Evolution Deniers Mexican Organ Theft Legend Steven Pinker on September 11

T H E M A G A Z I N E FOR -SC IENCE AND REASON sir Volume 27, No. 4-July/August 2003

THE RORSCHACH TEST RECOVERED MEMORY Fortunetellers, and Cold Reading TECHNIQUES CAN MINDS LEAVE BODIES? A Cognitive Science Perspective A Cognitive Science Perspective Published by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION of Claims off the Paranormal AT THE CENTER FOR INQUIRY-INTERNATIONAl (ADJACENT TO THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT BUFFALO) • AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION Paul Kurtz, Chairman; professor emeritus of philosophy, State University of New York at Buffalo Barry Karr. Executive Director Joe Nicked. Senior Research Fellow Massimo Polidoro, Research Fellow Richard Wiseman, Research Fellow Lee Nisbet. Special Projects Director FELLOWS

James E. Alcock," psychologist, York Univ., Toronto Saul Green, PhD, biochemist president of ZOL James E. Oberg, science writer Jerry Andrus, magician and inventor, Albany, Consultants, New York. NY Irmgard Oepen, professor of medicine (retired). Oregon Susan Haack. Cooper Senior Scholar in Arts Marburg, Germany Marcia Angell, M.D.. former editor-in-chief, New and Sciences, prof, of philosophy, University Loren Pankratz. psychologist, Oregon Health England Journal of Medicine of Miami Sciences Univ. Robert A. Baker, psychologist Univ. of Kentucky C. E. M. Hansel, psychologist, Univ. of Wales John Paulos. mathematician, Temple Univ. Stephen Barrett. M.D.. psychiatrist, author, Al Hibbs, scientist. Jet Propulsion Laboratory Steven Pinker, cognitive scientist, MIT consumer advocate, Allentown, Pa. Douglas Hofstadter. professor of human Massimo Polidoro, science writer, author, execu­ Barry Beyerstein,* biopsychologist, Simon Fraser understanding and cognitive science, tive director CICAP, Italy Univ., Vancouver, B.C., Canada Indiana Univ. Milton Rosenberg, psychologist. Univ. of Chicago Irving Biederman, psychologist, Univ. of Southern Gerald Holton. Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics Wallace Sampson. M.D., clinical professor of medi­ California and professor of history of science. Harvard Univ. cine, Stanford Univ., editor, Scientific Review of Susan Blackmore. Visiting Lecturer, Univ. of the Ray Hyman.* psychologist, Univ. of Oregon Alternative Medicine West of England. Bristol Leon Jaroff, sciences editor emeritus, Time Amardeo Sarma. engineer, head of dept. Henri Broch, physicist. Univ. of Nice, France Sergei Kapitza, former editor. Russian edition, at T-Nova Deutsche Telekom, executive Jan Harold Brunvand, folklorist, professor emeri­ Scientific American director, GWUP, Germany. tus of English. Univ. of Utah Philip J. Klass,* aerospace writer, engineer Evry Schatzman, former president French Physics Vern Bullough, professor of history, California Lawrence M. Krauss. author and professor of Association State Univ. at Northridge physics and astronomy. Case Western Reserve Eugenie Scott physical anthropologist, executive Mario Bunge, philosopher, McGill University University director, National Center for Science Education John R. Cole, anthropologist, editor. National Edwin C. Krupp, astronomer, director. Griffith Robert Sheaffer, science writer Center for Science Education Observatory Elie A. Shneour, biochemist, author, Frederick Crews, literary and cultural critic, profes­ Paul Kurtz/ chairman, Center for Inquiry director. Biosystems Research Institute, sor emeritus of English. Univ. of California. Lawrence Kusche. science writer La Jolla, Calif. Berkeley Leon Lederman, emeritus director. Fermilab; Dick Smith, film producer, publisher, Terrey Hills, F. H. C. Crick, biophysicist, Salk Inst, for Biological Nobel laureate in physics N.S.W., Australia Studies, La Jolla, Calif; Nobel laureate Scott Lilienfeld, psychologist Emory Univ. Robert Steiner, magician, author. El Cerrito, Calif. Richard Dawkins, zoologist. Oxford Univ. Lin Zixin, former editor. Science and Technology Victor J. Stenger, emeritus professor of physics Geoffrey Dean, technical editor, Perth, Australia Daily (China) and astronomy, Univ. of Hawaii; adjunct profes­ Daniel C. Dennett University Professor and Austin Jere Lipps. Museum of Paleontology, Univ. of sor of philosophy, Univ. of Colorado B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy, Director of California, Berkeley Jill Cornell Tarter, astronomer, SETI Institute, the Center for Cognitive Studies at Tufts Elizabeth Loftus. professor of psychology. Univ. of Mountain View, Calif. University California. Irvine Carol Tavris, psychologist and author. Los Angeles, Cornells de Jager, professor of astrophysics, Univ. Paul MacCready. scientist/engineer, Calif. of Utrecht the Netherlands AeroVironment Inc., Monrovia. Calif. David Thomas, physicist and mathematician, Paul Edwards, philosopher, editor, Encyclopedia John Maddox. editor emeritus of Nature Peralta, New Mexico of Philosophy David Marks, psychologist Oty University, London. Stephen Toulmin. professor of philosophy, Univ. of Kenneth Feder. professor of anthropology, Mario Mendez-Acosta, journalist and Southern California Neil deGrasse Tyson, astrophysicist and director. Central Connecticut State Univ. science writer, Mexico City, Mexico Hayden Planetarium, New York City Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading Univ.. U.K. Marvin Minsky, professor of media arts and Marilyn vos Savant Parade magazine contribut­ Andrew Fraknoi. astronomer. Foothill College. Los sciences, MIT. ing editor Altos Hills. Calif. David Morrison, space scientist. NASA Ames Kendrick Frazier,* science writer, editor. SKEPTICAL Research Center Steven Weinberg, professor of physics and astron­ omy. Univ. of Texas at Austin; Nobel laureate INOUMEB Richard A. Muller. professor of physics, Univ. of E.O. Wilson. University Professor Emeritus, Yves Galifret vice-president. Affiliated Calif., Berkeley Harvard University Organizations: France H. Narasimhaiah, physicist president. Bangalore Richard Wiseman, psychologist University of Martin Gardner.- author, critic Science Forum, India Hertfordshire Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, Santa Fe Dorothy Nelkin, sociologist. New York Univ. Marvin Zelen. statistician. Harvard Univ. Institute; Nobel laureate Joe Nicked. * senior research fellow, CSICOP Thomas Gilovich. psychologist Cornell Univ. Lee Nisbet* philosopher, Medaille College * Member. CSICOP Executive Council Henry Gordon, magician, columnist Toronto Bl Nye, science educator and television host Nye Labs (Affiliations given for identification only.)

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"I"he SkfFTU..M IMJTIWR (ISSN0I94-6',30) is published bimonthly bv the (.ommutcc for thr and on page 60 of the January/I'ebruary 2003 tssuc. Or you may send a tax request to the editor. Scientific Investigation of CUinu of the Paranormal. 1310 Sweet Home Rd.. Amherst, NT Ankles, reports, reviews, and letters published in the SKEPTHLAI INQL'IRFR represent the 14228. Printed in U.SA Periodical* postage paid at Buffalo, NT. and at additional mailing view-* and work of individual authors- Their publication does not necessarily constitute an offices. Subscription prices: one year (sii issues). $35; two years. $60; three years. $84: single endorsement by CSICOP or its members unless so stated. issue. S4.95. Canadian and foreign orders: Payment in U.S. hinds drawn on a U.S. bank must Copyright ©2003 by the Committee for uSe Scientific Investigation of Claims of the accompany orders; please add USS10 per year for shipping. I "Canadian and foreign customers arc Paranormal. All rights reserved. The SUF1KAI INQURFR is available on 16mm microfilm. encouraged to use Visa or Master aid. 35mm microfilm, and 105mm microfiche iium University Microfilms International and is Inquiries from the media and the public about the work of the Committee should be made indexed in the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature. to Paul Kurtz. Chairman. CSICOP Box ~03. Amhera. NY 14226-0703. Td.: 716-636-1425. Subscriptjons and changes of address should be addressed to: SwrnCAl INQUIRE*. Box 703. f-AX: 716436-1733 .Amherst. NY 14226-0703. Or call toll-free 1-800-634-1610 (outside U.S. call 716-636-1425). Old Manuscripts, letters, books for review, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to Kendrick address as well as new arc necessary for change of subscribers address, widi six weeks advance notice. Frazier. Editor. SKHTKAI IM* 1RIH. 944 Deer Drive NE. Albuquerque. NM H~M2. rax 505- SKEPTICAL NQL 1RER subscribers may not speak on behalf of CSICOP or die SKEPTICAL INQURUL 828-2080. Before submming any manuscript, please consult our Guide for Audiors for format and Postmaster Send changes of address to SKEPTICAL INQURER. Box 703. Amhera. NY references nrquirerncim li i* on our Wfcb site at htrp;//www.csicop.org/si/guide-for-auuSors.html 14226-0703. COLUMNS

Skeptical Inquirer EDITOR'S NOTE 4 July/August 2003 • VOL 27, NO. 4 NEWS AND COMMENT Harris Poll: The Religious and Other Beliefs of Americans 2003 / CHASING CHAMP Biology Professor Alters Evolution Statement for Recommend­ ations; Justice Ends Probe / DOE Seeks Polygraph Program Con­ 18 INVESTIGATIVE FILES tinuance Despite Objections by National Academy / Organ Theft Legend Resurfaces in Mexico Border Slayings / Study Shows How Complex Functions Can Originate by Random Legend of the Lake Champlain Mutation. Natural Selection / Skeptical Inquirer Subject Index Monster Improved, Online / Longevity, Clonaid Receive Silver Fleece Awards for 2003 / CSICOP and PhACT Attend National Science The creature said to inhabit Lake Champlain has Teachers Convention / Dawkins Calls Plan for Creationist School remained elusive for decades. An extensive investigation 'Educational Debauchery' / Newsweek 'Alt Med' Report 'Ill- reveals more myth than monster. Conceived,' Says 22-ltem Critique 5 JOE NICKELL THINKING ABOUT SCIENCE 24 The Measure of a Monster Consider a Spherical Cow MASSIMO PIGLIUCCI 12 Investigating the Champ Photo

The most famous photograph of a monster in Lake NOTES ON A STRANGE WORLD Champlain was taken in 1977. The photo sparked the Blind Alley: The Sad and 'Geeky' Life modern age of Champ investigations and renewed national of William Lindsay Gresham interest in the creature. Recent field experiments, however, MASSIMO POLIDORO 14 reveal that the 'creature's" size is less than monstrous and the main eyewitness is mistaken. SCIENCE BEST SELLERS 52 BENJAMIN RADFORD

NEW BOOKS 53 ARTICLES FORUM 29 The Rorschach Inkblot Test, The Butterfly Theory of Truth Fortune Tellers, and Cold Reading ROBERT McHENRY 54 Famous clinical psychologists used the Rorschach Inkblot War, Music, and Evolution Test to arrive at incredible insights. But were the SUSAN BURY 56 astounding performances of these Rorschach Wizards The Dancing Sasquatch and Other Mysteries merely a variation on astrology and palm reading? STEVE NADIS 57 JAMES M. WOOD, M. TERESA NEZWORSKI, FOLLOW-UP SCOTT 0. LILIENFELD, Strong Response to Terrorism Not a Symptom of Fallacious and HOWARD N. GARB Statistical Reasoning or Human Cognitive Limitations STEVEN PINKER 59 34 Can Minds Leave Bodies? Clark R. Chapman and Alan W. Harris Respond 60 A Cognitive Science Perspective LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 62 Many people believe that the mind can leave the body at death and during out-of-body experiences. Research in cognitive science, however, has shown that this belief is implausible and suggests other explanations. BOOK REVIEWS D. ALAN BENSLEY Denying Evolution: Creationism, Scientism, and the Nature of Science 40 Memory Recovery Techniques in Massimo Pigliucci Psychotherapy PETER LAMAL .47 Problems and Pitfalls Memory recovery techniques that are widely used in Science and Pseudoscience in psychotherapy including hypnosis, age regression, guided Clinical Psychology imagery, dream interpretation, bibliotherapy, and symptom Scon O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, interpretation can distort or create—rather than reveal— and Jeffrey M. Lohr allegedly repressed traumatic memories. BRANDON A. GAUDIANO 48 STEVEN JAY LYNN, ELIZABETH F. LOFTUS, T/ie Trickster and riie Paranormal SCOTT 0. LILIENFELD, George P. Hansen and TIMOTHY LOCK MARTIN BRIDGSTOCK .51 Skeptical Inquirer THI MAGAZINI FOR SCIfNCf AMD RIASOH

tort OR Kendrick Frazier Monsters, Mind, and Memory EDITORIAL BOARD James E. Alcock Barry Beyerstein och Ness has no lock on stories of fabled underwater monsters. North Thomas Casten (America has its own, with "Champ," the alleged creature of Lake Martin Gardner L Ray Hyman hamplain. In this issue we publish two reports of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER'S Lawrence Jones own investigative "Champ" Expedition, carried out last summer. Senior Philip J. Klass C Paul Kurtz Research fellow Joe Nickell and SI Managing Editor Benjamin Radford exam­ Joe Nickell ined all aspects of the Champ legend. They explored die lake and its shores Lee Nisbet Amardeo Sarma from tip to tip, studied all the major articles and books, talked to local resi- Bela Scheiber dents, and interviewed witnesses of alleged sightings. As Joe says in his Eugenie Scott Investigative Files report, "We believe ours was the most wide-ranging, hands- CONSULTING EDITORS Robert A. Baker » on investigation of Champ ever conducted with an intent to solve, rather than Susan J. Blackmore promote, the mystery." John R. Cole Kenneth L. Feder Ben investigated die most famous photograph of a supposed monster in C E. M. Hansel Lake Champlain, die 1977 Sandra Mansi photo in what is considered the most E. C. Krupp Scott O. Lilienfeld complete and fully documented sighting of any lake monster in history. He David F. Marks and Joe talked with Mansi, and after an exhaustive and detailed review of both James E. Oberg Robert Sheaffer her account and the photograph decided she is probably a sincere eyewitness.. David E. Thomas Nevertheless, Ben's own in-watcr measurements and his analysis of the photo, Richard Wiseman base! d on Mansi's own estimates and testimony, reveal such severe inconsisten­ MANAGING EDITOR t Benjamin Radford cies with previous interpretations diat this "best evidence" dissolves. Details are ART CM RECTOR in his article "The Measure of a Monster." Lisa A. Hutter PRODUCTION Paul Loynes Christopher Fix Three important articles related to the mind, mental perceptions, and misuses CARTOONIST and abuses of psychological tests and memory-recovery techniques follow. The Rob Pudim audiors arc all prominent psychological scientists. WEB PAGE DESIGN Patrick Fitzgerald, Designer The Rorschach inkblot test is embedded in popular lore. Many clinical psy­ Amanda Chesworth Kevin Christopher chologists have clung to the test while research psychologists have been telling Rob Beeston them it's just a bunch of ink (bunk). In "The Rorschach Inkblot Test, Fortune Tellers, and Cold Reading," James Wood, Teresa Nezworski, Scott Lilienfeld, PUBUSHER'S REPRESENTATIVE Barry Karr and Howard Garb explore die technique's powerful mystique and show why it CORPORATE COUNSEL has more in common with the psychology of astrology and palm reading than Brenton N. VerPloeg BUSINESS MANAGER anything tcmotely valid. Sandra Lesniak Alan Bensley examines from a cognitive science perspective the dualistic FISCAL OFFICER (belief diat the mind is somehow something separate from the body. This dual­ Paul Paulin CHIEF DEVELOPMENT OFFICER ism leads to deeply entrenched religious beliefs such as die soul and its inde­ Arthur Urrows pendence from our material body and related paranormal concepts such as DEVELOPMENT OFFICER ghosts, astral projection, reincarnation, and die paranormal interpretation of James Kimberly the out-of-body experience. Cognitive science has deep insights into why our CHIEF DATA OFFICER minds work that way and validates diat conscious experience as a consequence Michael Cione mi STAFF of the function of brain and nervous system. Darlene Banks - Patricia Beauchamp Steven Jay Lynn, Elizabeth Loftus, Scott Lilienfeld, and Timothy Lock Jennifer Miller reeviev w the problems and pitfalls of memory recovery techniques in psy­ Heidi Shively Ranjit Sandhu chotherapyA,. . They examine a number of widely used but questionable memory Anthony Santa Lucia recovery procedures—guided imagery, suggesting false memories, hypnosis, John Sullivan searching for early memories, age-regression, hypnotic age-regression, past-life Vance Vigrass PUBLIC RELATIONS DIRECTOR regression, symptom interpretation, bogus personality interpretation, dream Kevin Christopher interpretation, and "bibliotherapy." The common thread of these procedures? EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR Their ability to distort memory or create false memories. Amanda Chesworth INQUIRY MEDIA PRODUCTIONS Thomas Flynn DIRECTOR OF UBRARIES Timothy S. Binga

The SKEPTKAI INQUIRER is the official journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, an international organization.

4 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER NEWS AND COMMENT

Harris Poll: The Religious and Other Beliefs of Americans 2003

That very large majorities of the of men and falls to 71 % among peoplsle 40% of people aged 25 to 29 but only 14% American public, and almost all (but aged 25 to 29 and those with postgradid­- of people aged 65 and over. not all) Christians believe in God, the uate degrees. survival of the soul after death, miracles, On almost all the beliefs that are cen.„_­ What Christians and heaven, the resurrection of Jesus Christ, tral to Christianity, there is a generaral) Non-Christians Believe and the Virgin birth will come as no pattern with: One of the more intriguing findings is great surprise. What may be more sur­ • Higher levels of belief among woro-­ that not all people who call themselves prising is that half of all adults believe in men than among men. Christians believe all the conventional ghosts, almost a third believe in astrol­ • Lower level of belief among peopl>Je Christian beliefs. For example, one per­ ogy, and more than a quarter believe in aged 25 to 29. cent of Christians do not believe in reincarnation—that they were them­ • Higher levels of belief among peo:o.­ God, 8% do not believe in the survival selves reincarnated from other people. ict of the soul after death, 7% do not Majorities of about two-thirds of all ple with no college education and lower _ believe in miracles, 5% do not believe in adults believe in hell and the devil, but levels of belief among those with postst ­ heaven, 7% do not believe in the Virgin hardly anybody expects that they will go graduate education. „„ birth, and 18% do not believe in hell. to hell diemselves. • Higher levels of belief among African-Americans than among White[cs Even more surprising is that some peo­ These are some of the findings of a ple who say they are not Christian believe Harris Poll of 2,201 American adults and Hispanics. in the resurrection of Christ (26%) and the surveyed online between January 21 and Other interesting findings include: he Virgin birth, Jesus born of Mary (27%). 27, 2003, using the same methods used • 68% of the public believes in the by Harris Interactive to forecast the devil, and 69% believe in hell. Life After Death 2000 elections with great accuracy. • 51% of the public, including 58i% The survey also found that women of women, and 65% of those aged 25 to Most of the 84% of the public who believe in the survival of the soul after are more likely than men to hold both 29 believe in ghosts. death are optimists. Almost two-thirds Christian and non-Christian beliefs. •31% of the public believes in ' African-Americans are more likely than astrology including 36% of women and• (63%), including 75% of Christians, Whites and Hispanics to hold Christian 43% of those aged 25 to 29 but onl•y expect to go to heaven. Only 1% expect beliefs, as are Republicans. The level of 17% of people aged 65 and over, and• to go to hell. Six percent expect to go to belief is generally highest among people 25% of men. purgatory while 11% expect to go some­ without a college education and lowest • 27% believe in reincarnation, that they where else and 18% don't know. among those with postgraduate degrees. were once another person. This includeleys les —The Harris Poll, February 26, 2003 • The 90% of adults who believe in God include 93% of women, 96% of "Please indicate for Se« Age each one if yoyou African-Americans and 93% of Re­ All Male Female 18-24 25-29 30-39 40-49 50-64 65+ believe in it or notnot" publicans but only 86% of men, 85% of Adults those with postgraduate degrees, and ': S % % % S % % K 87% of political independents. God 90 86 93 84 82 91 90 91 95 • The 84% of those who believe in Survival of the soul after death 84 85 86 82 84 the survival of the soul after death 78 89 88 81 90 86 85 83 32 include 89% of women but only 78% of Miracles 6-: 77 35 82 Heaven 39 83 83 84 80 men, 86% of those without a college 82 75 71 85 The resurrection of degree but only 78% of those with post­ Christ 80 73 86 76 68 81 82 81 84 graduate degrees. The Virgin birth • The 84% of the public who believe (Jesus born of Mary) 77 70 83 76 60 79 80 78 80 in miracles falls to 72% among those Hell 69 65 73 74 63 69 72 66 68 widi postgraduate degrees, and rises to The devil 68 64 73 68 62 72 72 68 62 90% among women and 90% among Ghosts 51 45 58 58 65 55 57 48 27 African-Americans. Astrology 31 25 36 37 43 37 23 32 17 • The 82% who believe in heaven Reincarnation 27 23 30 30 40 30 25 26 14 includes 89% of women but only 75% For complete data tables for this survey. 90 to www.hj/mintefactive.corMiafra poMndexasp?Pir>=3$9

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 5 NEWS AND COMMENT

Biology Professor Alters Dini stated on his Web page that would jeopardize the integrity of the "[the] central, unifying principle of biol­ process. Chancellor Smith pointed that Evolution Statement for ogy is the theory of evolution, which there are many biology professors other Recommendations; includes both micro- and macro-evolu­ than Dini from whom a student can Justice Ends Probe tion, and which extends to all species." request a letter of recommendation. Nowhere on his Web page did Dini state The U.S. Justice Department has that a student must deny his or her reli­ (Larry Taylor provided the original ver­ dropped its investigation of a complaint gious convictions. He did explain that a sion of this article.) that a Texas Tech University biology medical professional who denies this professor was discriminating against stu­ principle is in grave danger of undermin­ dents who did not believe in evolution. ing both care for patients and the scien­ DOE Seeks Polygraph The department announced April 22 tific method of discovery. Dini cited the Program Continuance that it had ended its probe after current crisis in antibiotic resistance as an Despite Objections by Professor Michael Dini eliminated the example of evolution ignored. National Academy evolution belief requirement from his Dini's new recommendation policy, recommendation policy and replaced it as stated on his Web site, now reads: Scientists concerned about extensive use with a requirement that students be able "How do you account for the scientific of polygraphs at the national weapons to explain the theory of evolution. origin of the human species? If you will labs had until June 13 to register their The Justice Department had earlier not give a scientific answer to this ques­ objections to U.S. Department of said Dini might be discriminating tion, then you should not seek my rec­ Energy-proposed rulemaking that would against students with certain religious ommendation." He adds later that the maintain the polygraph program in its views because he excludes from consid­ requirement "should not be miscon­ present form. eration a letter of recommendation for strued as discriminatory against any­ The preliminary decision by DOE students who will not affirm a personal one's personal beliefs. Rather, the goals astonished some scientists and manage­ belief in human evolution. of these requirements are to help ensure ment at the labs because it essentially All of this began in September of that a student who wishes my recom­ ignored the recommendations of the 2002 when a university student needed mendation uses scientific thinking to National Academy of Sciences. The a letter of recommendation from a biol­ answer scientific questions." Academy study (SI, January/February ogy instructor to apply for a program The Justice Department praised the 2003), carried out for DOE at the at Southwestern University's medical change in Dini's policy. In a statement, behest of Sen. Jeff" Bingaman, D-New school. The student, a devout believer Ralph Boyd Jr., assistant attorney gen­ Mexico, expressed strong reservations in creationism, stated he had no prob­ eral for civil rights said: "A biology stu­ about the value of the polygraph testing lem learning about evolution but had to dent may need to understand the theory when used to examine large numbers of draw the line when informed that to of evolution and be able to explain it. people on very general grounds. receive a letter of recommendation But a state-run university has no busi­ "Polygraph testing yields an unac­ from Dini he must "truthfully and ness telling students what they should or ceptable choice for DOE employee forthrightly" affirm belief in evolution. should not believe in." security screening between too many The student felt he was being discrimi­ According to students, Dini's classes loyal employees falsely judged deceptive nated against because of his belief in are rigorous. Much is expected from his and too many major security threats left biblical creation. students and he does not accept work of undetected," the Academy had said. The Dini listed three criteria that must poor quality. Many students enroll in test has more utility, the NAS found, for be met before receiving a letter of rec­ his classes because he has a reputation individuals questioned specifically about ommendation. The first stated that the for being thorough. A high grade and particular events that occurred at partic­ student must have earned an "A" in at letter of recommendation from him car­ ular times. least one class taught by Dini. The sec­ ries much weight when applying for "DOE does not believe that the issues ond stated that the student must be medical school. that the NAS has raised about the poly- known by Dini. The third (the one in Texas Tech University Chancellor graph's accuracy are sufficient to warrant question) stated that if you cannot David Smith and former Texas Tech a decision by DOE to abandon it as a answer the question "How do you think University David Schmidly have voiced screening tool," DOE said in its pro­ the human species originated?" with their commitment to Dini's right to posed rulemaking published in the April sincere reference to evolution, then a decline letters of recommendation. 14 Federal Register. letter of recommendation from Dini Schmidly stated that forcing a professor DOE said as steward of the U.S. would not be forthcoming. to write a letter of recommendation nuclear weapons stockpile, it has an

6 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER NEWS AND COMMENT

any wrongdoing) can produce false posi­ criticized the National Academy of tives far in excess of any possible true Sciences study. I wholeheartedly endorse negatives (catching a spy). And they have that study's findings, as I endorsed the repeatedly pointed out that spies who earlier study by Sandia's senior scientists, have taken the test have passed, and no who came to a similar conclusion. We spy has been caught by one. will be registering our views as part of DOE, the Department of Defense, the rule-making process, but unfortu­ and the intelligence agencies, however, nately we will have to continue the are reluctant to give up a tool that is DOE counterintelligence polygraphs as essentially used as an intimidation tactic required by law and continue the volun­ but might possibly elicit confessions tary polygraphs as required by otJicr from wrongdoers. government sponsors." DOE Secretary Spencer Abraham —Kendrick Frazicr invited the national labs to participate in the notice and comment process, dead­ Kendrick Frazier is editor of the Polygraph machine. line June 14, and there was every indica­ SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. tion that they would do so. obligation "to use the best tools available" The labs' stance is rJiat this is a pre­ to protect sensitive information. "There­ liminary decision that can be modified. Organ Theft Legend fore we will continue to use counterintelli- Whether that's the case remains to be Resurfaces in Mexico gence-scope polygraph examinations as seen. Border Slayings one of several tools to screen personnel "NNSA has assured us that the pre­ requiring access to high-risk information." sent rulemaking is an interim action," The border between Mexico and the Bingaman and Sen. Pete Domenici, said C. Paul Robinson, President of United States has often been a dangerous R-New Mexico, a state with two of the Sandia National Laboratories in Albu­ area. In the past decade or so, a string of three DOE weapons labs, questioned querque, New Mexico. "However, I was unsolved killings—many of the victims the DOE decision, as did Rep. Ellen disturbed by some of the language that young women—have occurred near Tauscher, D-California, whose district includes the third. Bingaman said he was "surprised and Study Shows How Complex Functions Can disappointed." "This is definitely not the more Originate by Random Mutation, Natural Selection focused policy I hoped for," Domenici said. "I continue to believe that the sys­ "A long-standing challenge to evolutionary theory has been whether it tem is too much, and an affront, espe­ can explain the origin of complex organismal features. We examined this cially since the polygraph program was issue using digital organisms—computer programs that self-replicate, mutate, compete, and evolve. Populations of digital organisms often so thoroughly criticized by the National evolved the ability to perform complex logic functions requiring the Academy of Sciences. 1 hope the coordinated execution of many genomic instructions. Complex functions Department will rethink this situation." evolved by building on simpler functions that had evolved earlier, pro­ Said Tauscher: "I am particularly vided that these were also selectively favoured. However, no particular surprised at the Department's decision intermediate stage was essential for evolving complex functions. The first genotypes able to perform complex functions differed from their non- to retain the use of the polygraph pro­ performing parents by only one or two mutations, but differed from the gram after it was so thoroughly criti­ ancestor by many mutations that were also crucial to the new functions. cized by the National Academy of In some cases, mutations that were deleterious when they appeared Sciences." She called for DOE to sup­ served as stepping-stones in the evolution of complex features. These port a hearing on "the rationale that findings show how complex functions can originate by random mutation and natural selection." caused it to ignore the findings of a study that it itself had commissioned." Labs scientists, including several —Abstract, "The evolutionary origin of complex features." by Richard E. Lenski, Charles Ofria, Robert T. Pennock, physicians, have pointed out the hazards and Christoph Adami and essential uselcssness of a test that in —Nature 423, 139-144 (May 8. 2003) a screening mode (where the vast major­ ity of people tested arc not suspected of

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 7 NEWS AND COMMENT

Ciudad Juarez and El Paso, Texas. The Publishing what is almost certainly a According to Stevenson, the Juarez crimes have been investigated as rape- rumor, one news organization, News24 organ-theft tale is the latest in a series of murders, and despite public outcry little in South Africa, reported that "police in bizarre conspiracy theories proposed by progress has been made in stemming the northern Mexico have found four prosecutors "who claimed the killings killings or capturing the culprits. human organs packed in jars labeled in were motivated by a mix of sex and The investigation took a bizarre English." The report quoted an greed and committed by a street gang turn when Mexican Assistant Attorney unnamed prosecutor, who said that the and a ring of bus drivers." Some believe General Carlos Javier Vega Memije, at organs were "conserved in a formalde­ that the organ-theft charges are simply a an April 30 conference in Chihuahua, hyde-like fluid." The New York Daily pretext for the federal police to take over announced that fourteen of the nearly News (May 2) repeated the story but the investigation, in place of the ineffec­ ninety victims may have been kid­ cautioned that "authorities weren't cer­ tive and maligned state police. napped and killed for their organs. The tain the organs were even human." implication was that the stolen organs —Benjamin Radford According to Fox News, the prosecutors were transplanted into rich Americans also suggested that the killings may be Benjamin Radford is managing editor of in nearby border hospitals and clinics. linked to pornographic filmmakers— "Several details support the idea that SKEPTICAL INQUIRER and wrote about the thus adding a second urban legend to these women were killed to extract organ-snatching urban legend in the the story, that of the snuff film. their organs and sell them," the May/June 1999 issue. Mexican Justice Department said in a (Presumably the women were killed in statement. Though Vega Memije did the process of making such a film.) Skeptical Inquirer not conclude that the killings were def­ Organ-theft rumors are prevalent in initely organ-related, he did say that it much of Latin America, parts of Africa, Subject Index was "probable." and Russia. This is the second time in Improved, Online recent years that this particular urban The story made national headlines, legend has made headlines around the In late March 2003, CSICOP Public including die front page of the May 2, world. In late 2000, many news agencies Relations Director Kevin Christopher 2003, edition of New Mexico's Albuquer­ including CNN carried a news story completed an extensive overhaul of the que Journal newspaper. "Mexico Theory: about a Russian grandmother who sup­ SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Subject Index. The Dead Women Harvested." To his credit. posedly sold her five-year-old grandson index, compiled by Andrew Lutes and Associated Press writer Mark Stevenson for his organs. As I previously reported completed in 2001, is even more useful regarded the announcement skeptically, ("Urban Legend Makes International now that it is available online. The orig­ pointing out that "the physical evidence News," SI 25 [3] May/June 2001), the inal version of the index was difficult in the organ-trafficking theory is slim," story was highly dubious and had little to update and search, leading to com­ and quoting several experts who cast seri­ supporting evidence. plaints from many site visitors. ous doubts on the story. Three forensics examiners in Juarez, two of whom had tt.|rll.«l Inquirer m««»Me*feee examined most of the bodies in question, : S. • said they had never seen any evidence of organ theft. Stevenson noted that the OlW»«I«lTM k*» O*—i- 0w—• O* ,., O-.. organ-theft rumors, which have fueled tte» for lh» Scientific lrw«H.gation of Claim* of th» Paranor anti-American sentiment for decades, SI index .•:-.! i-SCC^ "have always proved baseless." (<*] Vega Memije and die Justice Depart­ ment did not explain why only women Skeptical Inquirer would be killed for dieir organs, nor how TMI WAGAIINI IO» SCIIHCI AND IIASON it was even determined that organs were removed, since the bodies were often little The Skeptical Inquirer Index more than skeletons when recovered. The ISA'1't/t.'sL's.'t.'a.'li.'L'i.'S.'L'm/Q/a.'B.'a.'i/i.'i.'ii/Y.'a.'i/t/U main evidence seems to be a statement given by a T-shirt vendor who claims to •tore* 28, 2003 have been paid to find three victims for Welcome ID »>e comi«t«v updated 9gH inqunr Mo

