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Taylor, Russell Final Phd Thesis.Pdf (4.129Mb) Development Funding and Policy The importance of information and capability building with particular reference to Tonga Russell C. Taylor September 2018 Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the National Centre for Research on Europe at the University of Canterbury Acknowledgements This thesis was completed under the direction and support of Prof. Martin Holland and the National Centre for Research on Europe. The EUCN grant though the European Union helped to fund my research. I would like thank my friend and mentor Emeritus Prof. Michael Winterbourne for his immense input into the editing and advising during the writing of this thesis, my dear friends Dr’s Timothy Phillips and Janine Bailey for their continued support during some tough times and as sounding boards for my ideas and my dear wife who has put up with poverty and passion for so many years. My research and the resulting thesis is the product of numerous collaborations between extremely diverse groups of people who have similar desires and concerns. All of my friends and colleagues who have been involved with EcoCARE Pacific Trust and who like me believe that participation and collaboration are fundamental requirements if change is to occur. I have been fortunate enough to have many dear friends and relations who have seen something in me that I don’t see in myself. They have been un-relenting in their support for my often seemingly pointless endeavours to attempt to participate in addressing the multitude of issues that affect each and every one of us in some way, and these dear people have encouraged rather than discouraged me to continue on. The result is that I have completed a study that I hope will contribute in some small way to a world that is a little better off because of this work. 1 Abstract This thesis is concerned with international development theory and practice, and the processes of financing aid and development programs. The need for communities to have access to information in order to develop sustainable capabilities is stressed and the kingdom of Tonga is used as a case study to illustrate the process of development and the building of capabilities in individuals, communities and nations. Enpovigo, the approach used for development projects in Tonga is placed in perspective by providing a review of factors and events that influenced the evolution of contemporary development theory and practice following World War II and that are particularly relevant to the themes of the thesis. A review of financing for international development is also included with emphasis on organisations, institutions and individuals that are major sources of development funding. It is noted that many funders are driven by a ‘Western’ aid model, such that their main focus is on economic solutions for developing nations, often at a cost to the environment and human rights and a loss of culture and tradition. Enpovigo suggests that the outcome of development activities should be that people living in communities which are recipients of development programs should be happier than they were prior to project implementation. The activities of EcoCARE Pacific Trust which acts as a catalyst for development projects in Tonga, and operates according to the philosophy of Enpovigo, is described. Sustainability is a significant consideration in all EcoCARE Pacific projects and programmes such that the driving philosophy of Enpovigo is founded upon ecological theories and numerous development theories. Enpovigo also emphasises that knowledge is essential for the building of local capabilities and that capabilities are necessary for successful development to be sustainable. To illustrate this, projects whose objectives are to provide access to information 2 to schools and remote communities through the establishment of renewable energy powered Information and Communication Technologies are discussed and evaluated. 3 Contents Acknowledgements 1 Abstract 2 Contents 4 Figures 8 Tables 9 Chapter 1 Introduction 10 Introduction 10 Approach to the study 10 Participant observation 10 A multi-disciplinary approach: spatial scaling and macro-systems ecology 12 Development 14 Happiness 17 The ‘Development Industry’ 21 The economy of Tonga 25 Official Development Assistance (ODA) to Tonga 25 Remittances 26 Enpovigo 27 EcoCARE Pacific Trust 29 Organisation of the thesis 30 Summary 32 Chapter 2 Evolution of modern development theory: a review 34 Introduction 34 Historical perspective 35 Pre-World War 2 35 The Great Depression 36 World War 2 38 The Post War Period 38 4 Evolution of Contemporary Development Theory 40 Economic models 41 Modernisation Theory (1950s and 1960s) 43 Rostow’s five steps 46 Modernisation: the ‘Trickle Down Effect’ 47 Dependency Theory 50 Neo-liberal Economic Theory 52 Globalisation 