation t,o development of world agriculture these general principles have lead to the conclusion that the growth of its productivity and effectivity MODELLISG OF SOIL PROCESSES in the conditions of continuous demographic expansion requires additional capital investments of Consideration of soil as a subsystem in complex energy (in its different forms) into agriculture and natural and anthropogenic ecosystems have lead growth of assimilation of solar energy by plants, to development of a new scientific branch in modern from one side, and, from the other, realization of soil science, mathematical modelling of soil regimes the following complex of diversified measures scienti- and corresponding processes. fically justified for each particular set of conditions: One of t.he lines of this new branch is connected optimization of water and heat soil regimes for with mathematical description of the behaviour of agricultural crops by methods of agrotechnics, these or those chemical elements in ecosystems amelioration, accumulation and preservation of and prognosis of their behaviour in certain controlled water and heat; provision of plants with nitrogen conditions. At the basis of this approach there is through fertilizers and biological fixation of atmo- a study of biological circulation of chemical elements, spheric nitrogen; maximalization of carbon dioxide which pass in the process of functioning of an eco- content in the aboveground of fields by way of system from one its components into another in obligatory application of organic manures and form of different chemical substances. Certain wastes, increase of soil humus supply and activizat,ion parameters of migration and accumulation of of soil biological activity; provision of plants with elements are established by analytical methods. calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, micro- It, was shown that the study of general feat,ures elements ( KOVDA, 1980). of circulation of substances much easies the models Special study of productivity of agroecosysfems that are used, which take into account only the main on the basis of detailed investigations of biological substantial particularities of the processes of migra- circulation OF substances (LEVIN, 1972, 1973, 1979) tion in ecosystem, which provides the possibility allowed to make an important methodological of application of formal apparatus of mathematics conclusion that for the scientific determination to the analysis of migration phenomena (PROKHOHOV, of plant requirements in nutrients it is necessary GINSBURG, 1971). to assess their content in fhe fofal biomass, including The above approaches were utilized for t,he surface crop residues and root systems, and not construction of a model of annual nitrogen cycle only their content in the extractable products. in grass ecosystems (RYZHOVA, 1978), which reflects The same studies provided basic data for outlying adequately the natural situation. the ways of increasing biological productivity of In connection with development of irrigation cultivated soils. These are the measures directed in southern regions of the U.S.S.R. and due to the

86 Cnh. O.R.S.T.O.M., sCr. Pkdol., uol. XIX, no I, 1982: 79-90. Souiet soil science and its future development need for providing and continuous supporting their cally, particularly so as the soil scientists work here optimal water-salt regime and budget, particularly not in an isolation, but in a close co-operation great attention was given recently to the modelling with biologists, geologists, hydrologists and other of soil water-salf regime (PACHEPSKI ef al., 1976, specialists as appropriate. Mathematization of soil 1980). This modelling was based on the results science is quickly progressing, and the soil science received in soil science and in t,he theory of water itself is more and more transformed at the present amelioration. Data of observations and investiga- stage of it.s development from the descriptive tions conducted during soil and ameliorat,ion surveys science into an experimental one. were taken as a source of quantitative information for the modelling. The system analysis was taken as a methodological basis for the construct2ion of ELEMENTARY SOIL PROCESSES AKD PRE- complex models, and the developed modifications SENT REGIMES OF SOIL FORMATION of concrete apparatus of the system analysis served Utilization of system analysis approach by modern as the basis for realization of integrated models soviet soil science have lead to development of in the computers. new concepts of elementary soil processes, the first These studies have lead t,o formulation of general ideas in respect to which were initially introduced principles/stages of construction of integrated models by S. A. ZAKHAROV, S. S. NEUSTRUEV and of soil processes: selection of determining processes; B. B. POL-Y-NOVin early thirthies on the basis of selection of a system of budget areas; selection and the DOKUTCHAEV’S doctrine of types of soil forma- control of models of determining processes; selection t,ion. S. S. NEU~TRUEV (1930) wrote t,hat the soil and control of models of interactions between pro- formation process in not only non-homogeneous cesses; realization of integrated model in the in different conditions, but it represents a complex computer; organization of keeping and finding of phenomenon composed of elementary processes, initial information massifs; treatment of initial separate physico-chemical phenomena: this or that information and assessment of the accuracy of degree and dire&ion of decomposition of the mineral works of models; concrete calculations. The analysis part, and organic matter, aerobic or anaerobic of results is being made at each of the stages. The charact,er of decomposition, these or those new modelling is always an integrative process of solving formations, energy and direction of leaching, solut,ion direct and reverse problems, in which the solution and translocation, etc. Combinations of these of direct problem is really a prognostic calculation: elementary processes give endless number of soil while the solution of reverse problem provides individuals. an opportunity to correct initial information and Recently, this concept was particularly developed to select optimal parameters for the factors governing by T. P. GERASIMOV (1960, 1973, 1975, 1980), who soil processes (PACHEPSKI et aZ., 1976). The water- believes that the elementary soil processes might salt prognosis on t,he basis of solving the direct constitute the basis for genetical soil diagnostics problems can be solved not only for separate and classification and the basis for further develop- irrigated fields or irrigation systems, but for the ment of the theory of soil formation as a whole. large territorial units, as for example for the southern According to I. P. GERASIMOV (1975), the main regions of the U.S.S.R. in connection with the criterion for determination of the elementary soil transfer of part of the river flow of the northern process (E.S.P.) and its distinction from other rivers to the south. The solut.ion of reverse problems phenomena and processes occuring in nature is provides accurate data for selecting opt)imal technical the point, that these prncesscs co&fit&e in their and economic parameters of irrigation systems totality the phenomenon of soil fbramafion, occur only under construction or reconstruction. in soils and, under certain natural combinations Finally, there were attempts of mathematical with each other, det.ermine their main features at modelling of more general processes of soil formation the level of genetic soil types, i.e. first of all, as a whole (GILMANOV, 1977). The dynamics of soil construction of the profile and composition and temperature, soil moisture, soil air were described ratio of the system of genetic horizons. in a mathematical form (FEDOROV, GILMANOV, Thus, according to the above definition, each (1980). genetic soil type is characterized by a certain and Modelling of soil processes and of the behaviour only to t,his type belonging combinaison of E.S.P., of natural and anthropogenic ecosystems as a whole although some E.S.P. may and must appear in or their components makes only the first steps; different combination in various soil types. From however, the importance of these studies for the the other hand, degree of development of E.S.P. future development of soil science is doubtless. combination belonging to a certain soil type, as This branch of the science develops rat,her energeti- well as addition of other E.S.P. to this main combi-

Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M., sfr. PtCdol., vol. XIX, no 1, 1982: 79-90. 87 B. G. ROZANOV _ ._ nation provide an opportunity for the subdivision I. A. SOKOLOV, V. M. FRIDLAND, G. V. DOBRO- of soil types into subtypes, genera, species. VOLSKI), soil regioning (G. V. DOBROVOLSKI), soil There are grounds to believe that, on thi: basis ecology (V. R. VOLOBUE~, L. 0. KARPATCHEVSKI of this concept,, I. P. GERASIMOV and its school and others), etc. will introduce some new theoretical generalizations The main what characterises the soviet soil science in the nearest future, particularly in the area of today is the diversity of scientific approaches and direc- soil diagnostics and classification. It is believed tions on the basis of united general methodology, which that this concept may become rather fruitful from we may certainly named by DOKUTCHAEV and which the point of view of management of soil processes is based on the materialistic dialectics. Speedy as well, as these processes determine evolution development, of experimental works, introduction of soils and their fertility, particularly in connection of complicated instrumental field and laboratory with the concept of present soil regimes. technics, utilization of methods and approaches The study of present soil regimes (water, salt, of mat,hematics, introduction of methods and acid-alkali, air, temperature, redox, etc.) was started concept of system analysis are characteristic for by the Russian soil scientists long ago, actually the present stage of development of the soviet at the end of last century and the beginning of science. At every level soil is considered as very present one : for example, classical works of complex structural system, consisting of numerous ISWAILSKI and VYSOTSKI on the water regime of hierarchic subsystems in the ecosystems of the chernozems. However, particularly detailed and biosphere. This new approach, which is connected integrated studies were carried out during recent, with the new social order to soil science and with the decades in connection with wide development of transition from the task of inventarization to the task pilot projects in different regions of the country. of management, seems to be very productive and A system of methods of soil studies in the dynamics corresponding to general level of development of was elaborated (RODE, 1971). Large factual material modern science as a whole. It is important to mention was obtained, and general scientific concept of soil in the conclusion that this new level of development regimes as heterochronous (annual, seasonal, daily) of the soviet soil science appeared to be a logical dynamics of general and specific processes of soil consequence and continuation of lony historical formation, was formulated. development of the science itself, the moving force Study of the dynamics of soil processes or regimes of which always was t,he direction onto solving of soil formation has great methodological impor- practical problems which were put onto the agenda tance from two points of view. First, it gives direct by the socio-economic development of the country; initial material for modelling and soil management inseparable connection of the fundamental scientific as a whole. Second, it gives fact,ual basis for the studies with the solution of practical problems is a theory of soil genesis and evolut.ion, particularly characteristic feature of the soviet science as a from the point of view of consistence or, vice versa, whole, and soil science is not an exclusion in this inconsistence between present-day soil regimes and respect. construction, composition and other features of As was rightly mentioned by G. V. D~BROVOLSKI present soil. and D. S. ORLOV (1974), the modern speedly development. of the soviet soil science is induced both by internal and external factors. The internal CONCLUSION factors are connected with the logic of development of the science itself on the basis of its fundamental Unfortunately, the limits of an article do not studies within the framework of the adopted metho- provide an opportunity to give full and extensive dological concept. The external factors are connected characteristics of all diversity of various scientific with the requirements of solving large socio-economic schools and directions in modern soviet soil science. problems of country development and, first of all, Such very interesting and promising scientific the problem of food and agricultural raw materials directions were not covered here as the energetics for the fullest satisfaction of ever growing needs of soils and soil formation (works of V. R. VOLOBUEV of the growing population. If previously this problem and his school), geochemical aspects of soil formation was being solved mainly on account of the increment (works of B. B. POLYNOV’S school-M. A. GLA- of arable lands, now the agricultural policy of the ZOVSKAJA, G. V. DOBROVOLSKI, V. A. KOVDA, state is directed onto the most rational and effective A. A. PERELMAN and others), structure of soil cover utilization of the existing lands on the basis of (works of V. M. FRIDLAND and his group), new complex mechanization of agriculture, chimization, approaches to soil classification (M. A. GLAZOVSKAJA, amelioration of soils, growth of general culture of V. R. VOLOBUEV, V. A. KOVDA, B. G. ROZANOV, agriculture and land use, introduction of regional

88 Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M., sCr. P&Id., uol. XIX, no 1, 1982: 79-90. Sovie soil science and its future deuelopment soil-conserving agricultural systems. Kew problems by t.hese new global problems, being at the same of environmental nature have appeared in connection time reinforced by new degree of technical eyuipment with the growth of anthropogenic impact on soils of science at the stage of scientific and techno- and soil cover. They are being studied and solved logical progress. within the general context of protection and improvement ofihe environment. The new level of development Manuscrit recu au Service des Editions de 1’O.R.S.T.O.M. of the soviet soil science is determined particularly le 11 septembre 1981.

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