As promtsed »long pme ago n a aaugy tar, far anay Hie S*cpUraHnau»er mde» is >ne»V coinplia. «cjlo dale Benndtie another man, who then killed them and scenes the nan source data ongraty compaed By Andrew Lutes Has been ililmi—ail and ersared «to an deckorac removed dieir organs. To date no physical database to make entanng and aonmg regular updates an easy tail (or the S*apbca< mourersta* evidence has surfaced supporting the story. >*——

8 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER NEWS AND COMMENT

Christopher, a Web programmer, to educators and science professionals converted the index into a database from across the country. using Perl, a programming language PhACT members Becky Strickland, that is often used for Web-based text Tom Napier, Bob Glickman, Richard processing and data manipulation. Slade, and Eric Krieg distributed mate­ Visitors to the CSICOP Web site will rials and discussed issues surrounding find the index at www.csicop.org/si/ science education. The booth was a pop­ index/. The search engine can now be ular stop for convention attendees, with used to specify search terms that might words of praise and requests for be missed in the subject categories. resources providing the impetus for fur­ Each entry is linked to a virtual shop­ Clonaid founder Rail claims that "Cloning will en­ ther discussion. In addition to copies of able mankind to reach eternal life. The next step ping cart, providing an easy way pur­ will be to directly clone an adult person without the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, selected edu­ chase the back issue in which the entry having to go through the growth process, and to cational materials from Prometheus transfer the memories and personality into this per­ was published. son just as the Elohim do using their 25.000 years of Books were on display. Due in part to advanced scientific knowledge." the encouraging response, CSICOP is An authors index should be up and planning future similar educational out­ running very soon, drawn from the reach programs in the years ahead. A full same master database as the subject with the most ridiculous, outrageous, report on the conference was published index, ensuring consistency when scientifically unsupported or exaggerat­ in the June 2003 Skeptical Briefs news­ updated. Thanks to Andrew Lutes and ed assertions about aging or age-related letter. A Web site, www.inquiring volunteer Greg Gaulocher for work on diseases." minds.org, is available for further infor­ the index and the new database. Last year, he gave a Silver Fleece to mation about CSICOP's educational Suggestions and reports of omissions are Clustered Water, whose producers claimed programming and developments. encouraged from SI readers. on their Web site that the product "truly assists our body's natural processes in www.csicop.org/si/index/ counteracting the cellular malfunctions that many health practitioners and Dawkins Calls Plan researchers believer are responsible for for Creationist degenerative health." Olshansky is co­ School 'Educational Longevity, Clonaid author with Bruce Carnes of The Quest for Receive Silver Fleece Immortality: Science at the Frontiers of Debauchery' Aging (Norton 2001). Awards for 2003 Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins —William M. London has condemned as "educational de­ A 2003 Silver Fleece award for anti- bauchery" plans by the Vardy Foun­ William London is Program Director and aging quackery went to Longevity, a dation to open six more schools in the Editor, NCAHF Newsletter, National product Urban Nutrition, Inc., pro­ northeast of England that would teach Council Against Health Fraud, Inc. motes at www.findlongevitynow.com as creationism. containing a "human growth hormone The foundation already runs the releaser" and an ingredient—2-amino- CSICOP and PhACT Emmanuel College in Gateshead, U.K., ethylphosphoric acid—it describes as Attend National a nondenominational Christian school. the "ultimate defense against aging and Controversy erupted earlier when its degenerative disease." Science Teachers plans to teach a creationism doctrine Also earning a Silver Fleece was Convention were disclosed. Clonaid, the company that claimed The new announcement prompted without evidence to have cloned a This year's National Science Teachers strong reaction from Dawkins, profes­ human being. Convention took place in Philadelphia sor of the public understanding of sci­ S. Jay Olshansky, professor of epi­ the weekend of March 28-30, 2003. ence at Oxford University. A zoologist demiology at the University of Illinois With the encouragement and assistance (and CSICOP Fellow), Dawkins has Chicago School of Public Health, pre­ of the Philadelphia Association for been an outspoken proponent of evolu­ sented the awards at a joint conference of Critical Thinking (PhACT), the Com­ tion in his books and other writings and the National Council on the Aging and mittee for the Scientific Investigation of public appearances. the American Society of Aging in March. Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) "To call evolution a faith position Olshansky presents the Silver Fleece and the Inquiring Minds program pro­ equated with creationism is educational awards "to the product (and its producer) vided scientific and skeptical materials debauchery," Dawkins said, according

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 9 V CENTER FOR INQUIRY J International /our Mi" lb pcflMOll ami dtfi'rld mixm. tdeace, * and frvt-dom til inquin in all arr-l* nf human cndcuor.

Outpacing its origins as a dissenting publisher, today's Center for Inquiry (CFI) movement has emerged as an educational resource, think tank, and advocacy orga­ nization. We have a bold plan to advance critical thinking, freedom of inquiry, and the scientific outlook through research, publishing, education, advocacy, and social services. REACH HUT TO II NEW FUTURE!

As before, CFI: Branch Centers Across the United States and the World • Supports the Council for Secular Humanism and the Committee for the Amherst. New York (HQ): We increased Scientific Investigation of Claims of library space 30 percent and are completing the Paranormal (CSICOP) acquisition of a five-acre parcel for future expansion. • Operates the world's premier freethought and skeptical libraries Hollywood. California: Renovation of our • Offers distinguished adult education 9.000-square-foot Center for Inquiry - West programs through the Center for is almost complete. There, a new National Center for Inquiry-International, Amherst, NY Inquiry Institute. Media Center will reach out to — and criti­ cally examine — the entertainment media. But. the Center needs to reach out The 99-seat Steve Allen Theater will also serve as a television production facility. in new ways... tackling new prob­ lems, exerting influence. New York, New York: Our fledgling Center for Inquiry - Metro New York, now in Rockefeller That's why the Center for Inquiry's Center, will reach out to the nation's financial, New Future Fund seeks millions intellectual, and news media centers. of new dollars for program needs, capital expansion, and endowment. Tampa Bay, Florida: Center for Inquiry- Florida is launching pilot programs and Your New Future Fund activities, pending a search for permanent Gift Can Support: quarters.

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The Center lor Inquiry, the Council for Secular Humanism, and the Committee lor the Scientific Investigation ot Claims of the Paranormal are 501(c)(3) tax-exempt charitable organizations Gifts are fully lax-deductible as provided by law. NEWS AND COMMENT to a BBC report. "It is teaching some­ native medicine' falsely implies that a such as osteopathic manipulation in pre­ thing that is utter nonsense. Evolution is meaningful category of healthcare called venting ear infections as 'serious sci­ supported by mountains of scientific 'alternative medicine' exists and that it is ence.' It's implausible that osteopathic evidence. These children are being scientifically based. But in common manipulation prevents ear infections. deliberately and wantonly misled." usage, the term 'alternative medicine' is When NIH funds studies of treatments Under the city academies program a euphemism used by enthusiasts and of implausible benefit, serious politics, the schools will get some of their initial profiteers to give the appearance of legit­ not serious science, is at work." funding from a foundation set up by Sir imacy to various methods promoted London's critique continues on for Peter Vardy, who gained most of his with scientifically implausible, invali­ pages, each item supported with details wealth from a car dealership. But the dated, or nonvalidated claims." and published references. bulk of the schools' money and all of the • "[Newsweek reporter Geoffrey] "... Irrational and dubious methods running costs come from the state. Cowley cites the survey data published are not adequate for their intended pur­ It was die way Vardy defended the by Eisenberg and colleagues in 1993 as pose, and consumers should not feel plan to have the foundation's schools showing 34 percent of U.S. adults had compelled to choose them," London present both the Bible account of cre­ received at least one 'unconventional' concludes. "Instead of attempting a spe­ ation and die Darwinian "theory" of therapy in 1990. But critics note that cial report on 'The Science of Alter­ species evolving over time that aroused the percentage was greatly inflated native Medicine,' Newsweek should have Dawkins's ire. because the survey included use of self- served its readers well by providing an "We present both," said Vardy. "One groups, exercise, prayer, and other activ­ expose1 of 'Pseudoscience Presented as is a theory, the other is a faith position. ities that are not promoted as 'CAM.'" Alternative Medicine.' As Drs. Marcia It is up to the children. We give them an • "Cowley quotes NCCAM [National Angell and Jerome Kassirer noted in a all-round education so both are pre­ Center for Complementary and Altern­ 1998 editorial in The New England sented to the students." ative Medicine] head Dr. Stephen Straus: Journal of Medicine, "There cannot be 'We want to test therapies that have a two kinds of medicine—conventional Newsweek 'Alt Med' plausible basis and address some unmet and alternative. There is only medicine need.' Cowley fails to point out NCCAM that has been adequately tested and Report 'Ill-Conceived/ and NHLBI are wasting more than $30 medicine that has not, medicine that Says 22-ltem Critique million to support a trial on chelation works and medicine that may or may therapy for heart disease even though it not work." LJ Newsweek's special report "The Science has failed in prior trials, and the rationales of Alternative Medicine" (December 2, for such treatment make no sense." 2002), read by millions worldwide and • "Cowley fails to recognize that it is winner of a national magazine award, standard care to consider patients as A Note has been subjected to a scathing twenty- whole beings, and that 'holistic' is a dan­ to Readers two-item critique by a leading critic of gerous banner under which practitioners unsupported medical claims. of nonscientific methods rally." In the March/April 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, pages 29-31, there ap­ William M. London, editor of the • "[Another reporter, Anne] Under­ peared a column by Massimo National Council Against Health wood generalizes that 'Chinese medica­ Pigliucci entitled "The Strange Case Fraud's (www.ncahf.org) NCAHF News­ tions tend to have fewer side effects than of Cathode Rays and What Counts letter, published the extensive critique Western pharmaceuticals . . .' and that for Evidence." That article was a summary of material in Chapter 2 of over two issues, January/February and 'Western medicine ... is riskier.' She a book by Peter Achinstein titled March/April 2003. provides an unsound argument for this The Book of Evidence (Oxford Although Newsweek expressed pride in generalization...." University Press, 2001). Although its report, London calls it "ill-conceived." • "Underwood discusses the increas­ this book was listed at the end under the heading "Further Said London: "Unfortunately, the best ing demand of Westerners for Chinese Reading." the author and editor wisdom tliey offer is packaged with pro­ medicine services without mentioning deeply regret that there was no paganda promoting false notions about the increasing demand of people in mention of the book in the body of so-called complementary and alternative China for modern medicine. [D. Nor- the article or of the debt owed the book for the ideas in the column. medicine (sCAM)." mile. The new face of traditional Chinese The author and editor apologize to For the full impact of London's de­ medicine. S««j»299:188-190; 20031." Professor Achinstein and to readers tailed critique readers will have to consult • "[David] Noonan is mistaken when of this magazine. the original, but here arc a tew tidbits. he describes studies underway to deter­ • "The notion of'the science of alter­ mine the effectiveness of treatments

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 11 THINKING ABOUT SCIENCE MASSIMO PIGLIUCCI

Consider a Spherical Cow

he idea of a thought experiment rope. Since we now have a combination the elevator introducing the restricted may seem like a perfect example of the two, the new body should fall theory of relativity, and of course of philosophical oxymoron: we faster than either of its two components Schrodinger's famous half-alive and T (because its weight is higher). But, half-dead cat in the Copenhagen inter­ usually think of experiments as things that are done manually, in practice, with Galileo observed, the new body also has pretation of quantum mechanics. the use of some measuring tools. So how to fall at a slower pace, because of the Naturally, there are also examples of can one carry out a thought experiment, dragging effect of the light body. bad, or at least uninformative, thought i.e., one that requires only sitting down Combining the two results one gets a and diinking really hard about the pos­ contradiction, since the compound sible outcomes of a certain (hypotheti­ object is expected to both be faster and cal) situation? slower than die heavy object alone. And yet thought experiments are the Since the Aristotelian dieory has bread and butter not only of philosophy, led us into a contradiction, it but of science as well. The trick is to must be rejected. Further­ understand how they work and learn to more, a moment's reflection distinguish good from bad thought shows us what the solution is: experiments (just as there are good and the velocity of heavy and bad empirical experiments). Let's start light bodies is the same, as by dispelling the potential skepticism of physicists have indeed the reader while considering a clear accepted (and then experi­ example of a good thought experiment: mentally demonstrated, for Galileo's refutation of the Aristotelian example during the Apollo mis­ theory of gravity. sions on the Moon) to be the case. Aristotle held (in agreement with Mind-blowing, isn't it? Galileo, common, but fallacious, intuition) that though he is popularly known as a heavier bodies fall faster than lighter real experimenter, actually made ones. Galileo invited us to consider a sit­ some of his most valuable contri­ uation in which two bodies are con­ butions to science by simply nected to each other, for example with a thinking about certain problems! And he was cer­ Massimo Pigliucci is Associate Professor of tainly not the only one (or ecology & evolutionary biology at the even the first). Other exam­ University of Tennessee and author of ples include Lucretius' argu­ Denying Evolution: Creationism, Scien- ment attempting to show that tism and die Nature of Science. His space is infinite, Maxwell's demon essays can be found at the Web site illustrating die second principle of www. rationallyspeaking. org. thermodynamics, Einstein's example of

12 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER experiments. One of my favorites occurs cal cow..." and goes on to derive all Brown has upheld thought experiments in the field of philosophy of mind, sorts of (irrelevant to real cows) proper­ such as the Galileian one as examples of where we are often asked to think about ties of these imaginary animals. true new knowledge acquired without consciousness by considering the idea of A more satisfactory answer to what referring to experience at all, a rather a zombie (i.e., a dead person who reac­ makes a thought experiment good or Platonic view of the process. quires motion and some sort of will, and bad must come from an understanding The two schools represented by yet is not conscious of what he is doing). of what, in fact, a thought experiment Norton and Brown are the extremes of a What does our intuition tell us about is. This is no easy task, judging from the continuum of positions, which includes the zombified condition, the philoso­ rapidly increasing literature on the topic the idea that thought experiments are in pher is then apt to continue? Well, noth­ in philosophy of science. Ernst Mach, some sense a limiting case of standard ing, really, because we don't have either the physicist who first coined the word experiments, and the suggestion that any experience of zombies, nor any plau­ "thought experiment" (gedankenexperi- thought experiments are a son of men­ sible a priori expectations of what it is ment, in German), believed that they are tal model of the world. Ultimately, like to be one. So, whatever your intu­ possible because of a vast repertoire of thought experiments by themselves are ition tells you about zombies vis-a-vis empirical knowledge that we acquire not considered satisfactory in science, consciousness, it's at best fit for the plot instinctively. What a thought experi­ and we are much happier when we can carry out a real check of a particular pre­ of a B-movie, not for advancing our ment docs, then, is to bring such knowl­ diction. However, it seems that even at understanding of neurobiology. edge into sharp focus. the stage of designing a real experiment Why is Galileo's case a good example Another view of thought experi­ one tries to simulate its setup and possi­ of a thought experiment, while the ments has been advanced by J. Norton, ble outcome in one's own mind, which zombification of philosophy of mind who suggested that they are (disguised) means that thought experiments are doesn't seem to lead us anywhere? It formal arguments: they start with a indeed a crucial component of the sci­ seems intuitive that a thought experi­ premise (which is often grounded in entific method. ment has to be based on reasonable and experience) and proceed by a combina­ informative premises in order to be tion of deduction and induction (see last Further Reading fruitful. The textbook joke about issue's "Thinking about Science") to T. Horowitz and G. Massey (eds.) Thought thought experiments concerns the prob­ achieve a certain conclusion. Not every Experiments in Science and Philosophy. Savage, lem that starts with "Consider a spheri­ philosopher agrees, however, and J.R. Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 1991. D

"The Book of Evidence is a real philosophical "... science and religion have been seeking common ground advance—a huge step forward in our ways of thinking through ongoing dialogue.... this volume provides] a dimen­ about evidence."—Stathis Psillos, Philosophy and sion to the conversation that has seldom been heard... pre­ Phenomenological Research sents] important and provocative voices too often drowned out." —PUBLISHERS WEEKLY "Although this book is primarily directed toward philoso­ phers and historians of science, [it] is elegantly written and Leading scientists highly accessible for scientists."—Journal of and other Mathematical Psychology distinguished "The Book of Evidence is ambitious in aim and thorough in contributors discuss detail: it seeks to show what is faulty about the major defi­ the Big Bang and nitions of evidence that have been on offer and develops a the origin of the novel view that relates evidence to explanation and realism. universe, intelligent This book has a rare combination of analytical clarity design and and historical sensibility and could only have been creationism vs. written by someone who has been thinking evolution, the about these issues for several decades... nature of the Achinstein's project is richly executed, with many fringe "soul," near-death SCIENCE benefits."—Sherrilyn Roush, ISIS experiences, communication THE BOOK OF EVIDENCE with the dead, why RELIGION some people PETER ACHINSTEIN believe in God and What is required for something to be evidence for an hypothe­ others do not, the sis? The distinguished philosopher of science Peter Achinstein relationship PAUL KURTZ introduces here a basic concept of "potential" evidence, which between religion is characterized using a novel epistemic interpretation of proba­ and ethics, and Barry Karr R\NJIlMMilll bility. The resulting theory is applied to a range of philosophical other stimulating and historical issues. topics. i- — (Oxford Studies in the Philosophy of Science) 368 pp« ISBN 1-59102-064-6. PB $20 2001 0-19-514389-2 S52 00 Prices are subject to change and apply in the US /~\'Y T-"f~\I? T\ ©Prometheus Books To order, call 1 800-451-7556 In Canada. 1-800- W-A-T W1SAJ Call toll free (800) 421-0351 • marketingeiJrornetheusbooks.com 387 8020 Visitourwebsiteatwww.oup-usa.org l/Nlvmsliv PUSS

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 13 NOTES ON A STRANGE WORLD MASSIMO POLIDORO

Blind Alley: The Sad and 'Geeky' Life of William Lindsay Gresham

"Let me tell you something, kid. cestor of modern showmen like John magician could pay quite some reward In the carny you don't ask noth­ Edward and Sylvia Browne. Carlisle just to learn the ingenious trick used by ing. And you'll get told no lies." learns from her all there is to know about Carlisle to move the arms of a precision cold reading and is awestruck by how balance placed under a glass case. (Don't W.L. Gresham, well the technique works with people: worry, I won't spoil the surprise. You'll Nightmare Alley "The world is mine! I've got 'em across find it in the book.) Gresham organizes the barrel and I can shake them loose each chapter along the twenty-two ne of the best (if not the best) from whatever I want. The geek has his minor arcana of the Tarot, a device used "skeptical" novels whisky. The rest of them by later authors such as Robert Anton Oever written has drink something else: they Wilson and Umberto Eco. to be William Lindsay NIGHTMARE drink promises. They drink When Nightmare Alley came out in Gresham's Nightmare Alley. ALLEY hope. And I've got it to 1946 it was an instant success. The fol­ The story is classic noir, hand them." lowing year Edmund Goulding directed depicting the rise and fall And so he leaves the a film version of it, starring Tyrone of Stanton Carlisle, an all- carny in order to reach the Power in the role of the suave Carlisle. around faker who gets his big time, but his dreams are Though it turned out to be quite a WIUIAM start in a carny ten-in-one LIHOSM BKSIUU shattered by a careless per­ creepy B-movie, the film is not up to the show. It opens with a formance in front of his first quality of the book. revolting description of a high-level audience and he However, though Nightmare Alley is a "geek," a word that Gre­ sets out to get revenge. He book often mentioned in skeptical liter­ sham claimed he had invented, referring turns himself into a phony pseudo- ature, it is unfortunately seldom read— to the lowest of the low: an alcoholic or religious spiritualist and starts preying on for years it was out of print and only drug addict who was out of his head all the rich and gullible matrons of society. recently reprinted in an omnibus edi­ the time. He could be prodded, cajoled, His fatal step arrives when he tion (Polito 1997). and led into working for more drinks or attempts a big swindle in collaboration Because Gresham was also an ama­ drugs. His job? To sit and crawl in his with a female psychiatrist who is even teur magician, student of the occult, and own excrement, as the Wild Man of more duplicitous. On the lam from the the author of other fine books (includ­ Borneo, and occasionally bite the heads law, our anti-hero retreats into the bot­ ing one of the earliest Houdini biogra­ off chickens and snakes. tle and ultimately returns to the carny, phies and a mesmerizing book on the In the carnival, Stanton is the assistant where he is forced to take a job as a geek. history and workings of the sideshow), I to (and then the lover of) a phony It's a dark, sordid story, but beauti­ was quite interested in learning more medium. Madam Zeena, a perfect an- fully told by Gresham's captivating sto­ about him and his dealings with magic rytelling. And, apart from a great read, and the paranormal. Massimo Polidoro is an investigator of the this book also presents a magnificent paranormal, author, lecturer, and co- expose of fake psychics and mediums, From Depression to War founder and head of CICAP, the Italian with rarely found details on how the Gresham, allegedly the descendant of a skeptics group. cold reading business really works. A family that setded in Maryland in 1641,

14 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER was born August 20, 1909, in From Communism to Religions ideas of writer C. S. Lewis, found religion Baltimore, Maryland. He moved with After returning to the U.S. in January and joined the Presbyterian Church. his family to Fall River, Massachusetts, 1939, his marriage ended in divorce. He They announced their joint conversion and when his father needed to pursue a took to drink, spent time in a tuberculo­ in articles published in a 1951 anthology. factory job they all moved to New York sis ward and, out of despair, attempted to These Found the Way: Thirteen Converts to City. He graduated from Erasmus Hall hang himself in a closet, but the hook Protestant Christianity. High School, in Brooklyn, the year came loose and he fell to the ground. To As money started to dry up, how- Houdini died, 1926. Unsure of his career path, he worked at odd jobs and as a folk singer in Greenwich Village cafes. Those were Gresham finally met success when Nightmare Alley the years of the Great Depression and as America suffered its economic woes, was published in 1946 and Hollywood Franklin Delano Roosevelt extolled the later turned it into a movie. virtues of hard work. It was in his acceptance of the Democratic nomina­ tion for president in July 1932 that FDR began his conservation move­ straighten up his life he went to a psycho­ ever, tensions developed between the ment, proposing putting city men to analyst and worked as a salesman, magi­ couple, and Gresham started to drink work restoring the country to its "for­ cian, and editor for True Crime magazine. heavily. The alcohol occasionally mer beauty." The Civilian Conservation In 1942 he married again, to writer and turned him violent, and when it was Corps, or CCC, a massive salvage oper­ poet Helen Joy Davidman, and the cou­ apparent that he had a relationship ation destined to become the most pop­ ple had two sons, David and Douglas. with another woman the threat of ular experiment of the New divorce materialized again. Deal, was born. Gresham Religion could not help promptly joined the CCC. Gresham anymore, so he His time there lasted a few turned to Zen, the Tarot, years and, when he met a Yoga, I Ching and Dianetics, wealthy woman and married but nothing seemed to work. her, he left the CCC. After a While Joy was away on a brief stint as a reviewer for the vacation in England, on the New York Evening Post, he advice of her doctor, Gresham worked as an advertising copy started a relationship with Joy's writer and in his spare time first cousin, Renee Rodriguez. contributed stories to pulp When Joy returned, divorce magazines. became the only possible solu­ In November 1936, like tion. They were forced to sell many idealistic young men in William Lindsay Gresham the house to pay off the those days, he joined the Internal Revenue Service, and Communist Party, taking as a name He finally met success when Joy moved to England with the boys. In William Rafferry. The following year, Nightmare Alley was published in 1946 1956 she married C.S. Lewis; their story after a close friend died at Brunete, he and Hollywood later turned it into a was told in the 1993 film Shadowlands, left for Spain where he fought and movie. With the money, the Gresham with Anthony Hopkins and Debra served for fifteen months as a medic family moved out of Queens and up to Winger. Joy died on July 14, 1960. with the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, on a large estate in Staatsburg, north of Gresham, meanwhile, had married the side of the Republicans in the New York City. Renee in 1954, moved to Florida, and Spanish Civil War. It was during his His second novel. Limbo Tower, a joined Alcoholics Anonymous. He had days at the camp hospital that he met a story that takes place on the ninth floor also published his first nonfiction book. medic who liked to reminisce about his of a hospital about a group of people Monster Midway: An Uninhibited Look times in a carnival. His name was brought together during their stay in the at the Glittering World of the Carny, a fas­ Joseph Daniel "Doc" Halliday, a for­ hospital, was published in 1949 but did cinating treatise on carnivals, and mer seaman and male nurse. It was not match the success of the first book. seemed to find some peace of mind. He from him that Gresham learned all Meanwhile, after leaving both Com­ was living in New Rochelle, New York, about the carny culture, habits, mental­ munism and psychoanalysis behind, when he started work on his biography ity, and language. Gresham and Joy, deeply influenced by on Houdini.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/Augus! 2003 15 Magicians Through Walls this book is dedicated with the sincere A Red Light Levitation The book tided Houdini: The Man Who admiration of the author" and, on die last After the world of sideshow and magic, Walked Through Walls is today often crit­ page of die book, there is still one more it was quite logical that Gresham's atten­ icized by Houdini experts for its inaccu­ reference to "the invaluable correspon­ tion turned toward Spiritualism. He was racies and faults. It is certainly not com­ dence on die subject of Houdini and fascinated by characters such as medi­ parable to Silverman's 1996 almost per­ escapery in general with The Amazing ums Daniel Dunglas Home and fect Houdini!!! The Career ofEhrich Weiss. Randi." Margery, and started work on two dif­ However, you have to consider that "I met Bill for the first time when I ferent books devoted to them. Gresham's book was only the second returned to New York after my European Randi remembers: "The book on Margery, Bill told me, was going to be titled The Blonde Witch of Boston. He was quite impressed by the fact that reports of Gresham felt that he needed advice from someone seances were so full of astounding, knowledgeable about Houdini though implausible, details. And so, in order to understand what really took Gresham's publisher suggested that the right place in the mind of stance sitters, and to person could be James The Amazing' Randi. show how easy it is to fool people on such occasions, we decided to organize a little experiment. Bill had been a good friend of deceased writer and historian Fletcher complete biography on the great magi­ Pratt and, with the aid of his wife, Inga I cian, after Kellock's 1928 authorized think, we organized a seance at her house Houdini: His Life Story. And Gresham in Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey. succeeded in recreating not only Eleven 'sitters,' varied ages and profes­ Houdini's life but also his rough begin­ HOUDINI sions, were invited. I was going to per­ nings and the atmosphere of his times. form the role of the medium, though With his profound knowledge of they knew I was actually a magician. We sideshows, Gresham was able to produce sat around a table, lights were lowered a book much more enjoyable, from a lit­ and only a dark red light remained on. I erary point of view, than Kellock's pol­ remember I did an Al Baker self-cutting- ished portrait and other later biographies. deck trick, a floating and ringing bell, When the manuscript of the book and many other wonders. My final coup was ready, however, Gresham felt that he de teatre had everyone gasping: they needed advice from someone knowl­ could see my figure in the dim red light edgeable about Houdini. But who could sitting at the table, and a moment later I that be? There were not many magicians started to levitate, widi chair and every­ who performed escapology and were HOUDINI thing, until I reached almost two meters also literate enough to give good advice THE MAN WHO WALKED THROUGH WALLS in height. After this, the sitters were told on how to improve a manuscript. to retire to their rooms and write out Gresham's publisher suggested that what had occurred, so their accounts the right person could be James "The could be compared. You can't believe how Amazing" Randi. Randi was at the time many inaccuracies of recall were present touring Europe widi his magic show. "1 tour" says Randi, and diey soon became in their reports. . . ." was told that Gresham, or Bill as I knew friends. Gresham saw Randi perform Randi also told me how he accom­ him," Randi tells me, "needed the book many times and was also a witness to one plished his levitation. "Well, Alan, a quickly checked, and required info on of Randi's great televised stunts. "1 have weightlifter friend of mine, was all handcuffs. He sent the manuscript to seen The Amazing Randi," Gresham dressed in black and he crept inside the me in France, I looked it over, made wrote in a 1960 article, "walk, apparendy, room when the seance started. With red some suggestions, and Bill was so happy through die solid brick wall of a building light on he was virtually invisible and, at widi what I did that he promised me from outside on die sidewalk. I was privy die moment 1 needed to levitate, he put that my name would be the first and die to his secret, and marveled at his ingenu­ die chair I was sitting in on his shoul­ last mentioned in die book." ity and nerve. But at die moment of die ders and lifted me!" And, true to his promise, diis is what apparent dematerialization I must confess happened. The dedication reads: "To die diat I got a most satisfying 'cauld grue' of Home's Mouth Organ greatest living escape artist 'The Amaz­ wonder as if in die presence of a genuine As for D.D. Home, Gresham stated that ing Randi' (Mr. James Randall Zwinge) super-mundane event" (Gresham 1960). he had spent "a good many years ...