57 The Washington Consensus 60 Post-development Theory 63 Postmodernism 65 Alternatives to Economic Models 66 Environment/Ecology-based Theories 71 Human Development Theory (the human perspective) 75 The Basic Needs Approach 76 The Capability Approach 79 Participatory Development 81 Sustainable Development 84 Gender-based Approaches to Development 88 Information Communications Technologies (ICTs) for Development 90 Indigenous Development Theories 92 Concluding comment 93 Chapter 3 Financing for Development 95 Introduction 95 The Treaty of Rome and European Development Policy 97 Yaoundé Conventions (1964-1975) 99 Lomé I and II (1975-1985) 99 Lomé III and IV (1986-2000) 100 5 Cotonou (2000-2020) 102 European Consensus and the Lisbon Treaty 103 The 11th European Development Fund 104 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and funding 106 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 108 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 110 The Bretton Woods Organisations: World Bank Group (WBG) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) 113 Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS) 117 Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and Transnational Corporations (TNCs) 120 Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) 129 Summary 131 Chapter 4 Enpovigo: capability, participation and happiness 134 Introduction 134 Information, knowledge, capacity and capability 136 Enpovigo 138 The Enpovigo Development Strategy (EDS) 140 Stages of development as proposed by the Enpovigo development strategy 142 1. Activation Phase 142 2. Transition Phase 143 3. Realisation Phase 144 Happiness as a preferred outcome of development 144 Evaluating happiness 146 Measuring happiness 148 Summary: Enpovigo and development 152 Chapter 5 Case study: EcoCARE in Tonga 154 Introduction 154 The Kingdom of Tonga 155 6 EcoCARE Pacific Trust 159 EcoCARE Projects in Tonga 164 a. Educationally aligned projects 167 Provision of computers and other educational resources 167 Students as teachers 169 Establishment of high school science competition 170 Establishment of a College of Science Undergraduate Pacific scholarship programme 173 b. Power generation and the enhancement of communication capacity 175 Introduction 176 EcoCARE’s electricity generation project 177 Preliminary mapping project 178 Pilot study 180 Installation of solar PV panels at Vava’u High School and Tonga College 182 Wireless communications and renewable energy project 184 The Programme 185 Evaluation of renewable energy and communications projects 187 c. Health-related projects 189 Safe drinking water 189 Mosquitoes and disease vectors 191 Summary of EcoCARE activities in Tonga 193 Chapter 6 Concluding discussion 201 Enpovigo and EcoCARE Pacific 203 The holistic approach and sustainability 207 References 214 Appendices 264 7 Figures Figure 4.1 The Enpovigo Information Based Feed Back Loop 140 Figure 4.2 A schematic illustration of the course of development as proposed by the Enpovigo development strategy (EDS) 141 Figure 5.1 Map of Tonga 157 Figure 5.2 Members of the Cabinet in Tonga and members of EcoCARE 164 Figure 5.3 Graphic illustration of a study of differing sources of energy production 180 Figure 5.4 Professor Pat Bodger and postgraduate engineering students taking wind measurements on Vava’u 181 Figure 5.5 University of Canterbury Wireless Research Centre researcher measuring data upload and download capability 184 Figure 5.6 New Zealand High Commissioner to Tonga and EcoCARE representatives open a newly established safe water station at a high school in Tonga 189 Figure 5.7 Safe water station consisting of a pump, course and fine filters, UV- irradiator, 240/12V converter and 12V cable attachment points 190 Figure 5.8 Professor Jon Harding, Dr Sharyn Goldstien, Dr Stephanie Jones and Dr Culum Brown sampling mosquito larvae from a rubbish tip in Tonga 191 Figure 5.9 Russell Taylor talking to a Year 13 class at Vava’u High School 192 8 Tables Table 3.1 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 108 Table 3.2 Amounts of water required to produce one kilogram of various food items produced by large corporations on land they have bought, leased or rented (IMF 2015) 128 Table 5.1 Projects and project associated initiatives involving EcoCARE in Tonga and their principle funding sources 165 Table 5.2 Comparisons between eight common sources of energy production 179 Table 5.3 List of journal articles and theses related to individual and institutional involvement in projects associated with EcoCARE Pacific Trust in or about Tonga. 196 9 Chapter 1 Introduction This thesis is about international development theory and practice, and processes associated with financing aid for development. My main objective was to investigate and evaluate sustainable development through information,
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