Freeze-Thaw Resistance in Concrete-- an Annotated Bibliography
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b SHRP-C/UFR-92-617 Freeze-Thaw Resistance in Concrete-- An Annotated Bibliography Strategic Highway Research Program National Research Council Strategic Highway Research Program Executive Committee John_ Tabb,Chairman WilliamO. Agnew General MotorsResearch (retired) E. Dean Carlson, Ea Omcio Federal Highway Admini._rmion A. Ray Chamberlain ColoradoDepanmemofHighways Raymond F. Decker Univers_ ScienceParmax Inc. Thomas B. Deen, Ex Officio Tr__-,,__ n Research Board Thomas M. Downs Newle,_Depanmey _of_anrponuion, Francis 13.Francois, Ex Officio American A.m_cimion of State Hig_ay and Tr_m_!_,,n Officiab Donald N. Geoffroy New YorkDepamnem ofTran.spor"_no_n WilliamL.Giles Ruan TranxponmionManagementSystems Jack S. Hodge V'wginiaDelummem ofTransportation Key SHRP Staff BorisHryhorczukE,x Officio ManitobaDepartmentofTransportation Damian J. Kulash Thomas D. Larson, Ex Officio Execut/ve D/rector FederalHiglnvay Administration Kathryn Harrington-Hughes Donald W. Lucas CommunicationsDirector IndianaDepanmem ofTranq______nn EdwardT.Harrigan Harold L. Michael Aspha/t Program Manager Purdue Un/vm_ Don M. Harriott Wayne Muri Concrete & SuucTures/'Highway Missouri Highway and Transponadon Department Operations.Program Manager M. Lee Powell, m HarryJones BallengerPavingCompany,Inc. Finance& AdminbmuionDirector Henry A. Thomason, Jr. Guy W. Hager TexasDelmmnentofHighwaysand PublicTranxpor__n__'_no_n ImplementationManager Stanley I. Wamhnw If,.Thirumalai NationalInstitutofeStandardsand Technology IDEA ProgramManager RoarL.Yarbmugh Apcon Corpmmion Acknowledgments The research described "herein"wassupported.by the .StrategicHighway Research Program (SHRP). SHRP is a unit of the National Research Council that was authorized by section 128 of the Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation Assistance Act of 1987. Many persons contributed to the identification and review of suitable citations for this annotated bibliography. Special thanks are given to the students and faculty colleagues at Michigan State University and the University of Washington for their assistance in compiling and reviewing this work. Thanks are also given to the members of the Strategic Highway Research Program Expert Task Group who reviewed the work in progress. Finally, this document would not have reached a completed form were it not for the editing and formatting efforts of Ron Porter, Susan Michalak, and Jennifer Nolan. D °°* 111 Contents ooo Acknowledgments .... --........ •..................................... m Abstract ........................................................ vii Bibliography .............. • • .......... "1 Author Index ................................................... 199 Subject Index ................................................... 217 V b Abstract This bibliography contains over 550 citations considered relevant to the phenomenon of freezing and thawing of concrete. Detailed abstracts of studies on the mechanism of frost action as well as case histories and laboratory investigations are provided. Peripheral topics such as autogenous healing, which helps explain the delay in appearance of D-cracking, are included. Work from the fields of Ceramics, Geology, Physics, and Soil Physics were selected for insight in the roles of moisture movement and ice crystal growth in frost heave and cracking of porous solids. Entries are alphabetical by first author (or agency when no author is given). There are author and subject indexes. vii 1. AASHTO T 161-86. Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D. C., 1986. This method covers the determination of the resistance of concrete specimens to rapidly repeated cycles of freezing and thawing in the laboratory by two different procedures: Procedure A, Rapid Freezing and Thawing in Water, and Procedure B, Rapid Freezing in Air and Thawing in Water. Both procedures are intended for use in determining the effects of variations in the properties of concrete on the resistance of the concrete to the freezing and thawing cycles specified in the particular procedure. Neither procedure is intended to provide a quantitative measure of the length of service that may be expected from a specific type of concrete. 2. AASHTO T 277-89. "Standard Method of Test for Rapid Determination of the Chloride Permeability of Concrete." Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D. C., 1989. This method covers the determination of the permeability of conventional portland cement and specialized, e.g.., latex-modified and polymer, concretes to chloride ions. It consists of monitonng the amount of electrical current passed through 95 mm (3.75 in.) diameter by 51 mm (2 in.) long cores when one end of the core is immersed in a sodium chloride solution and a potential difference of 60 V dc is maintained across the specimen for 6 hours. The total charge passed, in coulombs, is related to chloride permeability. 