16 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER digging into the life and times, triumphs becoming a charlatan. His attitude diagnosed with cancer of the tongue and despairs, of a man who is generally toward the medium is quite sympathetic: he decided he had had enough. On conceded to be one of the greatest enig­ "We never know what burdens another September 14, 1962, he registered into mas of history" (Gresham 1960). While person bears. Nor do we read the weather the rundown Dixie Hotel room as "Asa in England to see his sons, who had map of the soul and the storms that Kimball, of Baltimore" and took his life remained in the care of C. S. Lewis after sweep across it. In short, we cannot hon­ with an overdose of sleeping pills. Joy's death, he visited the Society for estly condemn anyone for anything." "1 thought his suicide was justified" Psychical Research in London to research Home. Upon returning to America, he immediately told Randi that he had dis­ Gresham told a fellow veteran from Spain: covered a small harmonica among Home's effects held at the SPR. Since 'I sometimes think that if I have any real talent it such an harmonica can be played when is not literary but is a sheer talent for survival." put inside one's mouth, without the use of the hands, Gresham's hypothesis was that Home could have used it to simu­ late the famous sound of the accordion comments Randi. "He was terminal, being played by the spirits in the dark. did the only sensible thing. Living "He was very excited about the dis­ on another year or so would have covery," says Randi, "as well as over the been under drugs, and would have discovery of a number of white gloves in broken his family financially. One rea­ the SPR/Home collection. His idea was son he gave me for his suicide was that thai Home wore white gloves and as he didn't want to be a weak figure rep­ part of his routine used a fake forearm resenting Alcoholics Anonymous." that also wore a glove. As I remember, Sadly, the only tribute paid to him in he told me that he had found more than the New York Times came from the one of the one-octave mouth organs and bridge columnist. had discussed the implications with someone at the SPR at the time." Note

However, after a recent search of the I would be very grateful IO any reader who Home collection at the SPR, neither could provide me with a copy of any article (or ref­ gloves nor mouth organs could be found erence of it), on any subject, written by W.L Gresham. (Gauld and West 1997). "Is it possible that these were References removed from the collection?" Randi wonders. "Of course, 1 only have Bill's Duncan. P. 2000. Noir Fiction: Dark Highways. Harpenden. U.K.: Pocket Essentials. account to go by, but I recall that he was Gauld. A., and D. west. 1997. later. Journal of the very excited, and was looking into Society for Psychical Research. Vol 62: 848. 96. accounts of what tunes had been heard at Gresham, W.L. 1946. Nightmare Alley. New York: Rinehart & Company, Inc. (Reprinted in: the seances, to see if they could be played Polito. R. 1997. Crime Novels: American Noir in one octave. Bill also had many other End of the Alley of the 1930s and 40s. New York: Literary observations on possible scenarios for Reflecting on his life, Gresham told a Classics of the United States, Inc.) . 1949. Limbo Tower. New York: Rinehart Home's tricks. He pointed out that the fellow veteran from Spain: "I sometimes & Company. Inc. 'full light' of a Victorian living room was think that if I have any real talent it is . 1953. Monster Midway: An Uninhibited a few gas-lights, not at all what we would not literary but is a sheer talent for sur­ Look at the Glittering World of the Carny. New York: Rinehart & Company, Inc. consider 'bright' by modern standards." vival. I have survived three busted mar­ . 1959. Houdini: The Man Who Walked Unfortunately for us, nothing of riages, losing my boys, war, tuberculosis, Through Walls. New York: Rinehart & Gresham's work on either Margery or Marxism, alcoholism, neurosis, and Company, Inc. . 1960. The Deeper Riddle of D.D. Home. Home remains. "I tried to find and get the years of freelance writing. Just too mean Exploring the Unknown. October 1960, 76-85. material he'd prepared," said Randi, "but and ornery to kill, I guess" (quoted in . 1962. The Book of Strength: Body Duncan 2000). Building the Safe. Corrrct Way. London: Kave. Renee moved away almost immediately, Polito. R. 1997. Crime Novels: American Noir of and I could never find her again. Pity." In 1962 his last book was published: the 1930s and 40s. New York: Literary Classics I was only able to track down one arti­ The Book of Strength: Body Building the of die United States. Inc. Soper, D.W. 1951. These Found the Way: Thirteen cle he wrote for a psi magazine on what Safe, Correct Way. He was becoming Converts to Protestant Christianity. Phila­ he considered to be Home's reasons for blind, however, and when he was delphia: Westminster Press.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 17 INVESTIGATIVE FILES JOE NICKELL

Legend of the Lake Champlain Monster

ermed "North Americas Loch other offspring, including "Champ- while extinct creature. Champ seeker Ness Monster" and known affec­ burgers" (seafood patties on sesame-seed Joseph Zarzynski has even given it a Ttionately as "Champ," the leg­ buns). Such endeavors have made name: Beluaaquatica champlainiensis endary Lake Champlain Monster re­ ("huge water creature of Lake portedly haunts the waters of its Champlain") (Owen 1982). To assess the reputed phenomenon. namesake. Lake Champlain began 'Tqissiouai Bay roughly 10,000 years ago when an .***** SKEPTICAL INQUIRER managing editor estuary of the Atlantic Ocean, die SlaauamJSay Ben Radford and I launched "The 'Champ' Expedition" in the summer Champlain Sea, was transformed by iStQlbans receding glaciers into an inland, fresh­ of 2002. We examined all aspects of water body (Zarzynski 1984). This the Champ legend, from its alleged lake—and some say the creature inception, dirough the impact of a too—was "discovered" in 1609 by famous 1977 photograph of the crea­ Samuel de Champlain. Since then, ture, and beyond. Unlike some so- the 125-mile-long lake, situated called investigations—which, while between New York and Vermont Jort Cassinipite) long-running, were largely attempts to (with six miles extending into '•ton Bag State Park collect sighting reports—we believe Quebec), has received much atten­ ours was the most wide-ranging, tion. In 1873 and 1887, showman P. BulfaggiBay hands-on investigation of Champ ever T Barnum offered huge rewards for conducted widi an intent to solve, c the monster—dead or alive Jort 7iconderoqa ^ rather than promote, die mystery. (Zarzynski 1984, 83). More recendy, Champ Expedition there has been much "cryptozoologi- cal" interest and die development of a Our investigation was multi-faceted. I burgeoning Champ industry. Whitehall made an advance trip (August 2—4, Proliferating sightings, "dieories" Figure 1- Map of Lake Champlain, showing selected sites. 2002) to take in the annual Champ of self-styled monster hunters, and Day celebration (August 3) in Port even a Holy-Grail photo of the supposed Champ the best-known lake monster in Henry, New York, interview various peo­ beast have spawned innumerable news­ die United States and, except for British ple, buy books, and, in general, scout re­ paper and magazine articles, books, Columbia's "Ogopogo," in all of North sources and make plans for our subsequent entries in paranormal compendia, and America. "Few cryptozoologists deny the two-man expedition, August 22-26. radio and television segments, not to possibility of Champ's existence," states In the interim we began to study die W. Haden Blackman in his The Field mention keychains, mugs, T-shirts, and myriad articles and books on Champ Guide to North American Monsters and other alleged lake monsters. Ben did Joe Nickell is CSICOP's Senior Research (1998), "and many openly accept die extensive work to ready experiments Fellow and author of numerous investiga­ creature," believing it to be a plcsiosaur, regarding the famous 1977 Champ zeuglodon, or other unknown or erst­ tive books. photo by Sandra Mansi, while I located

18 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER her by phone, arranged for an interview, and (from photo expert Rob McElroy) borrowed a vintage camera like die one Mansi had used. We discussed options, drafted itineraries, obtained and readied gear, and made other preparations. With my car fully loaded, we set out for Whitehall, New York. There we met friend and fellow skeptic Robert Bartholomew and his brother Paul (who is a cryptozoologist), and discussed many relevant issues with them. Then we began to explore Lake Champlain from its southernmost tip near Whitehall to its northern end in Quebec (see map, figure 1). Our "base camp" for the next two days was Collins Cabins at Port Henry. Late the first afternoon we set up Figure 2. Benjamin Radford maintaining a Champ vigil. "Champ Camp I" at a boating ramp area just outside Bulwagga Bay (figure 2), the locale of a majority of Champ reports, and maintained a watch from 7 to 8:30 P.M.—a supposedly prime time for Champ sightings (Kojo 1991). Unfortunately Champ was a no-show. We later conducted research at the Collins Cabins' bar—seriously! Widi Ben taking notes, I inquired of a group of men about a local signboard that lists Bulwagga Bay "Champ Sightings," six columns of names and dates (see figure 3). One man, William "Pete" Tromblee, quipped that it was "a list of the local drinkers." In fact Tromblee's own 1981 sighting is listed, although he assured us he was entirely sober at die time. He did admit that he did not know what he saw and volunteered that it Figure 3. Champ monster sighting board at Port Henry, New York, the "Home of Champ.' might have been a large sturgeon—a refrain one hears quite often. The pro­ is the question Ben addresses in his arti­ sheephead. However, on our entire tour prietor, Mrs. Rita Collins, rummaged cle elsewhere in this issue. of Bulwagga Bay and many miles dirough a drawer behind the bar and We subsequently rendezvoused with beyond, we saw nodiing, either visually came up with some related newspaper Norm St. Pierre, a veteran fisherman or on sonar, diat could be construed as clippings, including one with a photo of and lake guide who operates Norm's Champ (with the exception of the a "six-foot piece of driftwood that bears Bait and Tackle at Crown Point, New "monster" in figure 5). That is not sur­ a striking resemblance to artists' concep­ York (a few miles south of Port Henry). prising, given that during more than tions of Lake Champlain's legendary Outside this "One Stop Hunting and four decades on the water he has never monster, Champ." Fishing Supply Store" rests a giant hook, seen a giant unknown lake creature. He The following day (August 24) we baited widi a large rubber fish and wag­ says he has occasionally encountered a crossed the Champlain Bridge to gishly labeled "Norm's Champ Rig." wave on calm water diat puzzled him, Vermont. We explored die lake shore Norm was to be our guide, aboard his and, like others, will say there's "some­ around Otter Creek, dropped in on the sonar-equipped Starcraft cruiser, to a thing" out there. But he is more likely to naturalist at Button Bay State Park, and major area of Champ's reputed lair. suggest a sturgeon than a plesiosaur. then proceeded to Bristol to keep our The sonar (figure 4), which Norm (More on all dicse matters prescndy.) appointment with Sandra Mansi regard­ uses to locate schools of fish, soon Eariy in the morning we closed out ing her famous snapshot of—well, diat picked up a 12- to 20-pound catfish or our base at Port Henry and, again crossing

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 19 magazine (Teresi 1998), "The first recorded sighting of Champ dates back to July 1609, when Samuel de Champlain claimed he saw a '20-foot ser­ pent thick as a barrel, and a head like a horse.'" This quotation from Cham­ plain—which has been repeated, para­ phrased, and embellished with Indian legends (e.g., Coleman 1983; Green 1999)—is, alas, bogus. Jerome Clark (who was once taken in by the claim [1983]) repons it "traceable to an article by the late Marjorie L. Porter in the Summer 1970 issue of Vermont Life" (Clark 1993). Champlain's actual description is in volume 2, chapter IX, of his journal (quoted in Meurger 1988): . . . [T)here is also a great abun­ Figure 4. Norm St. Pierre, veteran fishing guide, aboard his sonar-equipped boat. dance of many species of fish. Amongst others there is one called into Vermont, made our way to St. the way to explore and to photograph by the natives Chaousarou, which is Albans and beyond. We searched the areas some driftwood that had piled up along of various lengths; but the largest of them, as these tribes have told mc, of Maquam and Missiquoi Bays (again sec the shore. We returned as far south as are from eight to ten feet long. 1 have map) in hopes of finding a landscape that Burlington, Vermont, that night. Ben seen some five feel long, which were could match the location of the Mansi was glad to finally be able to wash up as big as my thigh, and had a head as sighting. Unfortunately her description of from his swim in Lake Champlain and large as my two fists, with a snout two feet and a half long, and a dou­ the location was so vague as to be almost to treat a cut foot—injured on sharp ble row of very sharp, dangerous useless, and the intervening years had per­ rocks during the earlier experiments. teeth. Its body has a good deal the haps changed the scene completely. This Our final day, the 26th, was another shape of the pike; but it is protected precluded one set of photographic experi­ long one. We took the ferry Valcour from by scales of a silvery gray colour and so strong that a dagger could not ments but we located a suitable area for Burlington to Port Kent, New York, tra­ pierce them. others, near a boat launch. By wading versing Lake Champlain at one of its into the water Ben discovered that it was widest places. We maintained a Champ As Champlain's actual account surprisingly shallow for more than 150 watch, noting that some reported sight­ demonstrates, far from heralding a ser­ feet offshore. This was fortuitous since we ings had been made from ferries as well pentine, horse-headed monster, he sim­ could avoid having to use our raft, but it as other boats. A veteran deckhand told ply mentions a native species of large raised an interesting point. A local man us he teased children to look overboard fish. It was almost certainly a gar (or who had resided there for thirty years said for Champ and instructed adults to "go garfish), one of the Ganoidei subclass that the general shallowness of the lake in below" to the on-board snack bar that (from the Greek ganos, "shiny"), which the surrounding area made him doubt the serves beer and wine so they might also includes sturgeons and other varieties. presence of any leviathan there. Indeed, be able to see the creature. Supposed other evidence of an early while the lake reaches depths of up to 400 Disembarking from the Valcour, we Champ sighting comes from an old feet, the maximum for all of Missiquoi headed south along the west coast of powderhorn bearing a Crown Point sol­ Bay is fourteen feet. And for the eastern Lake Champlain until we veered away dier's name, the year 1760 and various edge of Maquam Bay and the connecting on the interstate and headed for home. pictorial elements, including "a rather area of lake, the offshore depth at Mansi's We had traveled over twelve hundred large dragon-like creature." Zarzynski estimated sighting distance of 150 feet is miles, and had obtained quantities of (1984, 52-53) suspects this is a "possi­ twelve feet or less, as shown by a Lake notes, photographs, videotapes, books, ble link" to Champ. However, the figure Champlain hydrographic contour map charts, and other research materials—all is merely a stereotypical dragon—com­ (Lake n.d.). of which would now need careful study. plete with large wings. It is by no means The experimental work was time- Here are our findings. evidence for the existence of a Lake consuming, but we were through by Champlain leviathan. mid afternoon and continued north to Sightings In his Champ: Beyond the Legend, the upper end of Lake Champlain at Promoters of Champs existence cite a Zarzynski (1984,152-205) catalogued 224 Venise Bay, Quebec. We stopped along major eyewitness. According to Discover "Champ" reports. Putting aside Samuel de

20 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Champlain's, which never occurred, the rest (Vachon 1977). However, to the rest of us In this regard, local fisherman Tom are from the nineteenth and twentieth cen­ it appears rhat either Champ is a meta­ Forrest told an illuminating story. In turies. The earliest is from 1819 and is still morphosing, contortionistic, chamele- 1998 he was with a group of people die most sensational description of Champ onesque creature, completely unknown to who saw "Champ," and some were ever recorded. I tracked down the original the natural world, or else eyewitnesses are frightened. In time, however, it turned account in the Plattsburgh Republican of viewing—and no doubt misperceiving— out to be a partially waterlogged tree Saturday, July 24. a number of different dungs. trunk, bobbing and propelled by the The sighting was attributed to a Many of the sightings were from con­ current. It was nearly forty feet long "Capt. Crum" who was in a scow on siderable distances—often a hundred with a root that resembled a monster's Bulwagga Bay the previous Thursday yards or more, a few at between a quarter head (Forrest 2002). morning. The black monster was said to and three-quarters of a mile, four at one A particular feature of Lake be about 187 feet long with its flat mile, and at least one at two miles away, Champlain—an effect called a seiche— head—resembling that of a "sea-horse"— although often the distance was unreport­ may help to produce just such sightings. rearing more than fifteen feet out of the ed. (A dozen observations were made by A seiche is a great underwater wave that water. The creature was some two hun­ the use of spyglasses or binoculars.) Since sloshes back and forth, even though the dred yards away (twice die length of a the apparent size of the creature depends lake's surface appears smooth. The slosh­ football field) and was traveling "widi the on how far away it is, then mistaking ing may dislodge debris from the bot­ either the distance or size will result in utmost velocity" while being chased by tom—logs or clumps of vegetation, for misjudging the other accordingly. If we "two large Sturgeon and a Bill-fish." Nev­ example—that bob to the surface as consider other factors—such as surprise, ertheless, the captain was able to notice "monsters" (Teresi 1998). poor visibility on several occasions (such that it had three teeth, large eyes the color Another likely candidate for some as nighttime sightings and viewing die of "a pealed [sic] onion," a white star on Champ sightings is a large fish. Samuel creature while it was entirely underwater), de Champlain's Chaousarou—clearly a its forehead, and "a belt of red around the and other problems, including the power neck." The incident has an oudandish- of suggestion—the sightings could obvi­ gar—is an obvious possibility. Tom ness about it that suggests someone was ously be fraught widi error. Forrest has caught very large gar. When I pulling the reader's leg. spoke with him he had only days before Hoax or not, that monster has not witnessed a friend hook a Longnose Gar been seen since, or has apparently "Expectant Attention" that—Forrest insists—was "monster" shrunk to a fraction of its former self One should not underestimate the sized; it measured approximately 6 feet 4 and lost its distinctive markings, power of what Rupert T. Gould, in his inches long and weighed some 40-50 although not without gaining others. The Loch Ness Monster and Others pounds. He calls this "the real Champ" Anyway, according to the various (1976, 112-113), called "expectant and has dubbed it, appropriately, "Gar- reports Champ is between ten and 187 attention." This is the tendency of peo­ gantua" (Forrest 2002). feet long, has one to four or more ple who, expecting to see something, are Among other large fish in the lake are humps or up to five arching coils, and is misled by anything having some resem­ sturgeon which are now endangered. black, or has a dark head and white blance to it. For example, a log may be They are generally in the five-to-six-foot body, or is gray, or black and gray, or mistaken for a lake serpent under the range but can grow to twice that size brown, moss green, reddish bronze, or right conditions, especially in an area (Zarzynski 1984, 98-100; Meurger other colors, possibly being drab or where reports of such a creature are 1988, 47—48). In fact, one couple who shiny, scaly or smooth—even "slimy." common. Indeed, logs have actually saw a 6-foot creature in 1949 described it Moreover, it possesses fins, or a pair been mistaken for the Loch Ness as possibly a large sturgeon. While a stur­ of horns, or "moose-like anders," or Monster. Gould (1976, 107) describes geons length is insufficient to account for "elephant ears," or a tan or red mane, or two instances of his own knowledge in some other Champ sightings, the size glowing eyes, or "jaws like an alliga­ which "a pair of binoculars resolved an may easily be overestimated. tor" —

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/Augusl 2003 21 have seen otters and mink swimming in the lake and think they've seen Champ." She said she is "surprised at what unreli­ able reporters people can be in terms of wildlife sightings," adding, "I don't believe that there are any large, uniden­ tified animals in Lake Champlain." Keeping in mind eyewitness descrip­ tions of Champ with horns, "moose-like antlers," or a head "like a horse" (Zarzynski 1984, 161, 165, 177), one cannot help but acknowledge other wildlife possibilities. Allowing for over- estimation of length—which is espe­ cially easy to do if there is a wake— swimming deer come readily to mind. Even some believers among Loch Ness monster hunters considered this the probable explanation for "horned Figure 5. Monster or rock? You decide! monster" reports in their bailiwick. Ronald Binns (1988, 205-207) tells New Brunswick, Canada, and Silver Lake Indeed, when one photo of Nessie was of a young man who spied a 50-foot sea in Wyoming County, New York (Nickell enlarged, "she" was revealed to be a deer serpent off England's Brighton beach in 2001, 133-135,92-103), as well as many (Binns 45, 191-193). 1857; in later years, after he became a other lakes. The Northern River Otter Still other possibilities for Champ marine biologist, he realized he had actu­ (Lutra canadensis) measures up to 52 (and many purported lake monsters ally seen several dolphins "swimming in inches long, and is dark brown with a elsewhere) include wind slicks and boat line." In this manner, two or more large lighter, grayish throat and belly but "looks wakes. A deckhand on the Valcour ferry gar, sturgeon, or other fish could easily black when wet" (Whitaker 1996). While (out of Burlington, Vermont) told us appear as a single multi-humped mon­ treading water with its hind paws, it can that Champ reports had declined in the ster, accounting for numerous such extend its head and long neck out of the last fifteen years or so with the cessation sightings at Lake Champlain. water, inviting comparisons with the of large traffic on the lake. A barge's Otters, which are playful and enjoy extinct plesiosaur, which is so often men­ wake often traveled across the lake, he "chasing each other" and "following die tioned as a possibility for "Nessie" and said, mystifying anyone who might leader" (Godin 1983) are especially prone "Champ" (Binns 1984, 186-191). encounter it without seeing its cause. to creating this illusion and in general In light of otters, consider this Champ Thus some people could infer, or imag­ being mistaken for lake monsters, as I dis­ report. On June 15, 1983, several wit­ ine having glimpsed, the fabled lake covered in investigating other cases. For nesses saw a 30- to 40-foot creature with creature (Valcour 2002). example, Jon Kopp, a Senior Wildlife four humps in Lake Champlain off the In other sightings and photographs, Technician with New York's Department site of Fort Cassin. However, as one ad­ additional culprits—including other of Environmental Conservation, told me mitted to the Lake Champlain Phenom­ swimming animals and marine crea­ of a personal encounter when he was in a ena Investigation (Zarzynski 1983), "It tures, long-necked birds, even rocks (see duck blind on a lake in Clinton County. could have been one large creature or figure 5)—may also pose as a lake mon­ It was dark, when suddenly, heading four smaller ones"—a concession that ster, along with toy models and manip­ toward him was a huge snakelike creature takes on new significance when we learn ulated images (Binns 1984; Nickell making a sinuous, undulating movement. that this site was at the "mouth of the 1994). Considering all such factors, However, as it came closer, Kopp realized Otter Creek." (Although it is actually there seems no compelling reason to that the "serpent" was actually six or seven Vermont's longest river, it is otherwise postulate the existence of a hitherto otters, swimming single file and diving apdy named as a habitat for the Northern unknown creature in Lake Champlain. and resurfacing to create the serpentine River Otter.) Bandwagon Effect effect. "After seeing this," Kopp told me, A few miles away. Button Bay State "I can understand how people can see a Park Naturalist Laura Hollowell showed I did an analysis of the 224 sightings 'sea serpent'" (Nickell 2001, 102). me a drawing made by a young girl who listed by Zarzynski (1984, 152-205) Otters have been mistaken for mon­ had seen a "baby Champ." Hollowell (less the nonexistent 1609 sighting and sters elsewhere, including Loch Arkaig (2002) believes this and other such nine completely undated reports). and Loch Ness in Scotland (Binns 1984, infant-monster sightings may well be ot­ Interestingly, during the entire period 186-191) and, I believe. Lake Utopia in ters. She told me she believes "People before 1860 there was only a single

22 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER recorded sighting which, as I have indi­ Evaluation Acknowledgments cated, was probably a spoof. After that, Not only is there not a single piece of In addition to those mentioned in the text, I recorded sightings increased in the convincing evidence for Champ's exis­ am grateful to Tim Binga for research assis­ 1870s and 1880s (to fifteen and twenty- tance, Barry Karr and Pat Beauchamp for tence, but there are many reasons three respectively), then declined again help with financial matters, and Kan jit against it, one of which is that a single Sandhu for manuscript preparation. before shooting up steadily in the 1960s monster can neither live for centuries (fifteen), 1970s (fifty-nine), and 1980s nor reproduce itself. There would need References (seventy until mid-1984). The reason to be several in a breeding herd for the for the fluctuations is uncertain, but if Binns, Ronald. 1984. The Loch Ness Mystery species to have continued to reproduce Solved. Buffalo. N.Y.: Prometheus Books. there were several large leviathans in the over time ("Myth" 1972). Blackman. W. Haden. 1998. The Field Guide to lake prior to 1860 as proponents North American Monsters. New York: Three Zarzynsky (1998) acknowledges this, believe, why was there only one highly Rivers Press, 54-56. theorizing that a colony of thirty or Champ unmasked. N.d. Pittsburgh Press- doubtful sighting? Why did not the fewer plesiosaurs have inhabited Lake Republican newspaper clipping, ca. 1984. Native Americans know about die crea­ with photo of driftwood resembling prototyp­ Champlain since its formation some tures, and tell Samuel de Champlain ical "Champ" monster. 10,000 years ago. However, with so few Clark. Jerome, 1983. In Spaeth 1998, 55-64. about them rather than the compara­ individuals he worries that Champ is . 1993. Unexplained! Detroit, Mich.: tively mundane chaousarou (garfish)? Visible Ink Press, 61-67. near extinction. Fellow monster hunter As to the modern rise in sightings Coleman, Loren. 1983. Mysterious America. Dennis Jay Hall (2000, 15), on the oth­ (which is obviously much greater than a Winchester. Mass.: Faber & Faber, 85-92. er hand, insists: "There is a healthy pop­ Forrest, Thomas H. 2002. Interview by Joe mere growth in population), that may Nickell, August 3. ulation of these animals living in Lake well be due to heightened expectancy Godin, Alfred J. 1983. Wild Mammals of New Champlain. They are here for a reason; caused by an increase in articles, books, England Chester, Conn.: The Globe Pequot this is their chosen home." Press. 173. and other media reports on the subject. Gould. Rupert T. 1976. The Loch Ness Monster Loren Coleman (1983, 89) gives some But then where is a floating or and Others. Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press. credit to "the arrival on the scene" of beached carcass or other certain trace of Green, Susan. 1999. Lake creature eludes centuries the fabled creature? Although there are of searchers. 7}(K- Burlington Free Press, www. Joseph Zarzynski, who gave those who s-t.com/daily/07-99/072599/cO3wn084.htm. had previously been ridiculed "a sympa­ possible reasons why a Champ carcass Hollowell, Laura. 2002. Interview by Joe Nickell. thetic ear." That seems only fair, but might be rare (for example, most deaths Kirk, John. 1998. In the Domain of the Lake could occur in winter, when the lake Monsters. Toronto: Key Porter Books. Zarzynski's and others' excessive Kojo. Yasushi. 1991. Some ecological notes on credulity may have tipped the scales in largely or completely freezes over [Zug reported large unknown animals in Lake die opposite direction, resulting in a still 19811), there is no question about the Champlain. Cryptozoology 10: 42-45. Meurger. Michel. 1988. Lake Monster Traditions. greater expectancy and thus helping to existence of sturgeon, gar, otters, and other Champ look-alikes. The absence of London: Fortean Tomes, 268-270 (giving the create something of a bandwagon effect. quote from Champlain in English). This seems supported by die tendency a Champ carcass "does not support the Myth or monster, 1972. Time 20:66. of die reported imagery to subdy conform existence of such creatures either," Nickell. Joe. 1994. Camera Clues: A Handbook for according to the Smithsonian's Dr. Photographic Investigation. Lexington, Ky.: to die concept of die day. For example, University Press of Kentucky, 169—172. die term "sea serpent" was used in several George Zug (1981). And where are the . 1996. Nessie hoax redux. Skeptical Briefs nineteenth-century accounts but was bones that, as Gould (1976, 120) asked 6:1 March: 1-2. of Loch Ness, should have eventually . 2001. Real-Life X-Files: Investigating the effectively dropped afterwards (except for Paranormal Lexington, Ky.: University Press a single journalist's use). The most preva­ covered the entire lake floor? of Kentucky. lent descriptor overall was "huge snake" The burden of proof, of course, is on Owen. Elizabeth. 1982. In search of a monster. the claimants. Far from meeting that Life, August: 32-36. (or similar wording), but in modern times Spaeth. Frank. 1998. Mysteries and Monsters of the (after 1978) reports occasionally likened burden, however, the Champ defenders Sea: True Stories from the Files of Fate the creature to a "dinosaur" (Zarzynsky are instead promoting a mystery and— Magazine. New York: Gramercy Books. like so many paranormalists—are Teresi, Dick. 1998. Monster of the tub. Discover 1984, 152-205). This probably reflects 19:4 April: 87-92. die popular notion—after the widely cir­ thereby engaging in a logical fallacy Valcour Ferry deckhand ("John"). 2002. culated 1934 hoaxed photo of the Loch called arguing from ignorance: 'We Interview by Joe Nickell and Benjamin Ness Monster (Nickell 1994, 171; don't know what these people saw; Radford, August 26. Whitaker. John O.. Jr. 1996. National Audubon 1996)—diat such mythical beasts resem­ therefore, it must have been Champ." Society Field Guide to North American Mam­ ble plesiosaurs. Michel Meurger, in his One cannot draw a conclusion from a mals. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Lake Monster Tnuiitions: A Cross-Cultural lack of knowledge, and so, until an Zarzynski. Joseph W. 1983. LCPI work at Lake actual specimen presents itself, the pos­ Champlain. 1983. Cryptozoology!: 126-131. Analysis (1988, 39), concludes that "... . 1984. Champ: Beyond the Legend N.p.: Champ's modern fame is die product of sibility that any large, unknown animal Bannister Publications. local monster-enthusiasts in their efforts inhabits Lake Champlain remains . 1998. Quoted in Teresi 1998. 92. somewhere between extraordinarily Zug, George. 1981. Docs Champ exist? Seminar to promote their own legend along Loch- in Shelburne, Vermont, August 29, cited in nessian lines." slim and none. Zarzynski 1984, 80.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 23 The Measure of a Monster Investigating the Champ Photo

The most famous photograph of a monster in Lake Champlain was taken in 1977- The photo sparked the modern age of Champ investigations and renewed national interest in the creature. Recent field experiments, however, reveal that the "creature's" size is less than monstrous and the main eyewitness is mistaken.

