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Climate Change Or Air Quality Improvement?

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Climate Change Or Air Quality Improvement? Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 19: 896–910, 2019 Copyright © Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research ISSN: 1680-8584 print / 2071-1409 online doi: 10.4209/aaqr.2018.04.0152 Trends of Fog and Visibility in Taiwan: Climate Change or Air Quality Improvement? Maylin Maurer1*, Otto Klemm1**, Hanna L. Lokys1, Neng-Huei Lin2 1 Climatology Working Group, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany 2 Department of Atmospheric Sciences, National Central University, Taoyuan 32001, Taiwan ABSTRACT This study provides insight into how the visibility in Taiwan has varied over time and what the main drivers of these visibility changes are. From 1985 to 2016, urban inland sites showed increases in visibility and decreases in the frequency of hazy and/or foggy days, whereas urbanized and rural coastal regions either showed no clear trend or even an overall decrease in visibility. Over the most recent 5 to 10 years, a consistent increase in the visibility and decrease in the haze frequency has been found for most of the stations, except for the rural to suburban regions. In general, visibility is driven by the relative humidity (rH) and the mass concentration of aerosol particles (PM). On the one hand, the combination of climate change and urbanization, resulting in a rise in temperature (on average, +0.035°C y–1) and an associated overall decrease in rH (on average, –0.125% y–1), has had a positive influence on long-term visibility in the cities of Taiwan. On the other hand, improvements in air quality supported the increase in visibility during the late 2000s and early 2010s. Our results show an almost exponential relationship between visibility and PM10. At lower PM10 levels, the visibility is more sensitive to changes in the PM10. Thus, the influence of the long-term PM10 on visibility becomes weaker at high PM10 levels. Consequently, over the long term, the PM10 more strongly influenced the visibility trends at the northern urban stations, which had lower PM10 concentrations to begin with. At the southern urban stations, the PM10 concentrations were generally higher and hence were less of a factor in variations in visibility. Therefore, the visibility trends at these sites were more related to changes in rH until about 2011, at which time these regions reached a lower level of pollution. Keywords: Visibility trends; Fog; Haze; PM10; Relative humidity. INTRODUCTION WMO (World Meteorological Organization, 1994, 2017), visibility (Vis) is defined as the greatest distance at which Both the scientific community and the public are concerned one can recognize either a black object during daylight or about atmospheric visibility. Although visibility can be the light of a specified moderate intensity at night. reduced by natural meteorological conditions such as the As a clear definition exists for visibility, definitions also formation of fog or cloud droplets under conditions of high exist to describe low-visibility events. For example, in air humidity, visibility is also a useful indicator of air accordance with the WMO’s definition (World pollution, as both gas molecules and particles in the air Meteorological Organization, 2014, 2017), fog is described in reduce visibility by light absorption and scattering. The the literature as a condition in the near-surface atmosphere conditions of air pollution in ambient air are complex and when the relative humidity (rH) is near 100% and the require careful and sophisticated analysis. Nevertheless, horizontal visibility is reduced to less than 1 km due to the visibility can be useful as a proxy for air pollution because presence of small water droplets in the air. In addition, it is easily detected by the naked eye. According to the haze and mist are classified by the WMO as conditions with visibilities between 1 km and 5 km. Depending on the ambient rH, haze refers to visibility reductions caused by dry particles, whereas mist refers to visibility reductions * Corresponding author. caused by wet hygroscopic particles or small water droplets Tel.: +49-176-99248268 (World Meteorological Organization, 2014, 2017). To E-mail address: [email protected] differentiate between haze and mist, the WMO uses a ** Corresponding author. threshold of relative humidity at 95% (World Meteorological Tel.: +49-251-83-33921, Fax: +49-251-83-38338 Organization, 2014) or another “certain percentage” (e.g., E-mail address: [email protected] 80%; World Meteorological Organization, 2017). However, Maurer et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 19: 896–910, 2019 897 while the WMO definitions of haze and mist are rather caused by the improvements in air quality that have occurred straightforward, the definitions used in the literature are after the main peak periods of environmental pollution often not as consistent. Various studies have characterized through industry (e.g., Avotniece et al., 2015; Bokwa et haze and mist using different limits for the visibility range al., 2018), which resulted in a reduction of light scattering (e.g., Chung et al., 1999; Bruijnzeel et al., 2005; Vautard and light absorption by particles and lower concentrations et al., 2009; Kuo et al., 2013; Akimoto and Kusaka, 2015), of CCN in the atmosphere. However, as mentioned above, and the relative humidity level is often not even mentioned. visibility is also affected by meteorological conditions In this study, as we are interested in low-visibility events such as air temperature and relative humidity. Therefore, in general, we use the following definitions solely based in some cases the observed decrease in fog and increase in on the observed visual range. From here on, conditions of visibility is related to anthropogenic land use changes, restricted Vis between 1 km and 5 km are declared as haze. reduced evapotranspiration due to sealing of soils and As we incorporated neither rH measurements nor the canalization of rain water, and to the urban heat island chemical composition of the aerosol particles, we did not effect (e.g., LaDochy and Witiw, 2012). Yet in other cases, further differentiate haze into the categories of haze and climate change has been argued to be the most important mist. Thus, haze in this study includes visibility reduction driver for increasing visibility because air temperatures are through both dry and wet particles as well as through small rising and relative humidity is decreasing (e.g., Ye, 2009). water droplets. Fog is, according to the WMO standard In general, all of these drivers likely contribute to the (World Meteorological Organization, 2014, 2017), defined observed trends, and separating out the effects of each one as a condition with Vis below 1 km. From here on, a foggy or is difficult (Klemm and Lin, 2016). a hazy day is a day during which fog or haze, respectively, For some developing countries with increasing industrial was observed at least once. A single day may thus be a activities and anthropogenic emissions, studies have foggy day, a hazy day, both a foggy and a hazy day, or reported that the trend is toward a decrease in visibility and neither a foggy nor a hazy day. an increase in the occurrence of hazy conditions. As an During conditions of increasing rH, aerosol particles in example, Hu et al. (2017) reveal an increase in the annual the ambient air may deliquesce, i.e., grow due to condensation percentage of “bad visibility days” between 1973 and 2015 of water vapor on them. Depending on the composition of for three cities in India due to the population growth and the particles, the hygroscopic growth may be initiated at ongoing emissions of coal and biomass combustion. In rH as low as 40% (for NH4HSO4 particles; Seinfeld and addition, Aldababseh and Temimi (2017) present a decreasing Pandis, 2016) and increases with the rH until rH = 100%, visibility trend in Abu Dhabi and Dubai during the period thereby affecting the aerosol’s optical properties (Charlson 1982–2016 resulting from synoptic and mesoscale climatic et al., 1992; Cheng et al., 2008; Klemm and Lin, 2016). As conditions in combination with recent land use changes. a result, the visibility in a given air mass may decrease as As these different trends have been reported for various rH increases from clear conditions to hazy conditions (1 km < locations worldwide, we wanted to study how visibility has Vis ≤ 5 km) and eventually to fog (Vis ≤ 1 km) (Klemm changed in Taiwan over time and what the drivers affecting and Lin, 2016). Once rH reaches supersaturation conditions visibility are. The climate in Taiwan, which is located to slightly above 100%, cloud condensation nuclei (CCN, i.e., the southeast of the Chinese mainland, is subtropical in the rather hygroscopic aerosol particles) can easily be activated north and more tropical in the south. The visibility and rapid growth to large fog droplet and eventually drizzle conditions are influenced by the generally high relative and rain becomes possible. humidity. Furthermore, Taiwan is densely populated with As the air temperature (T) is one of the drivers of rH via high industrial and agricultural activity, which is mainly an inverse relationship, there is a rather direct link between situated in the western part of the island where the emissions T and Vis and thus a potential link between climate change of air pollutants are significant. In addition, emissions and Vis: A temperature increase may, under otherwise from mainland China and dust events may also influence constant conditions, decrease rH and thereby increase Taiwan via long-range transport (Lin et al., 2004; Junker et visibility. Another link between climate change and visibility al., 2009). This study aims to investigate trends in mean exists through the sheer existence of water vapor in the air: visibility and in the occurrence of fog and haze, as well as If the water content in the air increases through increased its spatial variation, in Taiwan.
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