3. Abdulkarim, B. T. "The Significance of Pore Size Diflzibution in the Freezing and Thawing of Concrete Aggregate Particles." Ph.D. diss., Pennsylvania State University, 1971. This dissertation is based upon a study of quartzite, sandstone and four different limestone rock cores. The pore size distribution of each core was measured using a mercury intrusion porosimeter. The freezing and thawing of water in the pore space of the cores was studied using cold differential thermal analysis and a mercury displacement dilatometer measured core volume changes. The study concludes that pore size distribution influences the behavior of rocks during freezing and thawing. The test results support the operative role of the dual mechanism proposed by Cady (1967). The study recommends that the smaller size pores, which it found to intensify pressures in the pore space, be measured separately. The results of this study indicate that rocks having a higher absorption undergo a higher volume change depending on a combination of the absorption and pore size distribution. 4. Abdnn-Nur, E. A., and R. C. Mielenz. "An Unusual Case of Freezing Fresh Concrete." Journal of the American Concrete Institute Vol. 59, No. 30 (June 1962): pp. 803-813. An unusual example of freezing of fresh concrete in floor slabs has been observed in the Platteville Elementary School Building, Platteville, Colo., built in the fall of 1957: Initial evidence of distress was numerous, closely spaced bumps in the finished surface of the floors. These protuberances are especially disturbing in areas of tiled floor, where they were fu'st noted. Resistance to Freeze-Thaw 1 4/13/92 Detailedexaminationof thefloor slabs, both atthe site and by microscopical examinationof drilled cores,showedthat the upper1/2 to 1-1/4 in. of the concrete had been frozenbefore hardening,causingintense fracturingof the near-surface portion andproducingbumpsoveroriginallyfrozenlumps of sandandshale incorporatedin the concrete. It is concludedthat the bumpsformed as a result of growthof ice lenses within andadjacentto the frozen lumps. The irregularitiesof the floor surfaces have increasedprogressivelywith time in areasof concentrated traffic,because of•disintegrationof the highly fracturednear-surfaceconcrete beneath the floor tile underthe impactof heavyfoot traffic. 5. Abrams,D. A. "Autogenous Healingof Concrete."Concrete Vol. 27 (August 1925): p. 50. The testing of 8-year old concreteis of itself sufficiently unusualto attract attention. Recent testsmadeat the StructuralMaterialsResearchLaboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, wereuniquein that the 8-year-old concrete.specimens had been previously loadedto failurewhen 28 days old. After the ongmal test, which did notshatterthe concrete,the cylinderswere thrownoutdoors on the groundexposed to weather. The compressive strengthsof five 6 by 12-in. cylinders, 1 partcementto 5 partsaggregateby volume are: 28-day strength-lb. per sofm. -- 2330, 2510, 3130,2360, 1580; Strengthof sameretestedafter8 years-- 5070, 4200,5290,4940, 5980; Ratio of 2-yr. to 28-daystrength,percent(average 228) -- 217, 167, 169, 210, 379. The variationin strength was dueto difference in the size and grading of the aggregates and in the consistencyof the concrete. The cracks which werecaused by the 28-day test closed.upduring8 years'exposureto weather. This may be explained by the slight solubility of both hardened cement anctaggregatein rain water. Depositing of soluble compoundsin the old cracks formed a good bond. It is probablya new idea to most users of Portlandcement concrete that in the presence of moisture,small crackswill heal and in fact become muchstronger thanbefore the break;it is reassuringto know thatconcretepossesses this remarkableproperty. 6. ACI Advisory Committee,Long-TimeStudy."Ten-Year Reporton the Long-Time Study of Cement Performancein Concrete."Journal of the American Concrete Institute Vol. 49 (March1953): pp. 601-616. Primarily,this studywas undertakento determinewhether any relationshipexists between the composition,fineness, and conditions of manufacture of the test cements and the ability of theconcrete in which they were used to resist disintegration when subjectedto external influences such as water,sulfate solutions, temperaturechanges, and highway trafficwith or without applicationof saltsfor ice removal; andinternal changes dueto instability of the hardened cement paste. Most of the test structureshavenow been exposed to weatheringfor