BENJAMIN RADFORD

ake Champlain forms the border between Vermont and New York, stretching down from Canada at its Lnorthernmost point south to Whitehall, New York. It is also, many people believe, home to America's version of the Loch Ness monster. "Champ," as the creature is called, has allegedly been seen by hundreds of witnesses. The lake (and therefore the monster) is named for explorer Samuel de Champlain, who is often—but erroneously—said to have been the first to report the creature. Sought after by P.T. Barnum, featured on Unsolved Mysteries, and "officially" pro­ tected by both the New York State Assembly and the Vermont Legislature, Champ remains a modern mystery. A big part of that mystery lies not only in the cold waters of

24 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER the lake but also in a small photograph taken by a woman named Sandra Mansi. Mansi's account of her family's 1977 encounter with Champ is die most complete and fully documented of any lake monster sighting in history. With the most famous photo of the Loch Ness monster (tiie "surgeon's photo") revealed in 1993 to be a hoax, the Mansi photo stands alone as the most credible and important photographic evidence for a lake monster in Champlain—or anywhere else. John Kirk, in his book In the Domain of the Lake Monsters, writes that "The monster of Lake Champlain ... has the distinc­ tion of being the only lake monster of whom there is a reasonably clear photo­ graph. It... is extremely good evidence Figure 1: The object Sandra Mansi photographed at Lake Champlain. ©Gamma Liaison/Sandra Mansi of an unidentified lake-dwelling ani­ mal" (Kirk 1998, 133). Joe Zarzynski, author of Champ: wildly inaccurate estimates of size and distance. Beyond the Legend (1984), calls die photo "the best single piece People often see what they want—or expect—to see. In the of evidence on Champ." Another writer says that "By any stan­ case of Champ, the monster's likeness and legend are well- dard the Mansi photograph remains a genuine mystery and a known in die area, and the knowledge that a monster is said to serious obstacle to any effort to reduce the Champ phenome­ reside in the lake could easily transform an unusual sighting of non to mundane causes" (Clark 1993, 67). "something in the water" into a Champ sighting. Despite its notoriety, and inclusion in most books of cryp- The Mansi Encounter tozoology ("hidden animals"), there has been little skeptical investigation of die monster since the early 1980s. In July Eyewitness sightings of Champ are relatively rare, and sightings 2002, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Mansi photograph. accompanied by good photographs arc even rarer. The Mansi Senior Research Fellow Joe Nickell and I undertook an exten­ family had the remarkable fortune to not only get a good long sive investigation of this mysterious monster. His overview of look at the creature but also photograph it (see figure 1). Champ and our search begins on page 18. According to Sandra Mansi, her family's encounter with Champ took place on Tuesday, July 5, 1977. Sandra and her Eyewitness Accounts fiance Anthony Mansi, along with Sandra's two children from Like Bigfoot and the Loch Ness monster, most of the evidence her previous marriage, were taking a leisurely drive along Lake for Champ's existence rests on eyewitness testimony. As I have Champlain. They drove by some farmland and, around noon, noted elsewhere (Radford 2002), such accounts are notori­ made their way to a small bluff overlooking the lake. The two ously unreliable and a poor substitute for hard evidence. One children went down to the water while Anthony returned to writer (Rabbit 2000) listed over a dozen factors diat can their car to get a camera. As Sandra watched her children and reduce the accuracy of such accounts, including observer's fear the lake, she noticed a disturbance in the water about 150 feet and stress; poor observation conditions; slippage of memory; away. She thought at first it was a school offish, then possibly seeing what die observer wants or expects to see; changing a scuba diver. "Then the head and neck broke the surface of details to conform to other witnesses' accounts; reluctance to the water. Then I saw the head come up, then the neck, then admit ignorance; filling in nonexistent details, and so on. the back" (Mansi 2002). Lake creature sightings are complicated by die fact that it is Mansi did not panic: "I wasn't even scared, I'm just trying to very difficult to judge distances and sizes on bodies of water. As figure out what I'm seeing. Then when Tony came over the field Paul LeBlond of the University of British Columbia's he saw it and started screaming, 'Get the kids out of the water!'" Department of Oceanography points out, "A problem which The kids scrambled up die bank and headed toward die car. As commonly arises in die interpretation of unfamiliar objects on Anthony helped Sandra up the bank, he handed her the camera. water is diat of determining their size. In the absence of nearby She knelt down, snapped one photo, and dien put the camera reference features, the eye cannot estimate absolute dimensions reliably" (LeBlond 1982). On land, die human eye and brain Benjamin Radford wrote about Bigfoot in the March/April 2002 can judge spatial dimensions fairly well, comparing an object to issue of SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. His book Media Mythmakers: a nearby tree, home, or other structure. An unfamiliar object How Journalists, Activists, and Advertisers Mislead Us will be against a visual field such as sky or water, however, can produce published in July.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 25 down to watch the creature. The head and neck turned slightly, unknown size in water. Surely such an object would not be as then slowly sank into the water and disappeared. difficult to fake as Smith presumes. The Mansis estimated that the creatures neck stuck about However far-fetched some of the hoax dismissals are, I six feet out of the water and the whole object was about twelve believe they are fundamentally correct. After an exhaustive and to fifteen feet long. The sighting lasted a remarkably long detailed review of both her account and photograph, I am will­ time—between four and seven minutes—during which time ing to grant that she is probably a sincere eyewitness reporting the creature never turned to face the shore. Sandra Mansi essentially what she saw. Assuming that both the account and described the neck and head as dark in color and said that what photo are truthful (though error-prone) records of something in we see in the photograph is as much of the creature as she saw. the water, what can we conclude about it? Several examinations Despite the substantial weight and credibility given to it by have been done. Champ researchers, the Mansi photograph by itself is intrigu­ ing but holds almost no value as evidence. There is little usable The Frieden Analysis information revealed in the photograph; whether by accident In 1981, B. Roy Frieden, of the Optical Sciences Center at the or design, virtually all of the information needed to determine University of Arizona, examined the photograph at the behest the photographs authenticity (and subject matter) is missing, of Champ researcher Joe Zarzynski. Frieden's findings were lost, or unavailable. For example, Mansi cannot provide the published in Zarzynski's book as Appendix 2. negative, which might show evidence of tampering (she said Frieden believes the picture to be a valid print, and finds no she habitually threw away her negatives). She also can't provide evidence of photographic tampering. He does find a "suspi­ other photographs taken on the roll (which might show other cious detail" in the picture: "When I showed it to a woman angles of the same object, or perhaps "test" photos of a known who formerly lived at Lake Champlain, she immediately object from an odd position). Mansi claims to be unable to noticed a brownish streak going horizontally from left to right locate the site of the photo, which would help to determine a across the picture right up to the object in question. She right number of things, including the size of the object. Further­ out said that it looked to her like a sand bar" (Frieden 1981). more, the photo has virtually no objects of known scale (boat, Frieden believes that the streak is "a real detail in the picture," human, etc.) by which to judge the creature's size or the dis­ and suggests that if it is a sand bar, "dien diere is a distinct pos­ tance. The fact that the Mansis, allegedly afraid of ridicule, sibility that the object was put there by someone ... the sand waited four years to release the photo was also seen as suspi­ bar problem really has to be investigated." cious. All we are left with is a fantastic story whose only sup­ porting proof is a compelling but ambiguous photograph of The LeBlond Analysis something in the water. Another analysis was conducted by Paul H. LeBlond of the Department of Oceanography at the University of British The Hoaxing Question Columbia. LeBlond (1982) attempted to use the general Because of the litany of missing information (and the relatively appearance of the water's surface to estimate the length of the high quality of the image), suspicions of a hoax surfaced waves, and in turn use that as a scale by which to measure the almost as quickly as Champ. Such accusations were summar­ object in die photograph. After a list of the many possible ily dismissed by Mansi family lawyer Alan Neigher, who said sources of error, LeBlond summed up: "The inescapable con­ that they "could no more have constructed such a hoax than clusion [despite all the unknowns] is that the object seen in the put a satellite in orbit." Mansi photograph is of considerable size" (he estimated Richard D. Smith, a filmmaker who was producing a doc­ between sixteen and fifty-six feet long). umentary on Champ, offered his expert commentary on the LeBlond used a complex formula involving wind speed, fetch, matter of a hoax: "As a photographer and filmmaker, I can wave period, and wave height—all of which were estimated. speak with some authority as to what it would take to fake a LeBlond did his best widi what scant information picture of this sort. Assuming the remote possibility that the he had to work with, but no matter how good die math or model Mansi photo is a fraud, it would require fabrication of an is, widi so many estimated variables it is apparent diat any result excellent, full-sized model (highly expensive in terms of exper­ will be little better than a wild guess. LeBlond's analysis, by his tise and materials) which would have to be smuggled out to own admission, was fraught with many unknowns: "Sources of Champlain or another lake, there assembled or inflated, and error may appear at many stages of the estimation method, and successfully maneuvered around out in me water (most diffi­ diis must be kept in mind when interpreting the results." cult, especially widi a slight wind blowing), die whole thing Most writers who mention the LeBlond analysis fail to accomplished without being seen or the slightest leak in secu­ include diis important caveat, instead portraying his results as rity (unlikely)" (Smith 1984). conclusive and scientifically sound. One writer, John Kirk, This account is nearly comical in its strained assumptions. goes so far as to say that LeBlond's heavily qualified conclu­ Smith envisions an "excellent, full-sized model" of the Champ sions "destroyed die learned academic's [i.e., Frieden's] hypodi- monster, which certainly is unlikely. But the Mansi photo­ esis diat die animal could have been a fake" (Kirk 1998, 135). graph doesn't show aji "excellent, full-sized model" of Champ; Other cryptozoologists, it should be noted, were more it simply shows a dark, featureless, ambiguous curved form of cautious about die results. J. Richard Greenwell, of the

26 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER International Society of Cryptozoology, discussed the various analyses and their conclusions rJiat "there are 'definitely no cuts, no superimposition,' but, he warn[ed], that 'does not mean it is a monster or a living object. It does mean an object was there and was photographed'" (Greenwell 1981). There is one area where LeBlond's discussion is clearly wrong. He mentions the efforts to locate the Mansi site, and provides a map with a shaded area showing "stretches of shoreline from which the Mansi photograph may have been taken." The areas highlighted are on the western shores of Hog Island and below Maquam Bay across from Hero Island. Yet only someone who had never been to the area could suggest these sites as possible candidates; in that area, the far (eastern)

shores are much too far away to possibly be depicted in the Figure 3: Photograph of the author in a field experiment at Lake Champlain. A Mansi photograph. one-foot scale marker is photographed at 150 feet. Using that scale, the alleged lake creature Sandra Mansi photographed in 1977 can be measured. The Radford Analysis In my own analysis of the Mansi photograph, an odd thing Several attempts were made at estimating the object's size about the subject emerged. It is not apparent at first glance, but (Mansi said twelve to fifteen feet; LeBlond suggested sixteen to the "head" and "hump" are not clearly connected. If the photo­ fifty-six feet). If valid, these large estimates would suggest a graph truly does depict the hump and neck of a lake monster, lake monster, but these measurements were very indirect and the actual body contortion is very unusual and unlikely for fraught with error. There is, however, a more accurate and nearly any type of living animal. To see why, notice that the neck direct way of determining whether or not Sandra Mansi's portion does not align with the hump. The neck in fact emerges account of her sighting matches with the photographic evi­ out of the water from the left side of the photograph, away from dence she provides. the hump (and supposed body; see figure 2). The reason that the head and hump seem connected is that Replicating the Mansi Photograph there is a dark patch in the water between the two. I suggest Many armchair analyses had been conducted to determine the this is in fact a shadow from the head. In the photograph, that size of the object, with little solid results. The lack of reference area is not nearly as dark as the head and hump, and has all the objects and known distances make the task formidable. characteristics of a shadow. Furthermore, Mansi's own account However, the analysis can be approached from a different corroborates the shadow hypothesis: She claims that the photo angle: Though we don't know the absolute size of—and dis­ was taken around noon. If this is true, then the sun should be tance to—the object, we do know what Sandra Mansi reported directly above, hitting the top of the head and casting a shad­ as the size and distance. With those variables fixed, it is then a ow downward—right where the neck and hump meet.1 fairly straightforward process to determine if the object is the Even if the neck and hump are pan of the same object, the size she (and others) say it is. positioning of the segments makes it very unlikely it is a living In order to help judge the validity of the Mansi photo, we creature's "head" and "neck" connected just under the water. visited Lake Champlain to do field work and original experi­ Since the head is dark and foreshortened, there is no way to ments. Following an unfruitful attempt to locate the exact tell if the head is in fact a stubby end as pictured, or perhaps a original site, we chose a spot on Lake Champlain in the gen­ gnarled tree root branching away at an angle. eral area. Joe Nickell stood approximately eight feet above the waterline; this height is similar to that reported by Sandra Mansi (kneeling down atop a six-foot ledge). I entered the lake holding a three-foot, black-and-white scale marker, measured off in one-foot lengths. Photographs (using the same rype of camera Mansi used in 1977—a Kodak Instamatic, fixed-focus 110) were taken at fifty foot intervals ending up at 150 feet from shore (see figure 3). The distances were measured directly, calibrated using a synthetic string to avoid any stretching in the water.-' With the camera at the height Mansi claimed (about eight to nine feet), and the marker in the water at the distance she claimed (150 feet), this should allow us to measure the size of an object in that scale. Any object of a claimed size at a certain distance (at a given focal length) will take up a given measur­ Figure 2: The object Sandra Mansi photographed at Lake Champlain in 1977. traced from an enlargement. Illustration by Benjamin Radford. able space in the print. I measured the size of the one-foot scale

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 27 This revelation sheds a whole new light on the object in the Mansi photograph; with the size approximately half that of all previous estimates, the range of possible candidates becomes far larger—including perhaps a large bird, known animal, or a floating tree stump. The revised size is also incon­ sistent with many Champ descriptions. If the main eyewit­ ness is to be believed, this "extremely good evidence" for Champ (and, by extension, other lake monsters) is even weaker than previously suspected.

Acknowledgements Many people helped in researching and preparing for this Champ phenomena investigation. I wish to thank Robert and Paul Bartholomew, Tim Binga, David Daegling, Michael Dennett, Tom Figure 4: A six-foot-tall creature "neck" at 150 feet from the camera. If the esti­ Flynn, Barry Karr, Sandra Mansi, Rob McElroy, and Alan Neigher, as mates given by Mansi are correct, her photograph and this one should look very similar in terms of height above the waterline. (Since the neck was the only well as my investigative partner, Joe Nickell. The investigation was dimension being measured, the hump and head portions were excluded.) conducted with support from the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal. at 150 feet on our photograph, marked that, and transferred the measurement to the Mansi image scaled to the same size. Notes For comparison, rather than use the most commonly seen 1. In his book Zarzynski admits that the head and hump are not obviously connected. He does, however, show an "electronic heavy enhancement of the version of the photograph, I traveled to Connecticut to study Mansi photograph demonstrating 'that the monster's back and head arc con­ the rarely seen original print. I carefully measured the Champ nected.'" 1 remain unconvinced; the "heavy enhancement" seems to have done object in comparison to the whole photo, not the magnified little but emphasize the dark patches—which would of course include the head's shadow. and cropped commercial version that appears in books and 2. Nickell also took duplicate photos with his own 35 mm camera (pub­ magazines (and is necessarily reproduced here). lished here at full size). For comparison, we verified that both cameras were of Unfortunately for those claiming that the Mansi object is the same focal length. 3. An examination of the original print of the Mansi photo is helpful but huge, the numbers don't add up. All of the previous estimates not essential for this analysis. A less accurate comparison using the least- of the object's size were dramatically overstated. The "neck" is cropped publicly available version of die photo (in the April 1998 issue of nowhere near the previous estimates of six to eight feet or Discover magazine) yields a neck height of about four feet. more; instead, the object is just over three feet out of the water, and both segments together are about seven feet across.' References In order to double-check the results I also worked back­ Clark. Jerome, and Nancy Pear. 1995. Strange and Unexplained Happenings: When Nature Breaks the Rules of Science. Detroit: Gale Research Inc. ward, using a photograph of a mock Champ neck and head Clark, Jerome. 1993. Lake monsters in Unexplained! 347 Strange Sightings. held six feet above the water at 150 feet (see figure 4). If Incredible Occurrences, and Puzzling Physical Phenomena. Detroit: Gale Mansi's estimates are correct, the neck height in her photo and Research Inc. Coleman, Loren. 1983. Mysterious America. Winchester, Mass: Faber & ours should look very similar. Using that scale for measure­ Faber, Inc. ment, I verified that my estimate was indeed accurate. Frieden. B. Roy. 1981. Interim report: Lake Champlain 'monster' photograph. Note that my analysis is based upon Sandra Mansi's own Appendix 2 in Zarzynski, Joseph. 1984. Champ: Beyond the Legend Port Henry, New York: Bannister Publications. estimates and testimony. Because the object in the photo is Greenwell, J. Richard. 1981. Quoted in Zarzynski 1984. p. 132. inconsistent with the claimed height, those who wish to main­ . 1992. Quoted on Unsolved Mysteries, National Broadcasting tain that the object is six feet or taller (and fifteen feet or longer) Company, airdate September 23, 1992. will have to decide which parts of Mansi's story they think are Kirk. John. 1998. In the Domain of the Lake Monsters. Toronto, Canada: Key Porter Books Ltd. false (or inaccurate). There is no way to be sure exacdy how Kojo, Yasushi. 1991. Some ecological notes on reported large, unknown ani­ large die object is, but estimates of the distance and the size mals in Lake Champlain. Cryptozoology 10: 4245. cannot bodi be correct; either—or both—are wrong. Kurtz, Paul. 1981. The Lake Champlain monster surfaces. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 6(1), Fall: 7-8. At least one researcher, J. Richard Greenwell, has examined LeBlond, Paul H. 1982. An estimate of the dimensions of the Lake the photo and believes that Mansi's 150-foot distance estimate Champlain Monster from the length of adjacent wind waves in the Mansi is correct: "we concluded that that object, whatever it is, was photograph. Cryptozoology I: 5-61. Mansi, Sandra. 2002. Author interview. August 24. there in the lake at that estimated distance" (Greenwell 1992). Rabbit. Jack. 2000. Native and Western eyewitness testimony in cryptozool­ The most likely explanation is diat Mansi simply diought die ogy. The Cryptozoology Review 4(1), Summer ll-18. object was bigger than it was. This effect is well known to be Radford, Benjamin. 2002. Bigfoot at 50: Evaluating a half-century of Bigfoot evidence. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 26(2), March/April: 29-34. a factor in eyewitness reports; Joe Zarzynski himself warns Smith, Richard. 1984. Quoted in Zarzynski 1984. about it: "many estimates of length tend to be overstated" Teresi. Dick. 1998. Monster of the Tub. Discover magazine, April. (Zarzynski 1987, 109). Yasushi Kojo, another Champ Wilson. Fred. 1981. 'Champ' and the Mansi photograph. (Editorial) Pursuit. researcher, also states that "the sizes of the animals are fre­ Vol. 14, No. 2, Whole 54, second quarter. Zarzynski. Joseph. 1984. Champ: Beyond the Legend Port Henry. New York: quently overestimated in sighting reports" (Kojo 1991). Bannister Publications. 1Z1

28 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER The Rorschach Inkblot Test, Fortune Tellers, and Cold Reading

Famous clinical psychologists used the Rorschach Inkblot Test to arrive at incredible insights. But were the astounding performances of these Rorschach Wizards merely a variation on astrology and palm reading? JAMES M. WOOD, M. TERESA NEZWORSKI, SCOTT O. LILIENFELD, and HOWARD N. GARB

sychologists have been quarreling over the Rorschach Inkblot Test for half a century. From 1950 to the pre­ Psent, most psychologists in clinical practice have trea­ sured the test as one of their most precious tools. And for nearly that long, their scientific colleagues have been trying to persuade them that the test is well-nigh worthless, a pseudo- scientific modern variant on tea leaf reading and Tarot cards. Introduced in 1921 by the Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach, the test bears a charming resemblance to a party game. A person is shown ten inkblots and asked to tell what each resembles. Like swirling images in a crystal ball, the ambiguous blots tell a different story to every person who

Excerpted by the tiuhorsfmm their book What's Wrong With the Rorschach? Science Confronts the Controversial Inkblot Test (2003. joaey-Baa).

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 29 gazes upon them. There are butterflies and bats, diaphanous promoted as a "psychological x-ray" that could penetrate the dresses and bow ties, monkeys, monsters, and mountain- inner secrets of the psyche. Although it failed to live up to such climbing bears. When scored and interpreted by an expert, promises, the test still possesses a powerful mystique. peoples responses to the blots are said to provide a full and penetrating portrait of their personalities. Blind Analyses and the Rorschach Mystique The scientific evidence for the Rorschach has always been Why is such a scientifically dubious technique so revered feeble. By 1965, research psychologists had concluded that the among psychologists? The lasting popularity of the Rorschach test was useless for most purposes for which it was used. The has little to do with empirical validity. Certainly one secret of most popular modern version of the Rorschach, developed by the Rorschach's success is clinicians' tendency to rely on strik­ psychologist John Exner, has been promoted as scientifically ing anecdotes about its extraordinary powers—rather than on careful scientific studies—when assessing its value. Psychologists who treasure the Rorschach can recount colorful stories of The Rorschach test cannot detect how the test miraculously uncovered hid­ most psychological disorders (with the den facts about a patient that other tests failed to detect. Indeed, the test's rise to exception of schizophrenia and related conditions popularity was due mainly to the near-mag­ marked by thinking disturbances), nor does ical performances—known as "blind analy­ ses"—that Rorschach experts exhibited to it do an adequate job of detecting their amazed colleagues during the 1940s most personality traits. and 1950s. In a blind analysis, the Rorschach expert was told a patient's age and gender and given the patient's responses to the blots. From superior to earlier forms of the test. In 1997 the Board of this modest sample of information, die expert would then pro­ Professional Affairs of the American Psychological Association ceed to generate an amazing, in-depth description of the bestowed an award on Exner for his "scientific contributions" patient's personality. During the 1950s, the ability to make and applauded his version of the Rorschach as "perhaps the sin­ such astounding "blind diagnoses" came to be regarded among gle most powerful psychometric instrument ever envisioned." American psychologists as the mark of a true Rorschach genius. Such bloated claims to the contrary, however, research has Stunning performances by Rorschach "wizards" converted shown that Exner's approach is beset by the same problems many psychologists of the era into true believers. For example, that have always plagued the test. The Rorschach—including one highly respected psychologist has reported how, while still Exner's version—tends to mislabel most normal people as a student, he attended case conferences at which the famed "sick." In addition, the test cannot detect most psychological Marguerite Hertz interpreted Rorschachs. Hertz's astute obser­ disorders (with the exception of schizophrenia and related con­ vations based on the test were "so detailed and exact" that at ditions marked by thinking disturbances), nor does it do an first he regarded them with great skepticism. adequate job of detecting most personality traits (Lilienfeld However, the young man's doubts dissolved the day that he 1999; Lilienfeld, Wood, and Garb 2000). and a fellow student presented the Rorschach results of a Despite such shortcomings, the Rorschach is still adminis­ patient they both knew very well: "We fully expected Hertz to tered hundreds of thousands of times each year in clinics, make errors in her interpretation. We were determined to courts, and schools. Psychologists often use the test to help point these out to die group. . . . We were shocked, however, courts determine which parent should be granted custody of a when Hertz was able to describe this patient after reading only child. It's used in schools to identify children's emotional prob­ the first four or five responses. . . . Within 25 minutes Hertz lems, and in prisons to evaluate felons for parole. Convicted not only told us what we already knew but began to tell us murderers facing the death penalty, suspected victims of sexual things we hadn't seen but which were obviously true once abuse, airline pilots suspended from their jobs for alcohol pointed out" (Kaplan and Saccuzzo 1982, 379). abuse—all may be given the Rorschach by a psychologist who Such astounding performances had a profound effect on will use the test to make critical decisions about their lives. many budding psychologists. As a leading clinical researcher In the 1940s and 1950s the Rorschach was unblushingly observed, "Blind analysis is one of the spectacular aspects of die Rorschach technique and has probably been the most important James M. Wood, Ph.D., is in the Department of Psychology, factor in the acceptance of die Rorschach" (Zubin 1954, 305). University of Texas at El Paso; M. Teresa Nezworski, Ph.D., is in Rorschach Wizards: A Puzzle in Need of an the Department of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Explanation Texas at Dallas; Scott O. Lilienfeld, Ph.D., is in the Department of Psychology, Emory University; and Howard N. Garb, Ph.D., is The performances of Rorschach wizards bore more than a in the VA Pittsburgh Health Care System. superficial resemblance to palm reading and crystal ball gazing,

30 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER although few psychologists of the 1950s were prepared to rec­ Third, Wittenborn and Sarason observed, Rorschach ognize this connection. By the early 1960s, however, the wiz­ experts sometimes enhanced their reputations by giving ards' astonishing successes were beginning to turn into a puz­ impressive interpretations after they learned the facts of a case: zle in need of an explanation. Research revealed that "Some clinical psychologists, when told about some clinically Rorschach virtuosos didn't possess any important features of a patient, say, 'Ah, miraculous powers. To the contrary, in sev­ g> yes. We see indications of it here, and here, eral well-known studies, leading Rorschach 5 and here.'" experts failed miserably when they =! Despite the tricks described by attempted to make predictions about Wittenborn and Sarason, however, it's diffi­ patients (e.g., Little and Shneidman 1959; cult to believe that all Rorschach wizards of see discussion by Dawes 1994). the 1940s and 1950s were conscious fakes. Such findings presented a striking para­ The explanation is almost certainly more dox. If Rorschach wizards stumbled so complicated than that. But before proceeding badly in controlled studies, how could they further, we'll pause to discuss the psychology produce such amazing performances in of astrology and palm reading. blind analyses? The answer to this question was understandable to anyone familiar with The Bar mi in Effect the wiles of palm readers. In the late 1940s, psychologist Bertram Forer published an eye-opening study that A Few Simple Tricks he called a "demonstration of gullibility" Two shrewd commentators of the late (Forer 1949). After administering a ques­ 1940s had already divined that at least some tionnaire to his introductory psychology Rorschach wizards achieved their success by class, he prepared personality sketches. For resorting to tricks. In a clever and some­ example: "Disciplined and self-controlled times humorous article, J.R. Wittenborn outside, you tend to be worrisome and inse­ and Seymour Sarason of Yale identified cure inside. At times you have serious three simple stratagems of Rorschach inter­ doubts as to whether you have made the preters that tended to create a false impres­ right decision or done the right thing. You sion of infallibility (Wittenborn and prefer a certain amount of change and vari­ Sarason 1949). ety and become dissatisfied when hemmed The first stratagem was as old as the in by restrictions and limitations." Delphic Oracle of ancient Greece, whose Forer asked the students to rate their notoriously ambiguous prophecies were own sketches for accuracy. The students crafted to turn out correct, no matter which gave an average rating of "very good." More direction events took. The Oracle once told than 40 percent said that their sketch pro­ a king that if he went to war he'd destroy a vided a perfect fit to their personality. great nation. Encouraged, he launched an The results seemed to show that Forer's attack and was disastrously defeated. The personality questionnaire possessed a high prophecy wasn't wrong, however. After all, degree of validity. However, there was a dia­ the Oracle hadn't said which nation the king bolical catch: Forer had given all the stu­ would destroy. dents the same personality sketch, which he Wittenborn and Sarason noted that manufactured using horoscopes from an Rorschach interpreters resorted to a similar astrology book. The students had gullibly tactic, delivering "ambiguous phrases or eso­ accepted this boiler-plate personality teric Rorschach cliches which can be given description as if it applied to them uniquely almost any specific interpretation which sub­ as individuals. sequent developments may require." Although the statements borrowed from Second, Wittenborn and Sarason rhe astrology book were seemingly precise, observed, Rorschach adepts sometimes they applied to almost all people. Following ensured their success by including several the eminent researcher Paul Meehl, psy­ inconsistent or even contradictory state­ chologists now call such personality state­ ments in the same interpretation: "One or ments "Barnum statements," after the great the other of these statements may be showman P.T. Barnum who said, "A circus employed according to the requirements of the circumstances. should have a little something for everybody" (he's also cred­ Such resourcefulness on the part of the examiner is often ited with, "There's a sucker born every minute"). ascribed to the test itself." As Forer had discovered, people tend to seriously overestimate

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 31 the degree to which Barnum statements fit them uniquely. For By using the push, a cold reader can make a guess that's example, students in one study who were given Barnum state­ wildly off target appear uncannily accurate. The push and ments disguised as test results responded with glowing praise: other techniques are effective because, by the time the cold "On the nose! Very good"; "Applies to me individually, as there reader begins using them, the client has abandoned any lin­ are too many facets which fit me too well to be a generalization." gering skepticism and is in a cooperative frame of mind, thereby helping the psychic to "make things fit." Intriguingly, scholars who have studied the psychology of palm reading and astrol­ ogy agree that although some psychics are Belief in the intuitive powers of Rorschach conscious frauds, many sincerely believe in wizards is difficult to reconcile with the their paranormal powers. For example, psy­ chologist Ray Hyman, professor emeritus at revelations of research. When the supposedly the University of Oregon, published a clas­ extraordinary insight of Rorschach experts has sic article on cold reading in the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER in which he described his own been tested in rigorously controlled studies, saga as a palm reader (Hyman 1981). While results have been disappointing. in high school, Hyman was originally doubtful about the validity of palm reading. But after trying it himself, he became per­ suaded that it could work magic, particularly when he received Astrologers and Palm Readers a great deal of positive feedback from clients. He became a fer­ Astrologers and palm readers have long used Barnum state­ vent believer in palm reading and made a "side" living from it ments (along with a few other stratagems) to create a false for some time. impression that they know the personality, the past, and even Then one day a friend suggested that Hyman provide his the future of people they've never met. The name for such interpretations backwards, giving clients interpretations that bogus psychic practices is "cold reading" (Hyman 1981; were exactly the opposite of what the palm reading textbooks Rowland 2002). Skillful cold readers apply the Barnum prin­ suggested. To Hyman's amazement, the "backwards" interpre­ ciple in many ways, for example by spicing their readings with tations were received equally well (if not better) by clients. statements like these: "You're working hard, but you have the This sobering experience persuaded him that the "success" of feeling that your salary doesn't fully reflect your efforts"; and palm reading had nothing to do with the correctness of the "You think that somewhere in the world you have a twin, interpretations. As such cautionary tales illustrate, Barnum someone who looks just like you." Such statements appear per­ statements can fool both the client who believes them and the sonal and individualized, but in fact are true of many naive psychic who believes the client. American adults. After being warmed up with Barnum statements, most Rorschach Wizards: Three Explanations clients relax and begin to respond with nonverbal feedback, Having taken a detour into the realm of astrology and palm such as nods and smiles. In most psychic readings, there arrives reading, we're ready to return to the land of Rorschach wiz­ a moment when the client begins to "work" for the reader, ards. Let's begin by considering three plausible explanations actively supplying information and providing clarifications. for the spectacular performances of the Rorschach virtuosos of It's at this critical juncture that a skillful cold reader puts new the 1950s. stratagems into action, such as the technique called the "push" First, it's possible that these Rorschach wizards possessed a (Rowland 2002). A psychic using the push begins by making special clinical insight, a heightened intuition, that allowed a specific prediction (even though it may miss the mark), then them to surpass ordinary human limitations. Drawing on their allows feedback from the client to transform the prediction unique clinical talents and their experience with thousands of into something that appears astoundingly accurate: patients, they developed an uncanny skill that allowed them to extract unexpected insights from inkblots. Psychic: I see a grandchild, a very sick grandchild, Of course, this is the view that Rorschach devotees have perhaps a premature baby. Has one of your generally preferred. Even today, many psychologists exhibit an grandchildren recendy been very sick? extraordinary faith in the powers of clinical intuition. Client: No. I. . .. However, belief in the intuitive powers of Rorschach wizards is Psychic: This may have happened in the past. difficult to reconcile with the revelations of research. As we Perhaps to someone very close to you. mentioned earlier, when the supposedly extraordinary insight Client: My sister's daughter had a premature girl of Rorschach experts has been tested in rigorously controlled several years ago. studies, results have been disappointing. Given such findings, Psychic: That's it. Many days in the hospital? Intensive it's implausible that the Rorschach wizards of the 1950s were Care? Oxygen? possessed of extraordinary clinical insight. Thus, we have to Client: Yes.

32 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER consider a second explanation for their extraordinary perfor­ example, a therapist who works with moderately troubled mances: Maybe they were frauds. clients—the wizard can use appropriate Barnum statements. Thanks to the shrewd article by J.R. Wittenborn and For instance, here's a safe statement that fits virtually all Seymour Sarason of Yale that we discussed earlier, there's litde clients one way or another: "This patient's emotions tend to question that some Rorschachers of the 1940s and 1950s used be inconsistent in terms of their impact on thinking, problem tricks that lent the test a false impression of infallibility. However, solving, and decision-making behaviors. In one instance it's extremely unlikely that all Rorschach wizards of the era were thinking may be strongly influenced by feelings. In a second conscious frauds. Several prominent Rorschach experts, such as instance, even though similar to the first, emotions may be Marguerite Hertz (whose interpretive skills we described earlier), pushed aside and play only a peripheral role. . . ." This state­ were known to be people of high integrity. Thus we're led to a ment, based on a recent Rorschach text (Exner 2000, 87), third explanation: The uncanny Rorschach wizards of the 1950s might well have come from Bertram Forer's famous astrology were probably cold readers who, like the young palm reader Ray book. Notice that the statement merely says that the client's Hyman, were deceived by their own performances. thoughts sometimes control his feelings, but that his feelings

The Rorschach Wizard as Cold Reader The Rorschach wizard who undertakes a If blind diagnosis with the Rorschach was really just cold reading, how could it have "blind diagnosis" is often in possession of a worked? A Rorschach wizard about to give a wealth of information that would make a palm blind analysis usually has access to much more information than do most fortune tellers. reader envious. In the early part of the diagnostic First, Rorschach responses usually contain performance, this information can be fed back valuable clues regarding a patient's intellectual capacity and educational level. Furthermore, to the listeners in classic "cold reading style." many responses provide hints regarding the patient's interests or occupation. As an interesting example, the Rorschach analysis of Nobel- sometimes control his thoughts. Although the statement prize-winning molecular biologist Linus Pauling has recently appears to be saying something important and specific, in fact been published (Gacono et al. 1997). Here are a few of his it applies to virtually all therapy clients (and probably virtu­ responses to the blots: "The two litde central humps at the top ally all readers of this article!). suggest a sine curve. . . ." "This reminds me of blood and the Such Barnum statements are apparently still taken seriously black of ink, carbon and the structure of graphite. . . ." "I'm by many psychologists today, judging from the large number reminded of Dall's watches.. .." of Rorschach books that are purchased each year. Thus we can Even non-wizards can guess that the person who produced be fairly sure that when Rorschach wizards of the 1950s these Rorschach responses was well educated in mathematics spouted similar phrases during blind analyses, their colleagues ("sine curve") and chemistry ("the structure of graphite"), and thought something important was being said. probably had broad cultural interests (the reference to artist Once the listeners were "warmed up" by such apparently Salvador Dall). profound insights, the Rorschach wizard's job became much Besides such clues contained in the Rorschach responses, easier. Abandoning any initial skepticism, listeners probably other sources of information are often available to a wizard. began giving subtle or not-so-subtle feedback by nodding or The fact that the test results come from a particular clinic or smiling. The wizard could use this feedback as a guide for hospital can be informative. For example, if the test comes making increasingly precise statements. In all likelihood, wiz­ from an inpatient psychiatric unit, the chances are high that ards probably used something like the push, described earlier. the patient is suicidal or out of touch with reality. For instance, here's a hypothetical example of how the push Thus, the Rorschach wizard who undertakes a "blind diag­ could be used Rorschach-style: nosis" is often in possession of a wealth of information that Wizard: There are signs of a very severe trauma, it would make a palm reader envious. In the early part of the could be recent. Perhaps a rape? Or a violent diagnostic performance, this information can be fed back to assault? the listeners in classic "cold reading style." For example, with Listener. No. She . . . Linus Pauling's Rorschach, the reading might begin: "Hmmm. Wizard: This trauma may have happened in her teen This is obviously a very bright individual. Well educated, a years or even earlier. She may be repressing it 'cerebral' type. Focuses on thoughts, probably avoids reacting so she doesn't remember. to events in a purely emotional way. I have the impression of a scientist rather than a business person or artist, riiough I do THE RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST, FORTUNE see some artistic tendencies." TELLERS, AND COLD READING If the Rorschach comes from a particular source—for Continued on page 61

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 33 Can Minds Leave Bodies? A Cognitive Science Perspective

Many people believe that the mind can leave the body at death and during out-of-body experiences. Research in cognitive science, however, has shown that this belief is implausible and suggests other explanations.

D. ALAN BENSLEY

hirty-nine dead bodies were neatly laid on cots, each dressed in a black robe and Nike sneakers with their Theads covered in hoods. Was this some kind of ritual murder? No, this was the 1997 mass suicide of the Heavens Gate cult resulting from a dangerous combination of belief in dualism, religion, and extrasensory contact with aliens. Cult members believed they were in telepathic contact with extraterrestrials who invited them to a new and better world. To rendezvous with the alien ship, they believed they had to "exit their vehicles." This code expression for killing the body to free the soul reveals a dualistic belief in the sepa- rateness of mind and body. For cult members, the body was just a device for temporarily carrying the soul.

34 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER This dualistic belief may seem extreme, but other, more common paranormal beliefs (such as belief in ghosts, astral projection, and reincarnation), also imply that the mind or soul can separate from the body. I will examine the dualistic belief from the cognitive science perspective. Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary approach to the study of the mind. It combines the psychological study of mental processes such as consciousness and perception with the study of the brain, phi­ losophy, and other disciplines. Research in cognitive science has shown that mind depends on the functioning of the brain in the physical world. Consequently, the mind cannot "go out­ side" of the brain.

Origins of Dualistic Paranormal Belief The idea that the soul can leave the body is a very old one Figure 1: Shaman's spirit trap lying vertically against a print block with magic char­ found in many cultures (Frazer 1996). A common belief is acters from the Laotian-Thai border. Reprinted by permission of the publisher from that when someone dreams of traveling to a place, the soul Frazer (1996), The Illustrated Golden Bough. Simon & Schuster Editions. actually leaves the body and journeys there. The ancient the mind or soul was non-physical and not extended. Egyptians believed the soul could leave the body at death. In Descartes' position, called substance dualism, has raised funda­ their burial ceremonies, the Ba, a human-headed bird repre­ mental questions about how a non-physical mind could have senting the soul or breath of life, was breathed back into the an effect on a physical body. Nevertheless, many people persist mummified body to ensure life after death. In the book of in this belief as if there were no mind-body problem. Genesis, God breathed die spirit of life into Adam's body formed from the dust of the Earth to make man a living soul. Current Belief These examples illustrate how the soul or spirit has been com­ Belief in dualism is an important part of our commonsense or monly associated with air. Like the air we breathe, the soul is folk psychology. Intuitively, my mind and body do appear to be ephemeral, essential to life, and can leave die body. In his different. I can use my mind to imagine I have no gray hair, but detailed study of religious rituals from around the world. Sir one look in the mirror tells me odierwise. I can imagine I am James Frazer reported that the Itonamas of South America in California when physically 1 am sitting at my computer in would close a dying person's mouth and nose to prevent die Maryland. I can decide to move my leg, and it seems as if my soul from departing and taking other souls with it. In some mind is causing my body to move. These examples suggest that cultures, people have used traps to recapture souls that have my mental experience and physical events overlap; but they are escaped (see figure 1). Comparing the beliefs of many non- not die same. However, it is one tiling to imagine that one's Western cultures, Shiels (1978) found evidence that almost 95 mind is separate from one's body and quite another to believe percent of them believed that a soul or spiritual entity could it can actually separate from the body. To believe the latter is leave the body in some form. The most common occasion for tantamount to holding a paranormal belief, according to many such an experience was during sleep, but some reported the cognitive neuroscientists who have consistendy shown that the occurrence from illness, use of drugs, and trance states. mind depends on brain function. Recently, such scientists have Much of the modern dualistic belief in die separability of paid increasing attention to the dualism found in people's com­ soul and body had its origins in Greek and Christian thought. monsense beliefs because such beliefs arc diametrically opposed Plato, the fifth century B.C. Greek philosopher, believed that die to their own scientific knowledge of the brain. body was a vessel containing the soul and diat the mind was die Research outside of cognitive science has also shown dual­ immortal pan of the soul that left the body at death to be rein­ istic, paranormal belief to be prevalent in everyday thinking. carnated. Over die centuries, many Christians have believed The most recent Gallup Poll on paranormal belief in the U.S. that the soul lives on after physical death, retaining the powers found that such beliefs are widespread and may even be on die of perception and feeling despite being separated from the body. rise (Newport and Strausberg 2001). Rene Descartes, the brilliant philosopher-mathematician of Other research further indicates that mind-body dualism is the seventcendi century, did much to frame die dualistic posi­ related to paranormal belief. Cognitive psychologist Keith tion. He began his philosophy by doubting everything. He real­ Stanovich (1989) found that many American college students ized he could doubt the existence of his body and the rest of the physical world, but he could not logically doubt that he was D. Alan Bensley is a cognitive psychologist and associate professor doubting. His famous statement, "I think, therefore I am," in the Department of Psychology at Frostburg State University exemplifies this reasoning. Because he could doubt the physical Frostburg, MD 21532 (e-mail: abensley9frostburg.edu). He is world but not his mind, he reasoned that the mind and body author of Critical Thinking in Psychology: A Unified Skills must be fundamentally different. In particular, he believed the Approach and of articles on the improvement of critical thinking body was made of physical substance extended in space while and on paranormal topics.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/Augusi 2003 35 he tested had high scores on a dualistic belief scale. Moreover, Shortly after college, I had a spontaneous OBE in which it those students with stronger dualistic belief also tended to seemed as if some observing part of me had separated from my report stronger belief in ESP, except for Baptists. Another body. I had lain down on the sofa for a few minutes but had study by Michael Thalbourne (1999) found that dualism in not gone to sleep. Suddenly, it seemed as if I could clearly "see" Australian students was significantly correlated with paranor­ my entire body lying on die sofa below me for a few seconds mal belief such as belief in life after death and in the possibil­ before 1 returned to my usual perspective. Though brief, my ity of contact with spirits of die dead. OBE had two basic features. First, it seemed as if the experi­ encing part of me was located at a point Despite popular belief, many scientists and outside my physical body. Second, it seemed as though I was consciously perceiv­ skeptics doubt the mind can leave the body. ing and not dreaming the experience. Like The most common opposing view has been many people who have had an OBE, I have also had lucid dreams, that is, dreams dur­ materialism or physicalism, a philosophical ing which I became aware of myself dream­ position maintaining that everything, ing (Glicksohn 1989). Researchers have found a low but reliable correlation between including mind, is essentially physical. OBEs and lucid dreaming (Irwin 1988). In fact, sometimes OBEs arise from lucid Not surprisingly, many writers in parapsychology, includ­ dreams and may even be indistinguishable from them (Levitan ing Lloyd Auerbach (1986), John Beloff (1989), and J.B. et al. 1999). Yet my experience did not seem like a dream, Rhine and J.G. Pratt (1957), have made dualistic statements lucid or odierwise—it seemed like perception. At the time, claiming or implying the separation of mind and body. James however, I did not know what it was, and I assumed my Alcock (1987) has contended diat parapsychology treats OBE was a case of astral projection. Similarly, about this same mind-body dualism as an essential assumption. time I had what I knew was a dream in which I was "flying Despite popular belief, many scientists and skeptics doubt around" in a kitchen, and 1 told myself that I was dreaming the mind can leave the body. The most common opposing about astral projection. view has been materialism or physicalism, a philosophical The many anecdotal reports of such experiences have some­ position maintaining that everything, including mind, is times been taken as strong evidence that the mind can actually essentially physical. Materialists say the mind only appears to leave die body (Crookall 1963). However, the usefulness of be invisible and not part of the natural physical world. For such anecdotal reports is very limited (Bensley 1998). centuries, scientists have developed physical explanations of Although they may provide a rich source of information about many apparently invisible and mysterious phenomena. The the details and "feel" of an experience, OBE descriptions are wind in the trees is not the movement of some invisible ether, typically not very well documented, not repeatable, and unver- but of many tiny particles of oxygen, nitrogen, and other ifiable. Often the details of what an OBE experiencer claims to gases. Along the same lines, materialists have hoped that the have seen have been found to be inaccurate (Blackmore 1982). soul or mind would be explained in physical terms, much as To obtain better evidence, researchers have used the exper­ the wind and air have been. Cognitive scientists, who are imental method, which allows for testing under more con­ rooted in materialism, have sought to explain mental processes trolled conditions to study OBEs. Typically, experimenters in terms of brain activity resulting from physical changes in have examined the question by testing the accuracy of a sub­ the environment. So it is not surprising mat they and other ject's perception during an OBE or by looking for some scientists have pressed for physical evidence that a mind or physical sign in the environment diat the experiencer has soul could leave the body. left the body. Despite some strikingly positive results reviewed by Charles Tan (1998), experimental demonstrations have The Out-of-Body Experience (OBE) not, in general, shown out-of-body perception to be reliably At least initially, the OBE appears to be good evidence diat die accurate. Nor has research unambiguously supported the mind can separate from the body. The term itself, however, is claim that the experiencer can affect the environment when neutral as to whether or not a person has actually left die body taking an out-of-body excursion (Blackmore 1982, 1992). and asserts only diat a person has had the experience of having After reviewing the literature, Blackmore (1982) suggested done so (Palmer 1978). OBEs are fairly common, widi esti­ diat adopting a cognitive psychological approach to study mates ranging from about 10 to 20 percent of die population OBEs would be more productive. reporting they have had at least one, depending on die survey (Rogo 1984). OBEs occur in various ways, such as in religious, The Cognitive Science Approach drug-induced, near-death, meditational, hypnotically Traditionally, cognitive scientists have viewed die brain as induced, or spontaneous experiences (Grosso 1976). a kind of complex information processing system, like a Furthermore, OBEs are not associated with any psychological computer. The system inputs data through die senses, holds disorder (Tobacyk and Mitchell 1987). the information in memory, and transforms it into various

36 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER intermediate states before outputting in the form of behavior. such as when falling asleep or during sensory deprivation, this Information processing occurs in the brain as nerve cells send unusual perspective may be adopted. The brain seeks to iden­ and receive messages using special chemicals called neuro­ tify which is the best model or interpretation of the incoming transmitters. Many of these nerve cells are part of processing sensory data at the time, and this becomes the model of real­ units and circuits dedicated to processing specific kinds of ity that best fits. The system seeks to reestablish sensory con­ information. Research with brain scanning has found specific tact, and mistakenly picks the wrong model from memory areas of the brain that "light up" or are active when individu­ such as the "over the head" perspective and treats it as real. als engage in specific mental processes, such as perceiving, OBE experiencers' greater vividness and clarity of imagery may attending, remembering, forming mental images, and using contribute to the sense of reality they experience during OBEs. language (Posner and Raichle 1994). The brain uses the com­ Harvey Irwin (1986) has obtained results similar to Blackmore bined activiry of these specific neural processors to form men­ (1987). However, he found that some people had somatic tal representations of the physical world. For example, OBEs (related to the feeling of the body being outside) while although perceiving a face depends on the combined activiry of multiple brain areas, when one area of the temporal lobe special- The drug ketamine, called "Special K" on the i7ed for processing faces is damaged, a per­ son is unable to recognize even his or her street and used as an anaesthetic before surgery, own face. often produces OBEs. Karl Jansen has argued The brain uses its representations to con­ struct an elaborate and usually accurate that the experience produced by ketamine is model of die world—a kind of running sim­ very much like the near-death experience. ulation. For example, research has shown that the brain has map-like representations of various parts of die body such as die face, arm, and hand. These others had visual OBEs (related to seeing the body as outside). maps in the brain represent the body in visual and somatic form, In these two different cases, the subjects may be paying more carrying detailed information of both how the body looks and or less attention to the visual versus somatic information in the feels (Ladavas, Zelon, and Fame 1998). It is important to note, complex representations of their bodies. however, that while mental representations, such as visual Blackmore's research suggests that disturbances in the brain images, may seem vivid and accurate, they are not exact copies may produce OBEs. Consistent with this prediction, Canadian of die physical world in the same way a photograph represents neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield (1955) was apparendy able to the detail of some object. Moreover, die brain can make a mis­ produce an OBE by stimulating a patient's brain with minute take in constructing its model, resulting in misperception of die electrical currents prior to operating on the patient for tempo­ body or some other part of the world. ral lobe epilepsy. Before surgical removal of a damaged area that The phantom limb experience provides a compelling exam­ caused the debilitating seizures, Penfield would routinely stim­ ple of how mental experience of die body depends on die brain's ulate different places in the patient's brain, such as in the right representations of it, and also how perception of the body can temporal lobe shown in Figure 2, to prevent the inadvertent be in error. People who have lost a limb, such as a leg, often removal of healthy brain tissue. Once, after he had electro- report diey feel die sensation of pain in their missing foot. This, stimulated a point in this area, the patient, who had previously of course, is physically impossible if we assume the pain is orig­ had an OBE, exclaimed "I am leaving my body" and then inating from die missing foot. However, if we assume diat the showed a strong fear reaction (Penfield 1955, 458). brain still has a representation of die missing foot, dien die per­ Recently, Olaf Blanke and his colleagues (2002) have used ception of pain depends on brain activity (Ramachandran and electrostimulation of the brain to produce a more convincing Hirstein 1998). Could the OBE occur in a similar way, diat is, OBE in a forty-three-year-old epileptic woman. While trying could the brain activate a representation of the body in some to find the focus of her brain damage, they stimulated points in unusual way that leads to misperception of the body? the right angular gyrus (shown in figure 2), producing various Applying methods from cognitive psychology to study disturbances in the perception of her body. When stimulated at OBEs, Susan Blackmore (1987) found that experiencers used different intensities, she reported feeling that she was "sinking mental imagery differently from those who do not have OBEs. into the bed," "falling from a height," and seeing parts of her Based on the work of Nigro and Neisser (1983), she found body shortening (Blanke et al. 2002, 269). At one point she that experiencers were more likely to use an observer or "bird's- had an OBE in which she saw her trunk and legs from above, eye view" perspective in describing dieir dreams than odiers. the same portion of her body she had felt when stimulated They were also better able to switch their viewpoint in a men­ before. However, when they stimulated her epileptic focus in tal image, and had clearer and more vivid imagery of their her temporal lobe, over 5 cm away from the angular gyrus, she dreams. Blackmore argued diat this "bird's-eye view" perspec­ did not have an OBE. Blanke and his colleagues proposed that tive is like the "over the body" perspective often taken during it was stimulating her angular gyrus that produced the OBE by OBEs. When a person begins to lose normal sensory contact. disrupting the integration of somatosensory and vestibular

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 37 complex, partial epileptic-like experi­ Parietal Lobe ences. He found diac those subjects who had the most epileptic-like experiences Angular also tended to report the most detach­ Gyrus ment from their bodies on days when geomagnetic activity was at higher levels in general. The geomagnetic disturbance may have destabilized activity in the tem­ Frontal poral lobes of those people who had the Lobe Occipital most epileptic-like experiences. Although Lobe "+ this finding may further suggest that cog­ nitive science is moving toward an expla­ nation of the OBE in natural, physical terms, it should be interpreted with cau­ tion given the low correlation and our current lack of understanding of how Earth's electromagnetic activity affects brain activity. Temporal Lobe Other evidence from evolutionary psychology and the study of conscious­ ness has supported the brain basis of the OBE. It is striking to note diat the ani­ Figure 2: A right hemisphere view drawn to show the lobes of the brain and the point in the angular gyrus mals with brains most like our own, the of the parietal lobe that Blanke and his colleagues (2002) stimulated to produce an OBE. chimpanzee, orangutan, and gorilla, are the only land animals aside from us that information—that is, information about the feel and position can recognize the image of their own bodies in a mirror as of her body. These findings support the idea that the brain pro­ belonging to themselves (Gallup 1982). This conscious ability duces the conscious perception of an embodied self from the to recognize one's body as an objective part of oneself seems to coordinated activity of various brain regions. be related to the brain's ability to form a mental representation Drug effects on the brain can also produce OBEs. The drug of one's body that can be inspected. It also implies the need for ketamine, called "Special K" on the street and used as an the brain to construct a representation of the self as part of its anaesthetic before surgery, often produces OBEs. Karl Jansen ongoing modeling of the world. Nicholas Humphrey has pro­ (1997) has argued that the experience produced by ketamine posed that it would be adaptive for animals with complex is very much like the near-death experience (NDE) in which social lives, such as humans and chimps, to include a model of people often report the experience of floating above the body, the self in their model of the social world (Humphrey 1978). traveling through a dark tunnel into the light, seeing God, and In this way they could more completely model the possible the conviction that they were actually dead. Although natu­ consequences of their own actions and die responses of others rally occurring NDEs may result from various causes, keta­ to them. Consistent with this theory, several researchers have mine may produce an artificial version of the NDE and found that, like humans, chimpanzees may develop at least the an associated OBE by blocking neural transmission in the rudiments of a theory of mind allowing them to predict and temporal lobe. understand some intentions and behaviors in relation to them­ The question arises as to how physical events in the natural selves (Suddendorf and Whitten 2000). environment could produce electrochemical changes in the Recently, cognitive scientists have proposed paying more brain that lead to OBEs. One possibility proposed by Michael attention to the bodily aspects of experience, challenging tra­ Persinger (1995) is that variations in die Earth's magnetic field ditional views of cognitive science that cend to neglect the produced by movement of its tectonic plates could lead to body (Johnson 1995). Some argue diat die brain's representa­ OBEs under the right conditions. Persinger obtained data on tion of the body is central to its representation of the self die changes in Earth's geomagnetic activity from the National (Damasio 1999; Eilan, Marcel, and Bermudez 1995). Some Geophysical Data Center keeping track of the particular level have even challenged traditional cognitive science's emphasis that each subject experienced during testing. First, he exter­ on representation, instead arguing diat mental experience is nally applied a weak electromagnetic field across large areas of embodied and not due to abstract mental processes distinct his subjects' brains while depriving them partially of sensory from die physical system producing diem (Varela, Thompson, stimulation to enhance awareness of their cognitive processes. and Rosch 1991). Others, like James Gibson, have emphasized Then he had them rate die degree to which they felt detached the role of the environment in perceiving the self (Neisser from dieir bodies. At a separate session, subjects also answered 1993). Gibson has made die important point that when we see questions from which he could infer each subject's history of die environment we almost always see our bodies as well. For

38 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER example, when 1 look at the world in front of me I often see American Society for Psychical Research 70: 179-193. part of my leg, arm, or the bridge of my nose. Humphrey. N. 1978. Nature's psychologists. New Scientist 78: 900-903. Irwin, H.J. 1986. Perceptual perspective of visual imagery in OBE's, dreams Supporting an embodied view of conscious experience, and reminiscence. Journal ofthe Society for Psychical Research 53: 210-217. Monica Meijsing (2000) has reanalyzed two relevant cases of . 1988. Out-of-body experiences and dream lucidity. In J. Gackenbach and nervous system damage originally reported by Cole and S. LaBerge (Eds.). Conscious Mmd Sleeping Brain. New York: Plenum Press. Jansen, K. 1997. The ketamine model of the near-death experience: A central Pailard (1995). Although these patients have little sensory role for the N-Mcthyl-D-Aspartate receptor. Journal of Near Death Studies feedback from their bodies below the neck, tiiey nevertheless 16: 5-26. have retained their body image. They have retained knowledge of how they look and how much space their bodies occupy while Recently, cognitive scientists have proposed retaining very little control over the move­ ment of their bodies. One of these patients paying more attention to the bodily aspects compared her body to a machine saying she of experience, challenging traditional views felt as if she were a pilot lodged in a ship that was hard to steer. of cognitive science that tend to neglect the These striking cases suggest that a per­ body. Some argue that the brain's son's embodied experience depends on hav­ ing an intact nervous system. However, representation of the body is central to whether cognitive scientists adopt the tradi­ its representation of the self. tional representational view or the newer embodied cognition view, their common conclusion is that conscious experience of the body depends Johnson, M. L. 1995. Incarnate mind. Minds and Machines 5: 533-545. on brain and nervous system function. It follows that anom­ Ladavas, E., G. Zelon. and A. Fame. 1998. Visual peripersonal space centred alous experiences of the body depend on brain and nervous on the face in humans. Brain 121: 2317—2326. Lcvitan, L, S. Laberge, D. DeGracia, and P. Zimbardo. 1999. Out-of-body system function as well. experiences, dreams, and REM sleep. Sleep and Hypnosis 1:186-196. Meijsing, M. 2000. Self consciousness and the body. Journal of Consciousness Acknowledgments Studies 7:34-52. Neisser. U. 1993. The self perceived. In U. Neisser, (Ed.). The Perceived Self. I would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for valuable comments Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. on an earlier draft and Dr. Michael Persinger for providing additional Newport, E, and M. Strausberg. 2001. Americans' belief in psychic and para­ information about his research. normal phenomena is up over last decade. Gallup News Service, 8 June. Online at www.gallup.com/poll/releases/pr010608.asp. Nigro, G., and U. Neisser 1983. Point of view in personal memories. References Cognitive Psychology 15:467-482. Alcock, J.E. 1987. Parapsychology: Science of the anomalous or search for the Palmer, J. 1978. The our-of-body experience: A psychological theory. soul? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10: 553-565. Parapsychology Review 9: 19-22. Auerbach, L 1986. ESP. Haunting*, and Poltergeists: A Parapsychologist's Penfield, W. 1955. The role of the temporal cortex in certain psychic phe­ Handbook. New York: Warner Books. nomena. The Journal of Mental Science 101: 451-465. Beloff, J. 1989. Dualism: A parapsychological perspective. In The Case for Persinger, M. 1995. Oui-.it body experiences are more probable in people Dualism. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. with elevated complex partial epileptic-like signs during periods of Bensley, DA 1998. Critical Thinking in Psychology: A Unified Skills Approach. enhanced geomagnetic activity: A nonlinear effect. Perceptual and Motor Pacific Grove, Calif: Brooks/Cole. Se/Zu 80: 563-569 Blackmore, S.J. 1982. Parapsychology—With and without the OBE? Posner, M.I.. and M.E. Raichle. 1994. Images of Mind New York: W.H. Parapsychology Review 13: 1—7. Freeman. . 1987. Where am I?: Perspectives in imagery and the out-of-body Ramachandran, VS. and W. Hirstein. 1998. The perception of phantom experience. Journal of Mental Imagery 11: 53-66. limbs. Brain 121: 1603-1630. . 1992. Beyond the Body: An Imtstigation of Out-of-body Experiences. Rhine, J.B. and J.G. Pratt. 1957. Parapsychology: Frontier Science of the Mind (Revised ed.) Chicago: Academy Chicago Publishers. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas. Blanke, O., S. Ortigue, T. Landis, and M. Seeck. 2002. Stimulating illusory Rogo, D.S. 1984. Researching the out-of-body experience: The state of the own-body perceptions. Adnrrr419: 269-270. art. Anabiosis: The Journal for Near Death Studies 4: 21—49. Cole, J., and J. Pailard 1995. Living without touch and peripheral informa- Shiels, D. 1978. A cross-cultural study of belief in out-of-body experiences, tion about body position and movement: Studies with Deafferented sub­ waking and sleeping. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research 49: jects. In J. Bermudez. A. Marcel, and N. Eilan, (Eds.). The Body and the 697-741. Self Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Stanovich, K.E. 1989. Implicit philosophies of mind: The dualism scale and Crookall, R. 1963. Only psychological fact? Light ii: 17-182. its relation to religiosity and belief in extrasensory perception. Journal of Damasio, A. 1999. The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Psychology 123: 5-23. Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt- Brace. Suddendorf, T, and A. Whitten. 2000. Mental evolution and development: Eilan. N.. A. Marcel, and J. Bermudez. 1995. Self-consciousness and the body: Evidence for secondary representation in children, great apes, and other An interdisciplinary introduction. In J. Bermudez, A- Marcel, and N. Eilan, animals. Psychological Bulletin 127:629-650. (Eds.). The Body and the Self. (Pp. 1-28). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Tan. C.T. 1998. Six studies of out of body experiences. Journal of Near Death Frazer. J.G. 1996. The Illustrated Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. Studies 17: 73-99. New York: Simon and Schuster. Thalbourne. M. 1999. Dualism and the sheep-goat variable: A replication and Gallup. G.G. 1982. Self-recognition in primates: Self-awareness and the emer­ extension. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research 63: 213-216. gence of mind in primates. American Journal of Primatology 2: 237—248. Tobacyk. J., and T Mitchell. 1987. The out-of-body experience and person­ Glicksohn.J. 1991. The structure of subjective experience: Intcrdepcndcncies along ality adjustment. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 175: 367-369. die slccp-wakciulncss continuum. Journal of Mental Imagery 13: 99-106. Varela. F.J., E. Thompson, and E. Rosch. 1991. The Embodied Mind Grosso, M. 1976. Some varieties of out-of-body experience. The Journal of the Cognitive Science and Human Experience. Cambridge. Mass.: MIT Press

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 39 Memory Recovery Techniques in Psychotherapy Problems and Pitfalls

Memory recovery techniques that are widely used in psychotherapy including hypnosis, age regression, guided imagery, dream interpretation, bibliotherapy, and symptom interpretation can distort or create—rather than reveal—allegedly repressed traumatic memories. STEVEN JAY LYNN, ELIZABETH F. LOFTUS, SCOTT O. LILIENFELD, and TIMOTHY LOCK

n 1997, Nadean Cool won a $2.4 million malpractice settlement against her therapist in which she alleged that Ihe used a variety of suggestive memory recovery proce­ dures to persuade her that she had suffered horrific abuse and harbored more than 130 personalities including demons, angels, children, and a duck. Prior to therapy, Nadean recounted problems typical of many women includ­ ing a history of bulimia, substance abuse, and mild depres­ sion. During her five-year treatment, Nadean's therapist allegedly maintained that she could not improve unless she uncovered repressed traumatic memories. To do so, Nadean participated in repeated hypnotic age regression and guided imagery sessions, and was subjected to an exorcism and

40 July/Augusi 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER fifteen-hour marathon dierapy sessions. Nadean recalled fright­ tially provided a few details about the false event, such as where ening images of participating in a satanic cult, eating babies, die event allegedly occurred, after which the subjects were inter­ being raped, having sex with animals, and being forced to watch viewed one to two weeks apart. A quarter of the subjects claimed the murder of her eight-year-old friend after these interventions, to remember me false event; some provided surprisingly detailed and her psychological health deteriorated apace. Eventually accounts of die event that they came to believe had actually Nadean came to doubt that the recovered memories were "real," occurred. Similar studies with college students have shown that terminated treatment with her therapist, and recouped much of approximately 20-25 percent report experiencing such fictitious the ground she had lost. events as: (a) an overnight hospitalization for a high fever and a Although Nadean Cool's therapy strayed far beyond conven­ possible ear infection, accidentally spilling a bowl of punch on tional practice, her therapist is in the company of many profes­ die parents of the bride at a wedding reception, and evacuating a sionals who perform so-called "memory work" to help clients grocery store when the overhead sprinkler systems erroneously retrieve memories of ostensibly repressed abuse. Poole, Lindsay, activated (Hyman et al. 1995); and (b) a serious animal attack, Memon, and Bull (1995) reported that 25 percent of licensed serious indoor accident, serious outdoor accident, a serious med­ doctoral level psychologists surveyed in the United States and ical procedure, and being injured by anothet child (Porter, Yuille, Great Britain indicated that they: (a) use two ot more tech­ and Lehman 1998). niques such as hypnosis and guided imagery to facilitate recall of repressed memories; (b) consider memory recovery an impor­ Hypnosis tant part of treatment; and (c) can identify patients with Many therapists endorse popular yet mistaken beliefs about repressed or odierwise unavailable memories as early as the first hypnosis. Yapko's (1994) survey revealed that 47 percent of a session (see Polousny and Follette 1996 for similar findings). In sample composed of professionals had greater faith in the accuracy addition, over three-quarters of the U.S. doctotal-level psy­ of hypnotic than non-hypnotic memories, 54 percent believed to chotherapists reported using at least one memory recovery tech­ some degree that hypnosis is effective fot recovering memories as nique to "help clients temember childhood sexual abuse." In far back as birth, and 28 percent believed diat hypnosis is an effec­ this article we consider a number of widely used memory recov­ tive means of recovering past life memories. If hypnosis were able ery procedures, and whether they can distort or create, rather than reveal, traumatic memories. to accurately retrieve forgotten memories, confidence in its use for recovering memories would be warranted. But this is not the case. The following conclusions are based on major reviews of Clinical Techniques the literature':

Guided Imagery One important class of techniques telies on guided imagery, in which patients imagine scenarios described by the dierapist. So long as imagery techniques focus on current problems, as in visu­ alizing pleasant scenes to develop relaxation skills, there is prob­ ably little cause for concern about false memory creation. However, the use of imagery to uncover allegedly repressed mem­ ories is controversial and warrants concern because people fre­ quently confuse real and imagined memories, particularly when memories are initially hazy or unavailable. Roland (1993), for example, proposed using visualization to \; ^ jog "blocked" memories of sexual abuse, and a "recon­ struction" technique fot recovering repressed memo­ ries of abuse. According to Poole et al. (1995), 32 per­ cent of U.S. therapists report using "imagery related to the abuse."

Suggesting False Memories Memory errors are not random. What is recalled depends on current beliefs, inferences, guesses, expectancies, and suggestions. People can deariy be led by suggestions to integrate a fabricated event into theit personal histories. In Loftus's research (Loftus, Coan, and Pickrell 1996; Loftus and Pickrell 1995). twenty-four participants were asked by an older sib­ ling to remember real and fictitious events (e.g., get­ ting lost in a shopping mall). The older sibling ini­

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 41 (1) Hypnosis increases the sheer volume of recall, resulting in Our dour assessment of hypnosis for recovering memories both more incorrect and correct information. When the number has been echoed by professional societies, including divisions of responses is statistically controlled, hypnotic recall is no more and task forces of the American Psychological Association and accurate man nonhypnotic recall. the Canadian Psychiatric Association. The American Medical (2) Hypnosis produces more recall errors and higher levels of Association (1994) has asserted that hypnosis be used only for memories for false information. investigative purposes in forensic contexts. However, even (3) False memories are associated with subjects' levels of hypnotic when hypnosis is used solely for investigative purposes, there suggestibility. However, even relatively non-suggestible partici­ are attendant risks. Early in an investigation, the information pants report false memories. obtained through hypnosis could lead investigators to pursue (4) Hypnotized persons sometimes exhibit less accurate recall in erroneous leads and even to interpret subsequent leads as con­ response to misleading questions compared with nonhypnotized sistent with initial and perhaps mistaken hypnotically gener­ participants. ated evidence. (5) In general, hypnotized individuals are more confident about their recall accuracy than are nonhypnotized individuals, and an Searching for Early Memories association between hypnotizability and confidence has been According to Adlcr (1931), "The first memory will show the well documented. individuals fundamental view of life.... I would never investi­ (6) Even when participants arc warned about possible memory gate a personality without asking for die first memory (p. 75)." problems associated with hypnosis, they continue to report false More recendy, Olson (1979) articulated a belief shared by many memories during and after hypnosis, although some studies indi­ therapists (Papanek 1979) that "[Early memories] when cor­ cate that warnings decrease pseudomemories. rectly interpreted often reveal very quickly die basic core of one's (7) Contrary to die claim that hypnosis facilitates die recall of personality . . . and suggest.. . bedrock themes with which the emotional or traumatic memories, hypnosis docs not improve therapist must currently deal in treating the client" (p. xvii). recall of emotionally arousing events (e.g., films of shop acci­ dents, depictions of fatal stabbings, a mock assassination, an Most adults' earliest reported memories date back to a. in.il murder videotaped screndipitously), and arousal level is between 36 and 60 months of age. Virtually all contemporary not associated with hypnotic recall. memory researchers agree that accurate memory reports of (8) Hypnosis does not necessarily produce more false memories events that occur before 24 monrJis of age are extremely rare or unwarranted confidence in memories than highly suggestive (see Malinoski, Lynn, and Sivcc 1998), due to developmental nonhypnotic procedures. However, simply asking participants to changes that influence how children process, retrieve, and focus on die task at hand and to do their best to recall specific share information. Adults' memory reports from 24 months of events yields accurate recall comparable to hypnosis, but with age or earlier are likely to represent confabulations, condensa­ fewer or comparable recall errors. tions, and constructions of early events, as well as current con­ cerns and stories heard about early events (Spanos 1996). Steven Jay Lynn is a professor of psychology at the State University Although certain early memories might well have special sig­ of New York at Binghamton. He is a past president of the Division nificance,2 such memories are highly malleable. Malinoski, of Psychological Hypnosis of the American Psychological Association Lynn, and Green (1999) examined early memories in a study and author of twelve books and more than 200 scientific articles. in which interviewers probed for increasingly early memories E-mail: [email protected]. Elizabeth F. Loftus is distin­ until participants twice denied any earlier memories. guished professor of psychology and social behavior, criminology Participants then received "memory recovery techniques" sim­ law and society at the University of California at Irvine. She is past ilar to those advocated by some therapists (e.g.. Farmer 1989, president of the American Psychological Society a CSICOP Fellow, Meiselman 1990). Interviewers asked participants to see them­ and author of twenty books and more than 250 articles. Scott O. selves "in their mind's eye" as a toddler or infant, and "get in Lilienfeld is associate professor of psychology at Emory University touch" with memories of long ago. Participants were informed He is president of the Society for a Science of Clinical Psychology a that most young adults can retrieve memories of very early CSICOP Fellow, and editor o /The Scientific Review of Mental events—including their second birthday—if diey "let them­ Health Practice. Timothy Lock is the Coordinator of Adult Sexual selves go" and try hard to visualize and concentrate. Inter­ Offender Treatment at the Westchester Jewish Community Services. viewers then asked for subjects' memories of dieir second He has published articles and chapters on the topic of memory birthdays and reinforced increasingly early memory reports. recovery techniques and false memories. This article is a substantially revised and abbreviated version of a The average age of die initial reported memory was 3.7 years: chapter entitled "The remembrance of things past: Problematic mem­ Only 11 percent of individuals reported memories at or before ory recovery techniques in psychotherapy " which appeared in S.O. age 24 mondis, and 3 percent reported a memory from age 12 Lilienfeld, S.J. Lynn, and J.M. Lohr (Eds.), Science and months or younger. However, after receiving die visualization Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. New York: Guilford The instructions, 59 percent of the participants reported a memory of article is published with the permission of the publisher. Portions of this their second birthday. After interviewers pressed for even eadier article were included in a talk entitled "Problematic memory recovery memories, die earliest memory reported was 1.6 years, on aver­ techniques in psychotherapy " by Steven Jay Lynn, presented at the age. Fully 78.2 percent of die sample reported at least one mem­ Fourth International Skeptics Conference, Burbank, California. ory diat occurred at or earlier dian 2 years, outside die boundary

42 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER of infantile amnesia. More than half (56 percent) of die partici­ Past Life Regression pants reported a memory between birth and 18 mondis of life; a The search for traumatic memories can extend to well before third (33 percent) reported a memory that occurred at age 12 birth (see Mills and Lynn 2000). "Past life regression therapy" months or earlier; and 18 percent reported memories dated from is based on the premise that traumas that occurred in previous sue months or earlier. Remarkably, 4 percent of the sample lives contribute to current psychological and physical symp­ reported memories from the first week of life! toms. For example, psychiatrist Brian Weiss (1988) published a widely publicized series of cases focusing on patients who Age-regression were hypnotized and age regressed to "go back to" the origin Age-regression involves "regressing" a person back through time of a present-day problem. When patients were regressed, they to an earlier life period. Subjects are typically asked to mentally reported events that Weiss interpreted as having their source in recreate events that occurred at successively earlier periods in life, previous lives. or to focus on a particular event at a specific age, with suggestions Vivid and realistic experiences during age regression can to fully relive the event. A televised documentary (Frontline 1995) seem very convincing to both patient and dierapist. However, showed a group therapy session in which a woman was age- Spanos, Menary, Gabora, DuBreuil, and Dewhirst (1991) deter­ regressed through childhood, to the womb, and eventually to mined that the information participants provided about specific being trapped in her mother's Fallopian tube. The woman pro­ time periods during their hypnotic age regression was almost vided a convincing demonstration of the emotional and physical "invariably incorrect" (p. 137). For example, one participant discomfort that one would experience if one were indeed stuck in who was regressed to ancient times claimed to be Julius Caesar, such an uncomfortable position. Although the woman may have emperor of Rome, in 50 B.C., even though the designations of believed in the veracity of her experience, research indicates that B.C. and A.D. were not adopted until centuries later, and even her regression experiences were not memory-based. Instead, age- though Julius Caesar died decades prior to the first Roman regressed subjects behave according to situational cues and their emperor. Spanos et al. (1991) informed some participants diat knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions about age-relevant behav­ past life identities were likely to be of a different gender, culture, iors. According to Nash (1987), age-regressed adults do not show and race from that of the present personality, whereas other par­ the expected patterns on many indices of development, including ticipants received no prehypnotic information about past life brain activity (EEGs) and visual illusions. No matter how com­ identities. Participants' past life experiences were elaborate, con­ pelling "age regressed experiences" do not represent literal rein­ formed to induced expectancies about past life identities (e.g., statements of childhood experiences, behaviors, and feelings. gender, race), and varied in terms of the pre-hypnotic informa­ tion participants received about the frequency of child abuse Hypnotic Age-regression during past historical periods. In summary, hypnotically induced past life experiences are fantasies constructed from Although hypnosis is often used to facilitate the experience of age available cultural narratives about past lives and known or sur­ regression, it can distort memories of early life events. Nash, mised facts regarding specific historical periods, as well as cues Drake, Wiley, Khalsa, and Lynn (1986) attempted to corroborate present in the hypnotic situation (Spanos 1996). the memories of subjects who had participated in an earlier age regression experiment. This experiment involved age regressing hypnotized and role-playing (control) subjects to age three to a Symptom Interpretation scene in which they were in the soothing presence of their moth­ Therapists often inform suspected abuse victims that their symp­ ers. During the experiment, subjects reported the identity of toms suggest a history of abuse (Blume 1990, Fredrickson 1992). dieir transitional objects (e.g., blankets, teddy bean). Third-party Examples of symptom interpretation can be found in many pop­ verification (parent report) of the accuracy of recall was obtained ular psychology and self-help sources (e.g., Bass and Davis 1992). for fourteen hypnotized subjects and ten control subjects. Some popular self-help books on the topic of incest include lists Hypnotic subjects were less able than were control subjects to of symptoms (e.g., "Do you use work or achievements to com­ identify the transitional objects actually used. Hypnotic subjects' pensate for inadequate feelings in other parts of your life?") that hypnotic recollections matched their parent's reports only 21 per­ are presented as possible or probable correlates of childhood cent of the time, whereas control subjects' reports were corrobo­ incest. Blume's "Incest Survivors' Aftereffects Checklist" consists rated by their parents 70 percent of the time. of thirty-four such correlates. The scale instructions read: "Do Sivec and Lynn (1997) age-regressed participants to die age of you find many characteristics of yourself on this list? If so, you five and suggested rhat diey played with a Cabbage Patch Doll (if a could be a survivor of incest." Blume also indicates diat "clusters" girl) or a He-Man toy (if a boy). These toys were not released until of these items predict childhood sexual abuse, and diat "the more two or three years after the target time of die age regression sugges­ items endorsed by an individual the more likely that there is a tion. Half of die subjects received hypnotic age regression instruc­ history of incest." Many of the characteristics on such checklists tions and half received suggestions to age regress diat were not are vague and applicable to many non-abused individuals. Much administered in a hypnotic context. While none of die nonhypno- of die seeming "accuracy" of such checklists could stem from rized persons was influenced by die suggestion, 20 percent of die "RT. Barnum effects"—the tendency to believe that highly gen­ hypnotized subjects rated die memory as real and were confident eral statements true of many individuals in die population apply that the event occurred at the age to which they were regressed. specifically to oneself (Emery 2002).

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 43 Although there may be numerous psychological correlates of tions to visualize themselves at the target age. Twenty-five per­ sexual abuse (but see Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman 1998, cent of the kindergarten group and 55 percent of the crib group for a competing view), no known constellation of specific symp­ reported the target memory. All kindergarten participants toms, let alone diagnosis, is indicative of a history of abuse. Some believed that their memories corresponded to real events. In die genuine victims of childhood incest experience many symptoms, crib group, 33 percent believed in the reality of their memories, others only some, and still others none. Moreover, nonvictims 50 percent were unsure, and 17 percent of participants did not experience many of the same symptoms often associated with believe in the reality of their memories. sexual abuse (Tavris 1993). Nevertheless, Poole et al. (1995) found that more than one-third of the U.S. practitioners sur­ Dream Interpretation veyed reported that they used symptom interpretation to Viewed by Freud as the "royal road to the unconscious," dreams recover suspected memories of abuse. have been used to provide a window on past experiences, includ­ ing repressed traumatic events. For example, van der Kolk, Britz, Bogus Personality Interpretation Burr, Sherry, and Hartmann (1984) claimed that dreams can For ethical reasons, researchers have not directly tested the represent "exact replicas" of traumatic experiences (p. 188), a hypothesis that false memories of childhood abuse can be view not unlike that propounded by Fredrickson (1992), who elicited by informing individuals that their personality charac­ argued diat dreams are a vehicle by which "Buried memories of teristics are suggestive of such a history. However, studies have abuse intrude into . . . consciousness" (p. 44). shown that personality interpretation can create highly implau­ The popularity of dream interpretation has waned in recent sible or false memories. Spanos and his colleagues (Spanos, years. However, survey research indicates diat at least a third of Burgess, Burgess, Samuels, and Blois 1999) informed partici­ U.S. psychotherapists (37-44 percent) still use this technique pants that their personality indicated that they had a certain (see also Brenneis 1997, Polusny and Follette 1996). These sta­ experience during the first week of life. After participants com­ tistics are noteworthy given that no data exist to support the pleted a questionnaire, they were told that a computer-gener­ idea that dreams can be interpreted as indicative of a history of ated personality profile based on their responses indicated they child abuse (Lindsay and Read 1994). When dreams are inter­ were "High Perceptual Cognitive Monitors," and that people preted in this manner by an authority figure such as a thera­ with this profile had experienced special visual stimulation by a pist, rather than as reflecting the residues of the day's events or mobile within the first week of life. Participants were falsely as the day's concerns seeping into dreams, it can constitute a told that the study was designed to recover memories to con­ strong suggestion to the patient that abuse actually occurred. firm the personality test scores. The participants were age Mazzoni and her colleagues simulated the effects of dream regressed to the crib; half of the participants were hypnotized interpretation of stressful yet non-abuse-related life events. and half received non-hypnotic age regression instructions. In Mazzoni, Lombardo, Malvagia, and Loftus (1997) had partici­ the non-hypnotic group, 95 percent of the participants pants report on their childhood experiences on two occasions, reported infant memories and 56 percent reported the target three to four weeks apart. Between sessions, some subjects were mobile. However, all of these participants indicated that the exposed to a brief (half hour) therapy simulation in which an memories were fantasy constructions or they were unsure if the expert clinician analyzed a dream report that they had brought memories were real. In the hypnotic group, 79 percent of the to die session. No matter what participants dreamed, they participants reported infant memories, and 46 percent reported received the suggestion that their dream was indicative of hav­ the target mobile. Forty-nine percent of these participants ing experienced certain events (e.g., being lost in a public place believed the memories were real, and only 16 percent classified or abandoned by parents) before the age of three. Although the memories as fantasies. subjects had indicated that they had not experienced these DuBreuil, Garry, and Loftus (1998) used the bogus person­ events before age three, many individuals revised their accounts ality interpretation paradigm and non-hypnotic age regression of their past. Relative to controls who had not received the per­ to implant memories of the second day of life (crib group) or sonalized suggestion, "therapy" participants were far more the first day of kindergarten (kindergarten group). College stu­ likely to develop false beliefs that before age diree they had been dents were administered a test that purportedly measured per­ lost in a public place, had felt lonely and lost in an unfamiliar sonality and were told that, based on their scores, they were place, and had been abandoned by their parents. likely to have participated in a nationwide program designed to Mazzoni, Loftus, Seitz, and Lynn (1999) extended this par­ enhance the development of personality and cognitive abilities adigm to a memory of having been bullied as a child; dream by means of red and green moving mobiles. The crib group was interpretation increased participants' confidence that the event told that this enrichment occurred in the hospital immediately (being bullied or getting lost) had occurred, compared with after birth, and the kindergarten group was told that the control participants who were given a brief lecture about mobiles were placed in kindergarten classrooms. Participants dreams. Six of the twenty-two participants in the dream inter­ were given the false information that memory functions "like a pretation condition recalled the bullying event and four of the videotape recorder" and that age regression can access otherwise five participants in the dream interpretation condition recalled inaccessible memories. Participants were age regressed (non- getting lost. In conclusion, it is possible to implant childhood hypnotically) to the appropriate time period and given sugges­ memories using personality and dream interpretation.

44 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Bibliotherapy data; (5) the use of suggestive memory recovery techniques that increase the plausibility of abuse and yield remem­ Many therapists who treat patients with suspected abuse his­ brances consistent with the assumption that abuse occurred; tories prescribe "survivor books" or self-help books written (6) increasing commitment to the narrative on the part of specifically for survivors of childhood abuse to provide "con­ the client and therapist, escalating dependence on the thera­ pist, and anxiety reduction associated with ambiguity reduc­ firmation" that the individuals symptoms are due to past tion; (7) the encouragement of a "conversion" or "coming abuse and to provide a means of gaining access to memories. out" experience by the therapist or supportive community The books typically provide imaginative exercises and stories (e.g., therapy group), which solidifies the role of "abuse vic­ tim," and which is accompanied by reinforcing feelings of of other survivors' struggles, as well as potential support for empowerment; and (8) the narrative's provision of continu­ actual abuse survivors. However, the fact that die writers inter­ ity to the past and the future, as well as a sense of comfort pret current symptoms as indicative of an abuse history and and identity. include suggestive stories of abuse survivors may increase the risk diat readers will develop false memories of abuse. Some of People are not equally vulnerable to the potentially sugges­ the most influential popular books of this genre include Bass tive influences of memory recovery procedures. At the very and Davis' (1988) Courage to Heal, Fredrickson's (1992) least it is necessary to believe diat at least some memories Repressed Memories, and Blume's (1990) Secret Survivors: remain intact indefinitely so that they can be retrieved, and Uncovering Incest and Aftereffects in Women. that memory recovery techniques can retrieve these stored Mazzoni, Loftus, and Kirsch (2001) provided a dramatic memories. In addition, fantasy prone, imaginative, compliant, illustration of how reading material and psychological symp­ as well as highly hypnotically suggestible people appear to be tom interpretation can increase the plausibility of an initially especially vulnerable to suggestive influences and to the devel­ implausible memory of witnessing a demonic possession. The opment of false memories. study was conducted in Italy, where demonic possession is The evidence provides little support for the use of memory viewed as a more plausible occurrence than in America. recovery techniques in psychotherapy. Contrary to the idea However, in an initial testing session, all of the participants that people repress memories in the face of trauma, traumatic indicated that demonic possession was not only implausible, events are highly memorable (Shobe and Kihlstrom 1997). but that it was very unlikely that they had personally wit­ Even if a small percentage of accurate memories can be recov­ nessed an occurrence of possession as children. A month after ered in psychotherapy, there is no evidence for a causal con­ the first session, participants in one group read three short nection between non-remembered abuse and psychopathol­ articles indicating that demonic possession is more common ogy. In addition, the mere experience of painful emotions, than is generally believed and that many children have wit­ when not tied to attempts to bolster positive coping and nessed such an event. Participants were compared with indi­ mastery, can be harmful (Littrell 1998). Indeed, there is viduals who read three short articles about choking and with no empirically supported psychotherapy that relies on the individuals who received no manipulation. Participants recovery of traumatic memories to achieve a positive thera­ exposed to one of the manipulations returned the following peutic outcome. Adshead (1997) argued that if memory work week and, based on their responses to a fear questionnaire with trauma patients is not effective, then "it would there­ they completed, were informed (regardless of their actual fore be just as unethical to use memory work for patients responses) that their fear profile indicated that they had prob­ who could not use it or benefit by it, as it would be to pre­ ably either witnessed a possession or had almost choked dur­ scribe the wrong medication, or employ a useless surgical ing early childhood. technique" (p. 437). When the original questionnaire was completed in a final Before concluding, let us be clear about what the findings session, 18 percent of the students indicated diat they had reviewed do not mean as well as what they do mean. First, all probably witnessed possession. No changes in memories were memory recovery techniques are not necessarily problematic. evident in the control condition. In summary, events that were For example, the "cognitive interview" (Fisher and Geiselman not experienced during childhood and initially thought to be 1992), which incorporates a variety of techniques derived highly implausible can, widi sufficient credibility-enhancing from experimental research on memory (e.g., providing sub­ information, come to be viewed as having occurred in real life. jects with retrieval cues, searching for additional memorial details), holds promise as a method of enhancing memory in Hypothesized Path of False Memory Creation eyewitness contexts. Second, we do not wish to imply that all Imaginative narratives of sexual abuse dial never occurred and uses of hypnosis in psychotherapy arc problematic. Controlled past life reports arise when patients come to believe that die research evidence suggests diat hypnosis may be useful in treat­ narrative provides a plausible explanation for current life diffi­ ing pain, medical conditions, and habit disorders (e.g., smok­ culties. The narrative can achieve a high degree of plausibility ing cessation), and as an adjunct to cognitive-behavioral ther­ due to many factors: apy (e.g., anxiety, obesity). Nevertheless, the extent to which hypnosis provides benefits above and beyond relaxation in (1) the prevalent belief that abuse and psychopathology are such cases remains unclear (Lynn, Kirsch, Barabasz, Cardena, associated; (2) the therapist's support or suggestion of this and Patterson 2001). The questionable scientific status of hyp­ interpretation; (3) the failure to consider alternative explana­ tions for everyday problems; (4) the search for confirmatory nosis as a memory recovery technique has no bearing on the

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 45 therapeutic efficacy of hypnosis, which must ultimately be and clinical guidelines: A sociocognitivc perspective. In D. Read and S. Lindsay (Eds.), Recollections of Trauma: Scientific Research and Clinical investigated and judged on its own merits. Finally, we do not Practice. New York: Plenum Press. wish to claim that all memories recovered after years or Lynn. S.J., J. Neuscharz, R Fite, and J.W Rhue. 2001. Hypnosis and mem­ decades of forgetting are necessarily false. We remain open to ory; Implications for the courtroom and psychotherapy. In M. Eisen, and G. Goodman (Eds.). Memory, Suggestion, and the Forensic Interview. New die possibility rJiat certain recovered childhood memories are York: Guilford. veridical, although further research is needed to document Malinowski. P., and S.J. Lynn. 1999. The plasticity of very early memory their existence and possible prevalence. These important and reports: Social pressure, hypnotizability. compliance, and interrogative suggestibility. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis unresolved issues notwithstanding, the conclusion that certain 47: 320-345. suggestive dierapeutic practices can foster false memories in Malinowski, P., S.J. Lynn, and H. Sivec. 1998. The assessment, validity, and some clients appears indisputable. determinants of early memory reports: A critical review. In S.J. Lynn and K. McConkey (Eds.), Truth in Memory. New York: Guilford. Mazzoni, G.A.. E.F. Loftus, and I. Kirsch. 2001. Changing beliefs about Notes implausible autobiographical memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied!: 51-59. 1. The following reviews were used as sources: Erdelyi 1994; Lynn, Lock, Mazzoni, G.A., E.E Loftus, A. Seitz, and S.J. Lynn. 1999. Creating a new Myers, and Payne 1997; Lynn. Neuscharz, Fite, and Rhue 2001; Nash 1987; childhood: Changing beliefs and memories through dream interpretation. Spanos 1996; Steblay & Bothwell 1994; Witehouse, Dinges, E.C Orne. and Applied Cognitive Psychology 13: 125-144. M.T. Orne 1988. Mazzoni, G.A., P. Lombardo, S. Malvagia, and E.E Loftus. 1997. Dream 2. Some therapists do not assume that early memories reports are necessar­ Interpretation and False Beliefs. Unpublished manuscript. University of ily accurate but posit that such memories nevertheless provide a window into Florence and University of Washington. clients' personalities; the claim of these therapists is not of concern to us here. Meiselman. K. 1990. Resolving the Trauma of Incest: Reintegration Therapy with Survivors. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. References Mills, A., and S.J. Lynn. 2000. Past-life experiences. In E. Cardena, S.J. Lynn, and S. Krippner (Eds.). The Varieties of Anomalous Experience. New Adlcr, A. 1927. Understanding Human Nature. New York: Greenberg. York: Guilford. Adshead, G. 1997. Seekers after truth: Ethical issues raised by the discussion Nash, M.R. 1987. What, if anything, is regressed about hypnotic age regression? of "false" and "recovered" memories. In J.D. Read and D.S. Lindsay A review of the empirical literature. Psychological Bulletin 102: 42—52. (Eds.), Recollections of Trauma: Scientific Evidence and Clinical Practice. New York: Plenum Press. Nash. M.J., M. Drake, R. Wiley, S. Khalsa, and S.J. Lynn. 1986. The accu­ racy of recall of hypnotically age regressed subjects. Journal of Abnormal American Medical Association. 1994. Council on Scientific Affairs. Memories Psychology 95: 298-300. of Childhood Abuse. CSA Report 5-A-94. Olson. H.A. 1979. The hypnotic retrieval of early recollections. In HA. American Psychological Association. 1995. Psychotherapy guidelines for work­ Olson (Ed.), Early Recollections: Their Use in Diagnosis and Psychotherapy. ing with clients who may have an abuse or trauma history. Division 17 Com­ Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. mittee on Women, Division 42 Trauma and Gender Issues Committee. Bass. E., and L. Davis. 1988. The Courage to Heal New York: Harper & Row. Papanek, H. 1979. The use of early recollections in psychotherapy. In H.A. Olson (Ed.), Early Recollections: Their Use in Diagnosis and Psychotherapy. Blume, E.S. 1990. Secret Survivors: Uncovering Incest and Its Aftereffects in Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. Women. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Canadian Psychiatric Association. 1996, March 25. Position statement: Adult Polusny, M.A, and V.M. Follette. 1996. Remembering childhood sexual abuse: recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Canadian Journal of A national survey of psychologists' clinical practices, beliefs, and personal Psychiatry A 1:305-306. experiences. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 27: 41-52. DuBreuil, S.C., M. Garry, and E.E Loftus. 1998. Tales from die crib: Age- Poole. D.A., D.S. Lindsay, A. Memon, and R. Bull. 1995. Psychotherapists' regression and die creation of unlikely memories. In S.J. Lynn and K.M. opinions, practices, and experiences with recovery of memories of inces­ McConkey (Eds.), Truth in Memory. Washington, D.C.: American tuous abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68: 426—437. Psychological Association. Porter, S., J.C. Yuille, and D.R. Lehman. 1999. The nature of real, implanted, Emery, C.L. 2002. The validity of childhood sexual abuse victim checklists in and fabricated childhood emotional events: Implications for the recovered popular psychology literature: A Barnum effect. Unpublished honors the­ memory debate. Law and Human Behavior 23: 517-537. sis, Emory University, Atlanta. Roland, C.B. 1993. Exploring childhood memories with adult survivors of Erdelyi. M. 1994. Hypnotic hypcrmncsia: The empty set of hypcrmnesia. sexual abuse: Concrete reconstruction and visualization techniques. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 42: 379-390. Journal of Mental Health Counseling 15: 363-372. Fisher. R.P.. and R.E. Geiselman. 1992. Memory Enhancement Techniques for Shobe, K.K., and J.F. Kihlstrom. 1997. Is traumatic memory special? Investigative Interviewing. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. Current Directions in Psychological Science 6: 70-74. Fredrickson. R. 1992. Repressed Memories. New York: Fireside /Parkside. Sivec, H.J., S.J. Lynn, and P.T. Malinowski. 1997. Hypnosis in the cabbage Frontline. 1995. Divided memories. Producer Ofra Bikel. patch: Age tegression with verifiable events. Unpublished manuscript. Hyman, I.E. Jr., T.H. Husband, and F.J. Billings. 1995. False memories of State University of New York at Binghamton. childhood experiences. Applied Cognitive Psychology 9: 181-197. Spanos, N.P 1996. Multiple Identities and False Memories: A Sociocognitive Lindsay, D. S., and D. Read. 1994. Psychotherapy and memories of child­ Perspective. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association hood sexual abuse: A cognitive perspective. Applied Cognitive Psychology Spanos. N.P., CA. Burgess. M.F. Burgess, C. Samuels, and WO. Blois. 1999. 8: 281-338. Creating false memories of infancy with hypnotic and nonhypnotic pro­ Littrell, J. 1998. Is the experience of painful emotion therapeutic? Clinical cedures. Applied Cognitive Psychology 13: 201-218. Psychology Review 18: 71-102. Spanos. N.P., E. Menary. M.J. Gabora, S.C. DuBreuil, and B. Dewhirst. Loftus, E.F. 1993. The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist 1991. Secondary identity enactments during hypnotic past-life regression: 48: 518-537. A sociocognitivc perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Loftus, 1.1.. and G. Mazzoni. 1998. Using imagination and personalized sug­ 61: 308-320. gestion to change behavior. Behavior Therapy 29: 691-708. Steblay, N.M., and R.K. Bothwell. 1994. Evidence for hypnotically refreshed Loftus, E.F., and J.E. Pickrell. 1995. The formation of false memories. testimony: The view from the laboratory. Law and Human Behavior Psychiatric Annals 25: 720-725. 18: 635-651. Lynn, S.J.. I. Kitsch. A. Barabasz, E. Cardena, and D. Patterson. 2000. Tavris, C. 1993. Beware the incest survivor machine. New York Times Book Hypnosis as an empirically supported adjunctive technique: The state of Review, January 3. pp. 1, 16-17. the evidence. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis Van der Kolk. BA. 1994. The body keeps the score: Memory and the evolv­ 48: 343-361 ing psychobiology of posttraumatic stress. Harvard Review of Psychiatry Lynn, S.J., T.G. Lock. B. Myers, and D.G. Payne. 1997. Recalling the unrc- 1: 253-265. callablc: Should hypnosis be used to recover memories in psychotherapy? Weiss, B.L 1988. Many Lives, Many Masters. New York: Simon & Schuster. Current Directions in Psychological Science 6: 79-53. Yapko, M.D. 1994. Suggestibility and repressed memories of abuse: A survey of Lynn, S.J., B. Myers, and P. Malinowski. 1997. Hypnosis, pseudomemories. psychotherapists' beliefs. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 36:163-171Q

46 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER BOOK REVIEWS

Required Reading Regarding the Creation ism Controversy PETER LAMAL

Denying Evolution: Creationism, Scientism, and the Nature of Science. By Massimo Pigliucci. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass., 2002. ISBN 0-87893-659-9. 338 pages. Paperback, $24.95.

hy do so many Americans of creationism, with special attention to deny evolution? What can Denying Evolution intelligent design (ID) theory, a rela­ Wbe done about this state of Creationism, tively new form that reached promi­ affairs? These are the fundamental ques­ Scientism, nence in the mid-1990s. He gives ID and the detailed attention because of the sophis­ tions comprising the foundation for Nature of Massimo Pigliucci's Denying Evolution. Science ticated intellectual challenge it poses. Pigliucci is an evolutionary biologist at Pigliucci says anti-intellectualism, the University of Tennessee and a veteran which Richard Hofstadter (in Anti- of public debates with evolution deniers. intellectualism in American Life, 1963) Blaming the public for the pervasive demonstrated is as old as colonial New denial of evolution is not productive. England, is at the very basis of the Rather, the "abysmal failure" of our edu­ creation-evolution controversy. Pigli­ cational system must be addressed, par­ ucci describes five categories of anti- ticularly by scientist-educators. intellectualism and contrasts those with Pigliucci prefers the term "evolution scientism. Scientism is "the fundamental denial" to "creationism" because the lat­ belief that science can do no wrong and ter is not a viable theory of anything. will ultimately answer any question Instead, creationism is a form of denial, worth answering while in the process analogous to the denial of the Holocaust. Massimo PtgNucd saving humankind as a bonus." Not Starting widi Darwin, Huxley, and only is such hubris offputting to many, it Hooker's publicity campaign in favor of In my view, this is much too opti­ is also erroneous. Pigliucci argues that Darwin's The Origin of Species, Pigliucci mistic an attitude. It fails to appreciate science is not a body of knowledge; the oudines major features of the evolution the deep positive emotional effect pro­ knowledge commonly referred to as "sci­ controversy and discusses evolution duced by a belief in special creation. In entific" is a product of science but does deniers such as William Dembski and principle, there could never be evidence not define it. In contrast to science-as- Michael Behe. He believes that ignorance sufficient enough and arguments persua­ knowledge, science is a method of of the history of the controversy over evo­ sive enough to convince true believers uncovering and provisionally explaining lution is what hampers any progress (unfelicitously, true deniers) to subscribe observations about the world as well as toward a resolution of the evolution- to evolution. Or, if it is accepted, it will predicting future observations. This is creation controversy. be on condition that at least at some one of the most important points that point there was divine intervention. As Pigliucci makes, and the term provision­ Peter Lamal is emeritus professor of psy­ Pigliucci points out, the controversy is ally is critical. One of the fundamental chology at the University of North really not about science but about phi­ attractions of religion is that it provides Carolina-Charlotte, and a Fellow of the losophy and religion. In my view, the certainty while science does not. Division of Behavior Analysis of the best we can hope for is that those who Pigliucci next describes and discuss­ American Psychological Association. are wavering may be persuaded. es eleven creationist fallacies, includ­ E-mail: plamal@carolina. rr.com. Pigliucci outlines the many varieties ing the fallacy that evolution "is just a

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 47 BOOK REVIEWS

theory." Another fallacy fundamental to will never have the desired effect. widi a tailored tapping "algorithm" that the creation-evolution debate is that sci­ What is to be done? Improve science will eliminate your problems in a matter ence is a religion. education. Presumably diere are individu­ of moments. You decide to give it a try. Three major components of the con­ als who can be convinced dirough better Sound far-fetched? This scenario actu­ troversy almost invariably come up: the education. In die final chapter, Pigliucci ally is more common than most people second principle of thermodynamics; the lists and describes fourteen steps that must realize. In a previous article, ("Can We origin of life; and the Cambrian explo­ be taken in order to make progress in the Really Tap Away Our Problems? A Critical sion of species. Pigliucci discusses and creation-evolution controversy. Analysis of Thought Field Therapy," by refutes die creationist claims about each. The book concludes with an appen­ B.A. Gaudiano and J.D. Herbert, A short but critical chapter is devoted dix consisting of an introduction to, and July/August 2000) I discussed the treat­ to scientific fallacies. Pigliucci says that excerpts from, David Hume's Dialogues ment described above, called Thought "it is time that scientists face what both Concerning Natural Religion, where the Field Therapy (TFT). Of course, it pos­ creationists, and philosophers and soci­ topic of intelligent design is discussed. A sesses no more scientific validation now ologists of science, have been telling second appendix reproduces the speech dian it did when I originally reviewed it, them for some time now. Science is a that William Jennings Bryan planned to but the so-called "energy" psychology human activity, and as such it is fallible." make as his closing argument in the movement sparked by TFT continues to Perhaps the most serious fallacy that sci­ Scopes Trial. grow. Unfortunately, TFT is only one of a entists and educators commit, Pigliucci Denying Evolution is a must read for long and growing list of therapies cur- avers, is the rationalistic fallacy. This is anyone interested in die continuing saga rendy being marketed to a public in search the notion that all you need to do is of die creation-evolution controversy. I of quick relief from mental health prob­ explain things a little bit better and peo­ also recommend Michael Ruse's The lems and possessing litde empirical sup­ ple will see the light. But for many evo­ Evolution Wars (Rutgers University Press, port of safety or efficacy. The list of ques­ lution deniers, explaining things better 2000) to accompany Denying Evolution. tionable treatments is becoming quite long indeed: Eye Movement Desensi- The Disease of tization and Reprocessing, Critical Science and Incident Stress Debriefing, Rebirthing Pseudoscience Pseudoscience and Therapy, Emotion Freedom Techniques, in Be Set Free Fast, Touch and Breathe, Clinical the Hope for a Cure Neurolinguistic Programming, Auditory Integration Training, Dolphin-Assisted Psychology) BRANDON A. GAUDIANO Therapy, Facilitated Communication, Past Life Therapy, Recovered Memory Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. By Scott Therapy, and Alien Abduction Therapy, • CO' ' O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, and Jeffrey M. Lohr just to name a few. (Eds.) Guilford Press, New York. ISBN: 1-57230-282-1, It is within this context diat psycholo­ Hardcover, 474 pp., $42. gists Scott Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, magine that you have been experienc­ Anxiety in Minutes." You learn of a self- and Jeffrey Lohr present Science and ing a deep and persistent depression anointed "revolutionary" new treatment Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. Social Ifor die last few months and you real­ that can eliminate depression and anxiety psychologist Carol Tavris contributes the ize that it is time to seek professional in a matter of minutes without dangerous foreword, and sets a somewhat pessimistic help. But first you decide to do a litde medications. The Web site informs you (but necessary) tone as she briefs readers research and search the Internet for the diat your depression is caused by an as to why both professionals and layper­ best treatment for your condition. A Web energy "perturbation" in your "thought sons need to pay attention to die public site catches your eye, promising field" diat can be corrected easily dirough health direats caused by unscientific treat­ "Permanent Relief from Depression and simple techniques. In fact, all diat you ment approaches. She proposes a possible have to do is tap on certain body points impetus for the growth of pseudoscience Brandon A. Gaudiano, MA., is pursu­ as directed to "rebalance" your energy within clinical psychology—die long- ing his Ph.D. in clinical psychology at and your mood. You find out diat you lamented scientist-practitioner gap. Tavris Drexel University Address correspondence may not even have to leave your house, as asserts rhat fundamental deficiencies exist to Department of Psychology, Drexel die Web site claims diat a dierapist can in die training of clinicians, where the University, 245 N. 15th, Mail Stop talk to you over die phone, diagnose your practice of psychology is often divorc­ 988, Philadelphia, PA 19102. E-mail: specific energy disruption by looking at a ed from the science of psychology. This brandon.gaudiano@drexeLedu. visual display of your voice, and come up science-practice gulf produces dierapists

48 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER BOOK REVIEWS easily duped by sham treatments in die tend that acquiring a Ph.D. somehow and threats in recent yean. quest to earn a respectable living in an age immunizes me from the errors of sam­ The final part of the book focuses on of managed care. pling, perception, recording, retention, pseudoscience in the media, including die In Chapter 1, the editors present a retrieval, and inference to which the self-help movement. Nona Wilson pro­ more optimistic analysis of die situation human mind is subject." vides a cogent argument for better repre­ and state that the book aims to assist read­ The next three parts of the book sentation of the mental health field to the ers of various backgrounds with the cover controversies in psychotherapy and public Little wonder that the public is ill- "important task of distinguishing tech­ treatment. A host of respected scholars, informed about empirically supported niques in clinical psychology that are sci­ including memory researcher Elizabeth treatments when most of their knowledge entifically supported or promising from those that are scientifically unsupported or untested." Even though they concur Issues involving the efficacy of trauma that the state of affairs within the field at treatments have become increasingly urgent in the times can look rather grim, they assert that this is not an intractable problem and wake of terrorism acts and threats in recent years. suggest education as a possible remedy. The editors point out that nonvali- Loftus, present discussions on recovered of mental health issues comes direcdy from dated therapeutic techniques can actu­ memories. The authors conclude that the likes of "Dr. Phil" McGraw, radio show ally be dangerous and even lethal. The the inappropriate use of techniques such host "Dr. Laura" Schlessinger (whose doc­ 2000 death of a girl in Colorado at the as hypnosis and guided imagery can fos­ torate is in physiology and not psychology hands of her therapists using "rebirth- ter false memories in vulnerable patients. or psychiatry), relationship "expert" John ing" therapy is but one example. The Much harm has been done by practi­ Gray (who holds no professional license), editors note that unscientific practices tioners who have unwittingly promoted and motivational guru Tony Robbins (a are harmful in other ways as well. For false claims of abuse based on supposedly practitioner of the pseudoscientific Neuro- example, individuals may get discour­ recovered memories. Another chapter linguistic Programming). aged after trying several treatments with­ includes a review of the countless sham The editors have presented the evi­ out success, and this can keep diem from treatments for autism and other develop­ dence in as fair and balanced a way as trying an empirically supported therapy mental disorders. Facilitated Com­ possible. They urged contributors to that might actually be beneficial. munication is but one example of a dis­ remain objective and dispassionate in Each of the book's five sections repre­ credited technique for autism. their presentations, attempted to provide sent major areas of controversy. Part I Perhaps the worst victims of pseudo- constructive criticism, and chose not to discusses questionable assessment prac­ science are those who were actual victims only debunk these techniques when nec­ tices and diagnostic entities. This of a life-threatening traumatic event essary, but also to discuss techniques that includes critiques of common "projec­ and who continue to suffer from the are scientifically supported. Further­ tive" tests such as the Rorschach Inkblot residual effects of that experience. more, each chapter contains a glossary of Test, and of controversial diagnoses such Chapter 9 reviews some of the most terms to aid the reader in die sometimes as Multiple Personality Disorder popular but controversial treatments dense terminology. Although the book is (MPD). Part I also provides some of the "trauma industry," including Eye accessible to the nonprofessional, the understanding of why clinicians may fall Movement Desensitization and Repro­ volume is most appropriate for the men­ prey to errors in judgment, leading to cessing, Thought Field Therapy, and tal health professional or student. erroneous beliefs like the diagnostic Critical Incident Stress Debriefing The editors conclude with recom­ power of the Rorschach or the validity (CISD). CISD was originally developed mendations for combating the current of MPD. Howard Garb and Patricia as a brief group intervention with the state of pseudoscience in the field Boyle review the evidence from a wealth laudable goal of preventing the develop­ through increased educational and pro­ of experimental studies showing just ment of posttraumatic stress disorder fessional efforts. This book is the first how poor our judgment can be when after a traumatic event. However, several major volume devoted to a discussion of based solely on experience. Many cogni­ controlled trials of CISD suggest that the science and pseudoscience within the tive biases cloud our interpretations, treatment is inert at best and harmful at field of clinical psychology, and hope­ requiring the use of objective methods worst when conducted as originally pro­ fully can help guide both professionals and controls. Clinicians are no more im­ posed (Lancet 360 [9335]: 766-771, and patients toward valid treatments. If mune from these biases than laypersons. 2002). Issues involving the efficacy of the patient is clinical psychology and the Psychologist Paul Meehl put it this way: trauma treatments have become increas­ disease is pseudoscience, this book is "It is absurd, as well as arrogant, to pre­ ingly urgent in the wake of terrorism acts part of the treatment.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/Augusl 2003 49 JULY/AUGUST 2000 (vol. 24, no. 4): Thought Field Therapy: Can we really tap our problems away?, FILL IN THE GAPS IN YOUR Gaudiano and Herbert I Absolute skepticism equals dogmatism, Bunge I Did a close encounter of the third kind occur on a Japanese beach in 1803?, Tanaira / Rethinking the dancing mania. Bartho/omew / Has sci­ Skeptical Inquirer COLLECTION ence education become an enemy of scientific ratio­ nality?, Ede I Krakatene: Explosive pseudoscience from • 15% discount on orders of $100 or more • the Czech Academy of science. Slanina I David Bohm • $6.25 a copy. Vols. 1-18 ($5.00 Vols. 19-25). To order, use reply card insert • and Krishnamurti. Gardner. MAY/JUNE 2000 (vol. 24, no. 3): Special Report: The new bogus MJ-12 documents, Klass I Mass delusions and hysterias of the past millennium, Bartho/omew MAY/JUNE 2003 (vol. 27, no. 3): The Luck Factor. Wise­ Educational malpractice. Moore / Philosophers and and Goode I Doomsday fears at RHIC. Guiterrez / Save man I More hazards: Hypnosis, airplanes, and strongly psychics: The Vandy episode, Oldfield I CSICOP 25th our science: The struggle for rationality at a French held beliefs. Pankratz I 'Premenstrual dysphoric disor­ Anniversary section: The origins and evolution of CSI­ university, Broch / Paraneuroscience?. Kirkland I der' and 'premenstrual syndrome' COP, Nisbet I Never a dull moment. Karr Bohm's guided wave theory, Gardner. myths, flora and Sellers I A patently I John Edward: Hustling the bereaved. MARCH/APRIL 2000 (vol. 24, no. 2): Risky business: false patent myth—still!. Sass I Wired to Nickell I Ernest Hemingway and Jane. Vividness, availability, and the media paradox, Ruscio I the kitchen sink. Hall I Mediumship Gardner. Physics and the paranormal, 't Hooft / Efficacy of claim responses, Schwartz and Hyman / prayer, Tessman and Tessman I Can we tell if someone Dowsing mysterious sites. Nickell. SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2001 (vol. 25, no. 5): Special Issue: Science and Religion is staring at us?, Baker I Assessing the quality of med­ MARCH/APRIL 2003 (vol. 27. no. 2): The 2001. Holy wars. Tyson I The dangerous ical Web sites, lev; / The demon-haunted sentence, Blank Slate, Pinker I Omission neglect: quest for cooperation between science Byrne and Normand I Mad messiahs. Gardner. The importance of missing information, and religion. Pandian I Design yes, intel­ JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000 (vol. 24. no. 1): Special Kardes and Sanbonmatsu I Acupunc­ ligent no, Pigliucci I A way of life for Report The ten outstanding skeptics of the twentieth ture, magic and make-believe. Ulett I agnostics?. Lovelock I Science, religioi century/Two paranormalisms or two and a half?. Goode Walt Whitman. Sloan I The James and the Galileo affair, Moy I The god Harry Houdini. Nisbet IA psychological / The religious views of Stephen Gould aclysm. Brass / The Mad Gasser of Mattoon, Ladendorf case of 'demon' and 'alien' visitation, and Charles Darwin, Gardner. and Bartholomew I Moscow mysteries, Nickell. Reisner I Distant healing and Elizabeth Targ, Gardner. MAY/JUNE 1999 (vol. 23. no. 3): Special MAY/JUNE 2002 (vol. 26. no. 3): Who abused Jane Section: Urban legends. The snuff film. Doe? Part 1. loftus and Guyer I Is the Mars Effect a JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2001 (vol. 25, no. Stine I Bitter harvest: The organ-snatch­ social effect?, Dean I Gray Barker's book of bunk. 1): Special Section: Issues in Alternative ing urban legends, Radford I Bigfoot's Sherwood / The king of quacks: Albert Abrams. M.D.. Medicine: Medicine wars. Seidman I screen test. Daegling and Schmitt I Haines I Benny Hinn: Healer or hypnotist?. Nickell. Herbal medicines and dietary supple­ Tracking Bigfoot on the Internet Zuefle ments, Allen I Psychoactive herbal med­ I Statement analysis, Shearer I NAGPRA. MARCH/APRIL 2002 (vol. 26. no. 2): Special Reports: ications, Spinella I Chiropractic, Homola science, and the demon-haunted world, Bioterrorism and alternative medicine. Atwood I I Damaged goods? Science and child Clark I Urine therapy. Gardner. •Moihman- solved' Nickell I Bigfoot at fifty. Radford I sexual abuse, Hagen / Special Report: Cripplefoot hobbled. Daegling I Pseudohistory in Science indicators 2000 / Facilitated MARCH/APRIL 1999 (vol. 23, no. 2): ancient coins. Carrier I Are science and religion com­ communication. Gardner. Special Report: The ten-percent myth. Radford I patible?, Kurtz I The emptiness of holism, Ruscio I Superstition and the regression effect. Kruger. Undercover among the spirits, Nickell. NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2000 (vol. 24. no. 6): The face Savitsky. and Gilovich I Psychology of the seance. behind the Face on Mars. Posner I The new paranat- Wiseman I Dowsing and archaeology, van Leusen I JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2002 (vol. 26, no. 1): Myths of ural paradigm, Kurtz I Francis Bacon and the true ends Hidden messages in DNA?. Larhammar and murder and multiple regression, Goertzel I Education, of skepticism, friedberg I Worlds in collision: Where Chatzidimitriou I The real Chief Seattle was not a spir­ scientific knowledge, and belief in the paranormal. reality meets the paranormal. Radford I Why bad itual ecologist. Abruzzi I Joint pain and weather. Quick Goode / A university's struggle with chiropractic beliefs don't die. Lester I Supernatural power and cul­ I Acupressure, zone therapy, and reflexology. Gardner. DeRobertis I Snaring the Fowler: Mark Twain debunks tural evolution. Layng I The brutality of Dr. phrenology. Lopez I Three skeptics' debate tools Bettelheim, Gardner. JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1999 (vol. 23. no. 1): Special examined, Caso I Mickey Mouse discovers the 'real' Report: Armageddon and the prophets of doomsday. Atlantis. Hardersen I Atlantis behind the myth. SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2000 (vol. 24. no. 5): Voodoo Fears of the apocalypse. Kurtz I The Bible and the Christopher 110th European Skeptics Congress report. science and the belief gene. Park I Rogerian Nursing prophets of doom. Larue I Science and pseudoscience Mahner I Voodoo in New Orleans. MUM / Some Theory. Raskin I Sun sign columns. Dean and Mather I in Russia, Kapitza I Testing dowsing: The failure of the thoughts on induction. Gardner. The psychic staring effect. Marks and Colwell I Munich experiments, Enright IA fallibilist among the Management of positive and negative responses in a cynics, Haack I The internet: A world brain?, Gardner. NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2001 (vol. 25. no. 6): A cri­ spiritualist medium consultation. Greasley I The laws tique of Schwartz et al.'s after-death communication of nature: A skeptic's guide. Pazameta I Special studies, Wiseman and O'Keeffe I Magical thinking in Report' On ear cones and candles. Kaushall and For a complete listing of our back issues, call 800-634- complementary and alternative medicine. Stevens / Kaushall I Little Red Riding Hood. Gardner. 1610. or see http://www.cskop.org/si/back-issues.htnil. BOOK REVIEWS

organizations, like academia and CSICOP, A Ramshackle Attempt must not only abolish the paranormal, but also any serious thought about it. to Validate Psi As he says on page 365, "The agenda of MARTIN BRIDGSTOCK rationalization faces an almost insur­ mountable problem—die serious study of The Trickster and the Paranormal By George P. Hansen. magic has a magical influence. Thus the Xlibris Corporation, Philadelphia, 2001. ISBN 1-4010- disenchantment process must eliminate 0082-7, 564 pp. Softcover, $22.94. not only magic, but also serious consider­ ation of it." This is a big, big thesis. To support it, he Trickster and the Paranormal nality to psychic phenomena. He argues Hansen gallops over huge areas of die is an ambitious book. There are that the paranormal is intrinsically lim­ social and psychological sciences, as well over 400 pages of text and argu­ inal, and so leads to chaos, fraud, and as literary criticism, hoaxes, totemism, T reflexivity, and government disinforma­ ment, more than 700 references and incompatibility with established institu­ nearly fifty pages of notes. Author tions. In one sense, skeptics can accept tion. He gives details of a UFO case he investigated and debunked. He also dis­ George Hansen states his central thesis this easily. The paranormal has many of the attributes of liminality. It has large- cusses academia, CSICOP, and hoaxing. early on: that "psychic phenomena are scale public acceptance, but is not However, skeptics are likely to focus on associated with processes of destructur- ing." The rest of the book supports and explains this cryptic utterance. Two ideas are central to Hansen's Hansen believes that "psi is irrational, but it is argument. One is the "liminal," also also real." That is, the chaotic and dishonest termed the "interstitial." This is the property of being outside normal intel­ events in the paranormal field do not stem from lectual and social structures, or on the its marginal position, but from the nature of boundaries between them. The second key idea is that of die "trickster," a con­ the phenomena themselves. stellation of traits which includes dis­ honesty, playfulness, and sexual and scatological misbehavior. Where there is regarded as established. It has whole one issue: the evidence. Hansen's diesis liminality—where normal structures industries devoted to it, but little in the rests on die claim diat psi is bodi real and and boundaries break down—there is way of strong evidence in its support. It intrinsically chaotic. Does he present the province of the trickster. is widely advocated, but not respectable. enough evidence to take this seriously? These may well be useful ideas. To Therefore, we might predict that chaos In my judgment, Hansen fails diis think at all, we need distinctions and and fraud would be the consequences. crucial test. Only one chapter in the categories. Where concepts breach cate­ However, Hansen's diesis is much book—out of twenty-six—is devoted to gories, intellectual and social problems stronger than this. He believes diat "psi die evidence for psychic ability, and half can arise. It is easy to think of examples. is irrational, but it is also real." That is, of diis chapter is concerned with con­ Are transsexuals men or women? Are the chaotic and dishonest events in the cepts and theories. For more evidence, teenagers adults or children? Is a patient paranormal field do not stem from its Hansen refers die reader to an enormous in an irreversible coma dead or alive? marginal position, but from the nature paper by Palmer, but diis was published Liminality constantly challenges our of the phenomena themselves. In the in 1977, a quarter-century ago! For a the­ ways of thinking, and serves up possibil­ field of parapsychology, effects are unre­ ory of diis magnitude, it is reasonable to ities for confusion and misbehavior. liable and unlimited by time or space. expect a comprehensive and up-to-date Hansen applies the concept of limi- The results of a psychic experiment may review of the evidence, statement of be affected by the experimental subject, objections and counter-arguments, and a Martin Bridgstock is a Scientific and the experimenter, and by anyone else in reasoned conclusion. We do not get this, Technical Consultant to CSICOP. He is a the universe, past or present. Therefore, and so the heart of Hansen's thesis must Senior Lecturer in Science, Technology Hansen argues, the paranormal is intrin­ simply be regarded as suspect. and Society at Griffith University in sically liminal and chaotic, and not sub­ The book has other faults. It is repet­ Queensland, Australia, and can be ject to rational ways of analysis. In his itive, sprawling, and obscure. We are reached at [email protected]. view, this means that essentially rational told the same things repeatedly, and it is

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 51 BOOK REVIEWS

often impossible to work out what proceedings. That gives the reader a narrow-mindedness. However, on many Hansen is saying, or why. The best way view of the central theme, and also the other occasions he relies upon academic to read the book is suggested by Michael major weakness in Hansen's case. research, and in these cases the researchers receive high praise, usually without it being mentioned that they work in academia. Hansen's writing sometimes gives the impression The book really needs a strong edit of great resentment. He is particularly bilious and re-write. A better book might be 100 pages shorter and have a stronger toward academics, repeatedly making claims section arguing for the validity of psi. about their narrow-mindedness. Hansen's concepts of liminality and the trickster are valuable when applied to the paranormal. However, die book has failed to make its main claims plau­ Grosso, a reviewer for the Journal of Hansen's writing sometimes gives the sible, and both die bile and the lengthy Parapsychology, read the conclusion first, impression of great resentment. He is rambles through marginally related and read chapter 21—presenting the particularly bilious toward academics, fields render the argument less than laboratory evidence for psi—early in the repeatedly making claims about their totally convincing. • SCIENCE BEST SELLERS Top Ten Best Sellers in New York

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Merriam-Webster's Collegiate The Art of War Dictionary 10 Samuel B. Griffith/Sun Tzu Merriam-Webster, Inc. Oxford University Press

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52 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER NEW BOOKS

Listing does not preclude future review. Bartholomew (a sociologist) and Radford life after death, laboratory parapsychology, (SKEPTICAL INQUIRER'S managing editor) astrology, UFOs, alien astronauts, faith heal­ Has Science Found show that cultural assumptions play a large ing, and special topics in pseudosciencc God? The Latest Re­ part in our judgments and that critical rea­ (autism and facilitated communication, crc- sults in the Search for soning is the best means of ensuring an ationism, dowsing, graphology, etc.). Purpose in the Universe. objective perspective. Heavily referenced so readers can easily Victor J. Stenger. Pro­ locate primary sources. metheus Books, 59 John Mysterious Creatures: Glenn Drive, Amherst, A Guide to Crypto- Nightwork: A History of Hacks and Pranks NY 14228, 2003. 373 P>*1 zoology. George M. at MIT. T.F. Peterson. The MIT Press, Five pp. $30, hardcover. "Sci­ Eberhart. ABC-CLIO Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142. ence Finds God," Newsweek blared on its Inc., 130 Cremona Dr., 2003. 176 pp. $19.95. softcover. Massa­ July 20, 1998, cover. Has it? Victor Stenger Mt f. ... P.O. Box 1911, Santa chusetts Institute of Technology, in addition (University of Hawaii and University of Barbara, CA 93116- to being one of the country's most presti­ Colorado) draws on his forty years as an 1911. 2002. 722 pp. gious educational institutions, also has a rich experimental physicist and his perspective in $185, hardcover. This two-volume encyclo­ tradition of hacking. Before this term writing two previous books on science/reli­ pedic set covers hundreds of mysterious crea­ became associated with computers, it meant gion issues to critically examine the con­ tures, including the most famous ones— any sort of prank, practical joke, or other tention. Specifically he applies science, rea­ Bigfoot, the Loch Ness Monster, and such mischief. MIT historian T.F. Peterson son, and evidence to the question of the exis­ Champ—but also a surprisingly wide variety has assembled a collection of hacks and tence of God or some transcendent element of obscure animals as well. Each creature is pranks ranging from hilarious sign deface­ to the universe that would have significant, classified according to variant names, ments to the placement of police cars and observable effects. He particularly deals with description, distribution, behavior, etc. The cows on top of domed buildings. The book empirically based theories on the origin and entries arc fairly objective, and list the best includes plenty of photographs, commen­ nature of the universe and its laws; those on explanations for the sightings. The criteria taries by current and former hackers, and an the origin and nature of life; and direct for inclusion as a "mysterious creature" are overview of the traditions. A good reminder empirical claims for God or the supernat­ perhaps too liberal, with some entries based that scientists and scholars have a sense of ural. Despite the vast number of extraordi­ on little more than one folkloric source (and humor too. nary discoveries in physics over the past four creatures such as leprechauns, elves, and decades—and despite the over-hyped media fairies are listed). Complete with a compre­ proclamations contending that science has hensive geographical index, a listing of lake Science and Religion: found religion—Stenger finds that the theo­ and river monsters by region, and a lengthy Are They Compatible? ries developed to describe the past forty years section on animals discovered since 1900. Edited by Paul Kurtz. of discoveries "provide a comprehensive pic­ this is an excellent (though prohibitively Prometheus Books, 2003. ture of the nature of a purely material uni­ expensive) resource for those interested in 365 pp. $20, softcover. verse that is consistent with all existing data." unknown creatures. KI-I.KilON Collection of articles on the ever-present tensions between science and reli­ Hoaxes, Myths, and gion from the SKEPTICAL HOAXES, Manias: Why We Need INQUIRERS two much-discussed Science and MYTHS, I AND I Critical Thinking. Robert Religion issues (1999) and (2001). the CSI- MANIAS! E. Bartholomew and COP/Center for Inquiry Science and Benjamin Radford. Pro­ seudosclence and the Religion conference in Atlanta in 2001. the metheus Books. 2003. 229 Paranormal, Second Edi­ Fourth World Skeptics Congress (2002), Free pp, $20, softcover. A series tion. Terence Hines. Pro­ Inquiry magazine, and other sources. of case studies in critical metheus Books, 2003. 500 Contributors include Stephen Jay Gould, thinking, intended so that readers can exam­ P pp. $21, softcover. An Richard Dawkins, Arthur C. Clarke, Nobel ine some quite specific topics along with the updated and expanded laureates Steven Weinberg and Richard authors and see where they lead. The authors edition of a useful text and Feynman, Owen Gingerich, Steven Pinker, even urge readers to question or challenge guide to pseudosciencc William Dembski. Neil de Grasse Tyson, the authors' own analyses of the topics, a and the paranormal first published in 1988. James Lovelock, Eugenie Scott, Martin practice that is a key hallmark of science. Hines, a psychologist (Pace University), has Gardner, Daniel C. Dennett, Morton Hunt, The topics include the Martian panic of added two new chapters (on alternative med­ Chet Raymo, Taner Edis, Victor Stenger, and 1938, the Roswell "flying saucer" crash of icine and the actual science of collective others. Includes sections on Cosmology and 1947, the "mad gasser" of Mattoon, die delusions and mass hysterias about alleged God, Intelligent Design (Creation vs. "jumping Frenchmen" of Maine, New Eng­ environmental health scares such as power Evolution), Religion and Science in Conflict. land's great airship hoax, genital-shrinking lines. PCBs. and cell phone radiation). He Science and Ethics: Two Magisteria, The scares, the dancing mania of the Middle has also added new sections (such as polyg- Scientific Investigation of Paranatural Claims, Ages, the birthplace of the flying saucer. raphy) to previous chapters, rctitlcd the pre­ Scientific Explanations of Religious Belief, England's black helicopters, and India's vious "Psychoanalysis" chapter to "Pseudo- and Accommodating Science and Religion. "Monkey Man" mania. A final chapter is on psychology" to indicate the broader scope of "How to Recognize Mass Delusions." quack psychotherapies. and updated and —Kendrick Frazier and Benjamin Radford expanded other chapters as needed. Major topics covered, in addition to those already mentioned, include the nature of pseudo­ SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 53 sciencc, psychics and psychic phenomena. FORUM

The Butterfly Theory of Truth

ROBERT McHENRY

obody doesn't believe in the or less asymptotic to it, while yet others You have your tough-minded types with truth. Some people seemingly profess to believe that it doesn't exist but stringent criteria—scientists, scholars, Ncan take it or leave it alone, simultaneously believe that profession Missourians—and then you have those and some learn through long practice to to be true. Scratch hard enough—it with looser requirements. Down toward profit from walking a line that is more never need be terribly hard—and every- this latter end of the spectrum are folks who are more than ordinarily apt to confuse the wish and the deed, the belief Among those who confess not only to a and the fact. Among these are those who buy most of the books that are found in belief in the truth but to an interest in it, the Self-Hclp and New Age sections of there is likewise a range of opinion as to the bookstore. To an observer with a little training in what qualifies as truth. epistemology, these two groups of book- buyers might seem to be profoundly and permanently divided by their disagree­ one is a believer. Human consciousness ment on a fundamental issue, the ques­ is simply not otherwise sustainable. tion of where the truth resides. The Self- Among those who confess not only to a Helpers are persuaded that The Truth Lies belief in the truth but to an interest in it, Within, while the New Agers are equally there is likewise a range of opinion as to certain that The Truth is Out There. But what qualities as truth. while this is an issue for philosophers, it is not for these readers. It is a trivial distinc­ tion raised to a difference by the shelving conventions of bookstores. These same observers with a little phi­ losophy may recall that there is some­ thing called the Correspondence Theory of Truth, and something else called the Identity Theory, and a Coherence Theory, and a bunch of others. The Self- Helpers and New Agers show their true

Robert McHenry is a former editor in chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He has a longstanding interest in how we know things and why we believe that we do. His Web site is www.howtoknow.com.

54 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER FORUM

solidarity in rejecting (more accurately, areas. What became apparent only over diink, wouldn't you, that after the first proceeding in happy ignorance of) these the course of some months was that dozen or so books failed to satisfy, these and the entire tradition they represent in many of these customers were repeat cus­ readers would reconsider their line of favor of something much more conge­ tomers in a highly tegular way. Whereas attack? But they didn't. Out in a single nial, somediing 1 am calling the Butterfly Theory of Truth. I take some liberties in calling it that, of course. The Butterfly Theory is not a theory in the sense diat it The central, unexpressed tenet of the Butterfly consists of a set of related propositions, or Theory is that the truth is ever-elusive. Like a that some theorist has set forth a system­ atic exposition and defense of it, includ­ butterfly, it flits from place to place, alighting ing considerations of likely objections. perhaps for a moment here but then skittering Rather it is somediing like what John Dewey called a "theory in action," which over to there, never settling anywhere. is to say a summary inferred by an out­ side observer to rationalize the behavior of people who haven't spared the time to someone looking for a copy of, say, / is shopping bag would go, and some lime consider it themselves. for Innocent or The Rider of Lost Creek later back would come, a book on aro­ The central, unexpressed tenet of the would find or ask for that title, buy it, matherapy, two on healing relationships, Butterfly Theory is that the truth is ever- and leave, the Self-Help and New Age a couple on addiction and enablement, elusive. Like a butterfly, it flits from place people behaved differently. Often they some diets, cancer cures, and interper­ to place, alighting perhaps for a moment hadn't any particular titles in mind when sonal astronomy; and dien out would go here but then skittering over to there, they came in. Rather, they browsed, sam­ more of the same or similar, only to never setding anywhere. It exists but can pled, and—and this is crucial—bought return, over and over. Nary a hint was never be caught; it is glimpsed but never several books at a time. Not several there ever of dissatisfaction, only gratitude known. It is not even necessary that it books by a single author, developing and that we had an exhaustless supply. And have any content, that there be any there elaborating his thesis through successive the same on the New Age side: this week there. Its function is simply to beckon, volumes, like Dr. Weill or Madame something on alien abducrion, a guide to like the maguffin in an Alfred Hitchcock Blavatsky, but quite diverse books, often numerology, job search by astrology, movie. What makes the beckoning irre­ with contradictory arguments. These ancient Native American wisdom chan­ sistible to multitudes follows from a sec­ regulars would come to the store with neled through contemporary poets with ond tenet of the dieory, that the truth, shopping bags of such books to sell us, meteorological names, Celtic lore, and whatever it may or may not be in sub­ and with the credit and a little extra cash practical witchcraft; next week, feng shui, stance, utterly charms. It is particolored would leave with a similar number of shamanism, angels, magnetic vortices in and it shimmers; it is lovely to behold books from the same department but Sedona, and more alien abduction. The and even lovelier to imagine beholding. with very different claims. A week or Butterfly alights, and having alit, flits on. So sublime is the charm of this sort three later they would repeat the process. In one jaded word that captures so of truth that each glimpse of it rewards (As it happens, there are sufficient much of the spirit of contemporary and emboldens the beholder as power­ books in both genres to support this thought, Whatever. The Butterfly is not fully as might actual possession of habit indefinitely. A corollary of the about specifics, or about reasonableness, another, more robust sort of truth by a Butterfly Theory proposes that, while or about evidence or factuality. The more skeptical son of seeker. Those who style is pleasant and novelty is always Butterfly is about promise and distrac­ succumb to this charm do so not merely welcome, these books serve up a mixture tion, exoticism and case. It is about idle­ willingly but eagerly. of some fairly standardized elements, the ness of mind, coupled with a degree of My first intimations of this dieory goal being to occupy a certain amount complacency unknown to those who are occurred when I was working in a used of the reader's time. The writing itself is genuinely curious about the world. book store. While the chief trade of the at best undistinguished and often verges What is finally most annoying about store was in mysteries and westerns, upon the unintelligible. A great many these readers and their books is their there was a large cadre of regular cus­ persons have discovered in themselves a habit, learned from certain academics, tomers who made beelines for the Self- talent for this sort of writing.) of referring to this complacency as a Help and New Age sections of the stote, What were they seeking in these "way of knowing." It's just the opposite, each of which overflowed its assigned books, I asked myself. Whatever it was, of course, ana"—as Edith Anne used to shelves onto the floor and into adjoining they didn't seem to be finding it. You'd say—that's the truth.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/Augusi 2003 55 FORUM

War, Music, and Evolution

SUSAN BURY

ne recent morning, 1 awoke to most gruesome and devastating events? result of Genghis Khan's military success. the full-bodied horns of Aaron As an armchair evolutionary psycholo­ Even more provocatively, the researchers OCopland's "Fanfare for the gist (the most dangerous kind), I believe suggest that Genghis Khan himself had Common Man," The radio program host we love wartime music and other wartime this particular version of the Y." said Copland composed it at the time of cultural practices in part because war is The main researcher on this project World War II to honor ordinary what got us where we are today. It's a grim speculated that Genghis Khan's practice Americans' contribution to the war effort. prospect, but the early human species that of slaughtering conquered people, espe­ cially men, "would have helped this form of the Y chromosome displace oth­ ers. It's even possible that just Genghis An evolutionary perspective does help Khan and his sons may have had enough explain why warfare persists, generation after offspring to account for the chromo­ some's unusually high prevalence today." generation, despite the staggering human Other scientists quoted in the article suffering and material destruction. said that directly attributing the Y prevalence to a single historical figure is a bit farfetched. Still, if a human popu­ lation had it in their genetic makeup to As the medley of wartime music con­ proliferated were probably the ones that be war-like, and those characteristics tinued—the next number was a moving wiped out everybody else around them. resulted in their spreading their seed in folk piece sung in Sarajevo during the Like all manifestations of evolution, more places, wouldn't that genetic Balkans conflict—I wondered about the there's no direction or design here. Simply legacy become widespread? enduring popularity of wartime songs. by definition, the winners won. Now, it doesn't work absolutely. There are the stirring Sousa marches, More to the point, the winners That is, those who are more pacific also melancholy classics like "I'll Be Home replaced the losers with more winners procreate. But an evolutionary perspec­ for Christmas," and more contemporary like themselves, their influence penetrat­ tive does help explain why warfare per­ songs like "Cod Bless the USA." Music ing throughout the conquered popula­ sists, generation after generation, has captured the darker realities of war, tion, if you get my drift. despite the staggering human suffering from the Civil War-era "In the Hills of Science News ran a story in February and material destruction. Shiloh" to the Gulf War-era hip-hop (Travis 2003) about Genghis Khan, the A recent Baltimore Sun feature "Casualties of War" (Farley 2001). Mongolian warrior of the early 1200s, (Shane 2003) reported a growing con­ We don't do this with other prob­ who ultimately amassed an empire sensus among anthropologists and biol­ lems of humanity, do we? Are there bal­ reaching from Afghanistan across China. ogists "that war is not a product of civi­ lads about cancer chemotherapy? Toe- "According to an international team of lization—of nations and economies and tapping marches about child molesta­ geneticists," the story reports, "about one boundary lines—but has somehow been tion? Zippy tunes about contaminated in twelve men in Asia—and therefore hardwired into the brain." Further, the groundwater? Why do we have such a one in 200 men worldwide—carry a article reports, warfare requires "the abil­ rich body of music about one of life's form of die Y chromosome that origi­ ity to dehumanize the enemy." To over­ nated in Mongolia nearly 1,000 years come what may be an equally inbred Susan Bury is a science writer living in ago. Today's unusual prevalence of this aversion to killing, said University of Red Lodge, Montana. chromosomal variant is most likely the Maine anthropologist Paul B. Roscoe,

56 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER FORUM

"warriors will get together and kind of simply pointing fingers at the other guy If war is in our genetic makeup, we psych themselves up. They'll remember as the embodiment of evil or rolling our know from experience that so are diplo­ die dead from past conflicts. They'll eyes heavenward and saying piously, macy and peace. They may be more chant. They'll take intoxicants." "It's God's plan." (Or even worse: "God tedious and perhaps less emotionally And they'll sing. is on our side.") gratifying than the decisive violence of No doubt, it's dismaying to realize Accepting evolution means we accept war—and its compelling songs—but that warfare is so deeply a part of our the less attractive parts of our genetic they are still within our grasp. That makeup that we'll never have "the war to package. But we also realize that the should be music to our ears. end all wars." Those war songs touch a package includes the capacity for under­ deep, dark chord. Yet, I consider myself standing and perhaps modifying our References better off for having diis perspective on own behavior. It's those better parts of Farley, Christopher John. 2001. Music during warfare. It makes my expectations of the package—the intelligence, the abil­ wartime. Time, "Tuesday, Ociobcr2, 2001. Shane, Scott. 2003. Combat deep-rooted in humanity more realistic. Accepting our ity to communicate and learn—that humans, experts say. The Baltimore Sun, common heritage as war-makers has got make it possible for us to assess the MaiJi 30, 2003. to result in better public policy than prospect of war in all its consequences. Travis. John. 2003. Genghis Khan's legacy? Science Newt, J^ruary 8. 2003; Vol. 163. No. 6.

The Dancing Sasquatch and Other Mysteries

STEVE NADIS

fter negotiating miles of icy roads nary occurrences. He grabbed my arm not. The whole notion was preposter­ in die rugged "Northeast King­ and guided me to the sliding glass door. ous. Still, I wondered as I peered beyond Adom," my wife and I arrived in Turning on the floodlight, he pointed to the patio, something made that impres­ Greensboro, Vermont, late one night, several unusual footprints in the snow, sion in the snow, and if it was a foot, ready for a rustic weekend in the country. all uncommonly large. "Bigfoot?" he well, that was one very large foot. We pulled into the secluded driveway of said with a devilish grin. Nick abrupdy ushered me outside, my friend Nick's house, unpacked our I laughed, as we all did, at his crazy through the snowdrifts, pointing to a trail DVDs and other wilderness gear, settling suggestion. The Bigfoot, or Sasquatch. of what looked like urine leading from the in for what we hoped would be several was a mythic creature well-known in the alleged prints. I was unimpressed. "Can days of concerted relaxation. Pacific Northwest—twelve feet tall, or we go back now?" I asked. "My drink is Before I had the chance to polish off so they say. With a shoe size of twenty or patient, but it won't wait forever." my first martini, our host took me aside bigger, these outsized creatures would be I returned to my martini and easy and murmured something about "some hard-pressed to find appropriate outer­ chair, dimmed the lights, and popped in strange things..." I tried to ignore him, wear even at a Big and Tall Men's Store. the first installment of the Scream tril­ as Nick has a tendency to advance die What would have brought them all the ogy. After two gruesome murders, most far-fetched explanations for ordi- way to northern Vermont, and how things were looking up. I leaned back would they have made the cross-country into the chair, just as my wife, Blinkie, Steve Nadis lives in Cambridge, Massa­ journey? Was there an unknown begged me to join her on a midnight chusetts. When he's not tracking the elusive Northern Passage—the Sasquatch cross-country ski outing. "We'll go by Sasquatch, he writes articles for equivalent of the Lewis and Glark the lake," she said. "It'll only take a Astronomy, Nature, Scientific American. Trail—blazed, perhaps, by Bigfoot and minute." Skiing was the furthest thing and other magazines. Hugepaw or some such duo? Of course from my mind, but I was reluctant to

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER luly/AugusI 2003 57 FORUM

have her clomping around in the woods "We should do something," she said. seeing the disco phantom, I saw an ice- alone, in die middle of the night, espe­ "Make sure he's all right." fishing shack. Aha, so it was an optical cially with hairy Sasquatches on the "I'm not sure it is a 'he,'" I replied. illusion, just as I suspected. Something loose. And as we didn't have too many "Hello!" Blinkie yelled. "Anybody was dancing all right, but it was an ice opportunities for such excursions in there?" There was no response, as might house, not the stuff of legends. The way Boston, I turned off the TV, applied be expected in the middle of nowhere in I figured it, photons had come intermit­ some wax to my skis, and followed her the middle of the night with nobody tently under that pitch-black sky, caus­ down the windy path to Caspian Lake. around but us and the stars. I told her ing the object to flicker, and that appar­ Standing on the shore, we gazed at there was a perfecdy logical explanation ent motion sent our minds wandering the snowy expanse, meditating under the for all this, and once I figured it out, she'd down some pretty strange paths. In the slimmest of crescent moons. Then I saw be the first to know. light of day, however, the scene looked it: a dark figure standing in the middle of Even though I believed what I'd said quite mundane. the lake. Actually it wasn't standing but about die "logical explanation," I still So much for that mystery. But what moving in a strange way as if spinning or found the episode a bit unnerving. of the giant footprints and urine trail? I dancing. Could it be a deranged human? While completing the last stretch of our dismissed that as a joke staged by Nick, a A bear? Nah .... too big, even for a griz­ circuit through the woods, I couldn't get prankster credited with installing a giant zly, which certainly wouldn't be caught the image of that mad, gyrating figure breast on MIT's main dome during his dead within a thousand miles of out of my head. undergraduate days. What's more, I Vermont. Could it be, I was embarrassed First thing in the morning, I set out to knew for a fact he was not shy about even to think, a Dancing Sasquatch? deconstruct the myth—kill die beast, so micturating in public—a product, no Blinkie saw it too, whatever "it" was. to speak. I strapped on my skis and doubt, of his European upbringing. retraced our course. Finding our vantage Later that night, while the rest of our point from the shore, I turned to the lake. party slept, I was suddenly gripped with In roughly the same spot I imagined terror. According to a rumor cited in Variety (yes, I try to keep up with the industry, despite living in Boston), more Scream sequels were in the works. This was shocking to me because the orig­ inal production team had promised to quit at three. Moreover, the audience that made the first three movies a hit had moved on and were now refinancing their mortgages. My main fear was that I'd never get through die Scream series— one of those goals that overachievers like me set for themselves—if they kept churning out new installments. There was only one hope—to get cracking now. Midway through Scream 2, at a critical juncture between stabbings and dismem­ berments, I got the unexpected urge to grab my skis and glide atop the snow one more time. Arriving at the lake's edge, I squinted toward the hut, trying to view the whirling dervish through the lens of my newly acquired understanding. Sure enough, the shack did a little jig, right on cue. And then I'll be damned if the thing didn't wave at me.

58 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER FOLLOW-UP

Strong Response to Terrorism Not a Symptom of Fallacious Statistical Reasoning or Human Cognitive Limitations

The article "A Skeptical Look at September 11th: How We Can Defeat Terrorism by Reacting to It More Rationally" by Clark R. Chapman and Alan W. Harris (September/October 2002) continues to stimulate comment. We are not interested in provoking another round of letters (Readers Forum, January/February 2003; Letters, May/June 2003) but did think this commentary by CSICOP Fellow Steven Pinker worthy of publication. Following it, Chapman and Harris respond.—EDITOR

STEVEN PINKER

hapman and Harris are right to the vulnerability of the human mind to a few parameters had been different—the question the costs in money, fallacies in statistical reasoning, as in peo­ hour of the day, the time available for Copportunities, and civil liberties ple's overestimation of die dangers posed people to escape before the towers col­ of many of die policies adopted in by air travel, shark attacks, and trace levels lapsed, the success of the passenger response to the September 11 attacks. of carcinogens. But diey are not correct in mutiny over Pennsylvania—the death And diey are right to call attention to saying that die responses to the attacks toll could have been far higher.) But if are consequences of fallacious statistical one defines the class as "acts designed to reasoning. The classic experiments by inflict as many American deaths as possi­ Paul Slovic, Amos Tversky, and Daniel ble"—which could include nuclear Kahneman demonstrating bombs simultaneously set off in New those fallacies presup­ York, Los Angeles, and Chicago—then poses a number of condi­ the multiplication gives a very different tions diat are not met by die result, and taking expensive measures to events of September 11, 2001. prevent such events is not necessarily irra­ First, since every event is tional. Similarly, one gets very different unique, estimating risk requires risk estimates for the class "anthrax one to define some class of events to attacks" (probably small) and die class be treated as equivalent, and then to "biological attacks, including smallpox" compare the frequency of those events (possibly catastrophic). with die number of opportunities for In general, it is fairly straightforward such events to occur. For a singular to define an equivalence class for events event like die September 11 attacks, the with physical definitions such as plane equivalence class could be defined in crashes, shark attacks, and lung cancer many ways. If it is defined as "airplanes deaths. But it is not at all straightfor­ crashed into buildings," dien the prob­ ward to define the equivalence class for ability of the event multiplied by the events such as terrorist attacks, which number of deaths per event may are limited only by the ideology, ingenu­ indeed be smaller dian other risks we ity, and resources of the perpetrators. tolerate. (Even then, one could question Clark and Harris's char­ Steven Pinker is Peter de Florez Professor acterization of the casualty of Psychology in the Department of Brain rates for events like Sept­ and Cognitive Sciences at Massachusetts ember 11, because if Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER luly/AugusI 2003 59 FOLLOW-UP

Prior to September II, 2001, people had use the rate of major terrorist attacks in, tion of extensive preventive security little reason to estimate that the equiva­ say, the past ten years to estimate the measures, could change such calculations lence class "terrorist attack" included rate in the next ten years. Wahabism in the minds of future terrorists. massive destruction of American lives and anti-Americanism may be more Similarly, if we calibrated our response to and landmarks brought about by well- widespread, nuclear weapons more the anthrax attacks by cost-benefit com­ funded suicidal fanatics exploiting hith­ available, copycats more emboldened, parisons to other risks, future bioterror- erto unrecognized vulnerabilities of a and so on. Because of these uncertain­ ists could be emboldened to inflict technologically advanced democracy. The ties, anyone who claims to have calcu­ exacdy as many deaths as we decided we terrorist attacks provide new information lated the mathematically correct proba­ could endure. But pulling out all the relevant to estimating diose unknowns. bility that a horrendous terrorist attack stops to combat this new kind of threat, Second, a probability estimate is spe­ will take place in the next year would be even if seemingly irrational on narrow cific to an interval of time in which the talking through his hat. actuarial grounds in the short run, could causal structure of the world remains There is a third reason that terrorist deter perpetrators in the long run, who unchanged. If the world has changed, attacks cannot be equated with the kinds would have to factor this determination all bets are off. If I notice that a nefari­ of risks that people have been shown to into their own calculations. Another way ous character has just tampered with a treat irrationally. Nonhuman causes of of putting it is that dealing with terror­ slot machine, then ignoring the pub­ deaths (such as sharks, airplane part fail­ ists is a problem in game theory, not just lished odds is not fallacious. Or to take ures, and carcinogens) don't take into a problem in risk estimation. an example from the psychologist Gerd account how people react to them. I don't disagree with Chapman and Gigerenzer, it would not be irrational to Human causes of deaths (such as terror­ Harris's opposition to some of the mea­ keep one's child out of a river that had ists) do. Bin Laden thought that sures taken by the Bush administration no previous fatalities after hearing that a American society was so decadent and and other authorities. But it is not cor­ neighbor's child was attacked there by a spiritually bankrupt that a few easily rect to call the strong response to the crocodile that morning: there was no inflicted humiliating blows would lead September 11 attacks a symptom of fal­ crocodile in the river before then, but to its collapse. A public response of defi­ lacious statistical reasoning or human now there is. For this reason one cannot ance and solidarity, and the implementa- cognitive limitations.

Clark R. Chapman and Alan W. Harris Respond

inker's argument parallels com­ human attitudes toward them to suggest tic expectation that the level of terrorism ments by some odier readers of that by our own overreactions we may will soar by factors of thousands, we Pour article who believe that "the be doing ourselves more damage than must ascribe this disparity to twisted barbarians are [or may be] at the gate." the terrorists are doing to us. perceptions—driven, of course, by We did not pretend to calculate a Recent polls show that about one- news-inspired fears, as the terrorists "mathematically correct probability" of quarter of American respondents regard intend—about the real dangers. a future terrorist attack. Nevertheless, in themselves as being personally at risk We don't agree that the terrorist order to face the future it is instructive from terrorists. It is fair to note that attacks provided much new information to extrapolate from the past, making with respect to the recent past, includ­ about the willingness of terrorists to co- allowances as best we can for evolution­ ing the September 11, 2001, attacks, opt our modern technologies to kill and ary developments—-and occasional sur­ this perception is orders of magnitude terrorize as many people as possible. prises. We examined statistical risks and off. Looking to the future, for this per­ Consider the 5,500 Japanese who were ception to be correct would require a injured in the 1995 sarin attack in a Chapman and Harris are research scien­ World Trade Center-level terrorist Tokyo subway. Pinker claims that you tists with Southwest Research Institute in attack somewhere in the U.S. roughly can't use the major terrorist incidents of Boulder, Colorado. every week, for life. Lacking some realis- the last decade to predict those of the

60 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER FOLLOW-UP next decade. Well, not exacdy, of course. defensive technologies will continue to the international arena, and examining But die number of deadis in major ter­ improve; however, there is little basis, and addressing the root causes of terror­ rorist incidents from 1983-1993 (2,544) other than fear, for believing that terror­ ism, would be more effective. Time will aren't such a bad predictor of diose from ism (a technique of the weak in fighting tell if Bush's approach worked or not. 1993-2003 (4,376). It may seem like a me powerful) will emerge as a vastly Meanwhile, it is imperative that Amer­ whole new world since September 11 to greater risk to humanity. icans continue to ask themselves whether New Yorkers and President Bush, but not Ii may be, as Pinker suggests, mat the terrorists' objectively modest attacks so much has changed from a global per­ "defiance and solidarity" will deter ter­ aren't succeeding beyond Osama bin spective (since die 1920s, twenty-eight rorists. That was surely President Bush's Laden's wildest dreams through our other terrorist attacks have each killed view before he attacked Iraq, though his capitulation to fear, which causes us to distort our national values and comport­ more than 100 people). As throughout critics believe the opposite. Perhaps a ment in the world community. die history of warfare, aggressive and diminution of American arrogance in

THE RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST, FORTUNE noses. But the legacy of the great wizards lives on. The aura of TELLERS, AND COLD READING magic created in the 1940s and 1950s still lingers as the from page 33 Rorschach mystique, the almost religious awe that many clin­ icians continue to display toward the test despite its tattered scientific status. Perhaps more important, the Rorschach wiz­ ards contributed to the belief—still strong among many clini­ Listener: She was in a severe car accident when she was cal psychologists—that intuitions and clinical experience pro­ only eight. vide deeper insights than mere scientific knowledge can. Thus Wizard: I think that may be it. She and people she it is that clinicians still use the Rorschach for purposes for loved were badly injured? which it has no demonstrated usefulness, mistakenly believing Listener: Yes. that their supposed insights arise from the extraordinary pow­ ers of the test, rather than from their own unrecognized As this example shows, the push can place the Rorschach notions and preconceptions. wizard in a "win-win" situation. If the long-shot guess is cor­ rect—for example, the patient has actually been taped or assaulted—then the wizard's prediction may seem miracu­ References lously accurate. In contrast, if the guess is incorrect, the wiz­ Dawes. Robyn M. 1994. House of Cards: Psychology and Psychotherapy Built on ard can re-interpret it so that it seems "close"—or claim that Myth. New York: Free Press. Exner, John E. 2000. A Primer for Rorschach Interpretation. Asheville. North the trauma occurred but that the patient has tepressed the Carolina: Rorschach Workshops. experience! Forer, Bettram R. 1949. The fallacy of personal validation: A classroom demon- As Ray Hyman pointed out, a cold reader can be entirely sttation of gullibility. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 44: 118-123. Gacono, Carl. B.. Clifford M. DeCato, Virginia Brabender, and Ted G. sincere. Professional cold readers even have a term, "shut eyes," Goertzel. 1997. Vitamin C or Pure C: The Rorschach of Linus Pauling. In to describe individuals who engage in psychic cold teading Contemporary Rorschach Interpretation edited by J. Reid Meloy, Marvin W. while sincerely believing in their own paranormal powers. Acklin, Carl B. Gacono, James F. Murray, and Charles A. Peterson. Similarly, most Rorschach wizards of the 1950s who used cold Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Hyman. Ray. 1981. Cold reading: How to convince strangers diat you know reading techniques probably genuinely believed in the test. all about diem. In Paranormal Borderlands of Science edited by Kendrick When the wizards made certain statements about patients (for Frazier. Buffalo. New York: Prometheus. example, Barnum statements), they often met with the agree­ Kaplan, Robert. M., and Dennis P. Saccuzzo. 1982. Psychological Testing: Principles. Applications, and Issues. Monterey, California: Brooks/Cole. ment and even astonishment of their listeners. When they Lilienfeld. Scott O. 1999. Projective measures of personality and psychopathol- made certain highly intuitive guesses about patients (actually, ogy. How well do they work? SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 23 (May): 32-39. the push), they found that they were often "close" to the truth, Lilienfeld. Scon O. James M. Wood, and Howard N. Garb. 2000. The sci­ and that their listeners were highly impressed. Reinforced by entific status of projective techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 1: 27-66. positive feedback from their colleagues, the wizards gradually Little. Kenneth B.. and Earl S. Shneidman. 1959. Congruencies among inter­ became skilled cold readers, believing that their remarkable pretations of psychological test and anamnestic data. Psychological insights had arisen from the Rorschach. Monographs 73 (6. Whole No. 476). Rowland. Ian. 2002. The Full Facts Book of Cold Reading third ed. London. The era of the Rorschach wizards belongs mainly to the England: Ian Rowland Limited. past. Although skilled clinicians still occasionally dazzle grad­ Wittenborn. J. R., and Seymour B. Sanson. 1949. Exceptions to certain Rorschach criteria of pathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology 13: 21-27. uate students with their stunning Rorschach performances, Zubin. Joseph. 1954. Failures of die Rorschach technique. Journal of Projective only a few psychologists today engage in public blind diag­ Techniques 18: 303-315. •

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 61 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

able. However, it is important to bear in text of the book itself, though not in this par­ mind that many important aspects of this ticular excerpt. issue, as manifested in the various relevant disciplines, remain subject to debate (as I am sure Pinker would cheerfully admit). For A gnawing weakness in Pinker's SKEPTICAL instance, by no means all linguists accept INQUIRER article and in his book The Blank that the language faculty is as "hard-wired" Slate is the absence of a working definition of as has widely been proposed. Geoffrey "human nature." Pinker argues for scientific Sampson's is perhaps the best-known of a set objectivity, yet nowhere does he provide a of very different alternative interpretations of clear description of the concept of human the linguistic evidence. nature per sc except for anecdotes sprinkled throughout his article and book. Without an Mark Newbrook operational definition of this key concept, Linguistics, Monash University/ meaningful analysis of the blank slate University of Sheffield assumption is difficult at best. United Kingdom I am reminded of the early "sensory deprivation" studies which showed the crip­ I agree with Pinker's message, yet am sur­ pling (though temporary) effects on intelli­ prised that he made no reference to E.O. gence of even short periods (24 hours) in Wilson. I have not read Pinker's book, so do which human volunteers lived in experimen­ not know if he mentions Wilson there, but tal chambers void of normal visual, auditory, reference to a pioneer of the ideas expressed and tactile stimulation. Where was their The Blank Slate by Pinker would seem appropriate. "human nature" when significant portions of As I recall, my first exposure to Wilson's the normal environment were removed? And then there is the work of Rosenzweig et al. I read die excerpt from Steven Pinker's The ideas was from a piece in BioScience (1972). (1972) published in Scientific American Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human At first 1 thought that everyone should agree Nature (March/April 2003) not merely with with what he said, but soon, to my surprise, which showed that in rats' brain chemistry pleasure, but with some surprise. I had not there was a firestorm of protest. As anyone and structure were altered as a function of realized that advocacy of human nature was interested in this subject should know, Wilson early experience. Yet if I asserted that "rat still so politically incorrect. I had the great spent much of the next thirty years success­ nature" should be acknowledged before good fortune to attend a class given by fully defending and developing his ideas. emphasizing variations in behavior due to Randy Thornhill at the University of New Pinker says that some people think that environmental experience alone, then I Mexico a few years ago, so the concepts that the issues of nurture/nature make little differ­ would and should be criticized for not defin­ Pinker sets forth seem neither revolutionary ence, but he correctly maintains otherwise. I ing "rat nature" explicitly. nor uncomfortable. It is saddening to be believe that Wilson, in Consilience, made that An appendix at the end of Pinker's book reminded yet again how far outside the point very strongly by using the example of includes "Donald E. Brown's List of Human mainstream this kind of thinking is. the two most totalitarian systems of the last Universals" (pp. 435-439). This list consists century. They were based on the two extremes When the intelligentsia were forced to of over 350 traits such as "baby talk," "con­ of this issue. One, Soviet Communism, oper­ accept evolution, they were forced to accept flict," "semantics," "shame," etc., which, ac­ ated on the assumption that people's nature our essential animality. Do you suppose diat cording to Brown, ethnographers cite as could be totally controlled by the environ­ they needed some ideological lever with human surface traits. At best Pinker may be ment. The other, German Nazism, operated which to elevate themselves above the birds telling us that Brown's listing represents a on the assumption that there are such extreme and beasts? The notion of the blank slate conceptual net around which the concept of genetic differences among various groups that filled die void admirably. It's ironic that this human nature may be located, yet such a killing all the members of those "genetically new dogma, a notion that is supposed to ele­ transformation misses the essence of an oper­ defective" groups was justified. It seems that vate us, is by its nature a denial of our essen­ ational definition. this is the strongest argument of all that what tial humanity. Thornhill often spoke of the you believe on this subject is extremely molding of human nature during the era of William F. Vitulli important, yet Pinker makes no mention of evolutionary adaptation, when reproductive Emeritus Professor of Psychology Wilson. success was everything. Honest understand­ Department of Psychology ing of what we are, and why, is far more University of South Alabama rewarding and hopeful than pious subscrip­ John E. Hendrix Mobile, Alabama tion to some pie-eyed belief in what we think Emeritus Professor we ought to be. Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate pommels a Robin Johnson straw man in asserting there is a "modern Albuquerque, New Mexico Steven Pinker replies: denial of human nature." While some renowned scholars, past and present, empha­ The writer is correct that E. O. Wilson deserves size environmental influences on behavior, Most of what Steven Pinker says about credit for bringing these points to the attention not even John Locke or B.F. Skinner denied nature and nurture seems altogether reason­ of the larger public. I do bring him up in the influences of genes.

62 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER LETTE RS TO THE EDITOR

Meanwhile, relative influences of hered­ Acupuncture Science ... Having read die article, I have gained the ity and environment on many behaviors vague notion that some investigators have remain obscure. Unfortunately, that fact Or Not reported it is efficacious and have offered docs not deter certain influential "hcreditar- more modern-sounding conceptual models ians" from assailing "dumb" people. For After reading Dr. George Ulett's article of how it works—but no more convincing example. The Bell Curve authors Richard ("Acupuncture, Magic, and Make-Believe," than the reports from free-energy machine Herrnstein and Charles Murray, "favorably" March/April 2003), I am left with gnawing inventors or dowsing-rod salesmen. mentioned by Pinker, repeatedly use the feelings of puzzlement. On the one hand I terms "dumb" and "smart" in referring, appreciate the authors attempts to provide Mark T. Duigon respectively, to those who score low and high historic perspective on acupuncture, the Stewartstown. Pennsylvania on tests of "cognitive ability." They pour out background on its introduction into the a torrent of statistics indicating crime, illegit­ U.S., and its dose relationship with the pow­ imacy, child abuse, and a host of other social erful placebo effect. But on the other hand I In his article George Ulett debunks traditional problems arc causally related to cognitive am perplexed how easily the same individual Chinese beliefs about acupuncture, but he ability as measured by standardized tests. is able to switch from debunking in his fails to apply the same degree of skepticism to words "an archaic procedure in which nee­ One of their claims (p. 163) is that cognitive his own beliefs. He advocates a new, evi­ dles arc inserted through the skin over imag­ ability is a "... significant determinant dence-based form of "acupuncture" involving inary channels in accord with rules devel­ [emphasis mine] of dropout from the labor no "acu" and no "puncture;" he stimulates oped from prc-scientific superstition and force." Thai may be true. However, die only the skin with electricity over putative motor statement supported by their research is that numerological beliefs" to supporting a so- called "scientific acupuncture," a method, points using EKG-type pads rather dun nee­ certain measures of cognitive ability may dles. His article gives die impression that die help predict dropout. . . . again in his words, that "stimulates motor points and nerve junctures" and in which efficacy and scientific basis of this dierapy "specific electrical currents induce the gene have been adequately established. Richard Harger expression of neurochemicals and activates Although the experiments he describes are Spokane, Washington brain areas important for healing," without intriguing, they do not prove his case. His producing a shred of evidence in the process. method is essentially a variation of the old Three references are provided at me end, TENS (transcutaneous electric nerve stimu­ I would like to point out to Steven Pinker diat none of which would qualify as peer- lation) method—itself, an extension of histor­ it is quite possible to agree with die broad out­ reviewed scientific literature. Obviously, the ical attempts to interfere widi pain sensation lines of his Blank Slate theory—namely, drat now-scientific acupuncture must be based on using electricity—which looked promising at human behavior is shaped by both genetics a wealth of articles that demonstrate die first but has proven not very effective and is and environment—and still disagree, vche- actual existence of die motor points and diercfore not widely accepted. mendy and nontrivially, over any or all spe­ nerve junctures, their relationship to the Perhaps Dr. Ulett's technique causes a cific conclusions drawn by die dieory's propo­ release of neurochemicals and a plethora of combination of placebo and nonspecific nents about which behaviors are influenced well controlled, double-blind clinical studies counterirritant effects. Yes, electrical stimu­ by which factors, and to what degree. that prove die value of diis approach beyond lation may raise the levels of endorphins and For instance. Pinker states in his article any suspicion. If so, 1 seem to have trouble finding them, and I very much doubt they dynorphins in spinal fluid, but what is the that The Bell Curve has been vilified for its clinical relevance? Such neurochemicals have general thesis that some human traits (i.e., exist. Dr. Ulett would no doubt have promi- very short half-lives and can surely not be intelligence) arc genetically influenced. I nendy displayed them in the article since diey responsible for the long-term responses believe this assessment is far off the mark— would have provided instant credibility. Until claimed for therapies that rely on such The Bell Curve has been vilified for its I am able to actually inspect the "unicorn" of mechanisms of action. In addition, many defense of the specific diesis that intelligence scientific evidence for acupuncture, ancient is a race-linked genetic trait. The same is true or modern, it remains, at least in my opinion, non-specific stimuli, including exercise and for Pinker's book: New Yorker reviewer Louis in die realm of magic and make-believe. placebo interventions, cause such eleva­ Menand did a fine job of accepting The tions. Unfortunately, conclusions that his Blank Slate's overall "nature plus nurture" technique causes "healing actions" in the principle while still ripping into the book Roland Gerritsen van der brain and spinal cord, "balances hormonal widi a fiery passion (New Yorker, Nov. 25, Hoop, M.D., Ph.D. regulation by action of the pituitary gland" 2002). I believe Pinker is seeing willful Roswell, Georgia and "enhances homeostasis," simply cannot blindness to a solid scientific principle, when be justified based on current evidence. many of his critics are in fact presenting valid In his book The Biology of Acupuncture critical disagreement and anger with some of I'm sorry, but I'm afraid I was disappointed by Dr. Ulett describes a complex system of pad his specific conclusions. George Ulett's article. There were a mere two placement for various symptoms (using die paragraphs of findings, but litde support for traditional acupuncture points), yet he Greta Christina diem, and I was left wondering if anybody has claims that acupuncture is frequency-specific San Francisco, California replicated any of diem. We need more than and not point-specific. If diis is true, why just "Our own experience and reports from bother widi specific pad placements? In fact, clinics abroad have shown " Would diat be why bodicr widi doctors? It would seem Visit Our Web site at like reports from Tijuana lactrile clinics? that anyone could self-treat with a home www.csicop.org Exactly what conditions responded, and widi unit, placing the EKG pads on die hand and what level of uncertainty? arm for symptoms in any part of the body.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 63 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Ulett showed us that the emperor had no I respond as follows: "You know, it tainly would have had the capability of clothes, but has he re-clothed the emperor would be harder to lake it than to actually tracking their own ship all the way to the in another imaginary suit? Time will tell— do it. To keep them quiet, they'd have to moon and back. Given that capability, don't good evidence will be persuasive. deep-six everybody who took part. How you think they would have tracked Apollo would they cover that up? Also, Congress 11, as well as all our other missions, just to Harriet Hall. M.D. appropriated $20 billion to finance the make sure wc did it? If they discovered we Puyallup, Washington moon flights. Where would it have disap­ didn't actually make it, don't you think they David W. Ramey. DVM peared to? Anyhow, if they faked it, would­ would have mentioned it to someone? Glendale, California n't one moon landing have been enough? Of course wc made it to the moon. If you Why fake six of them?" don't believe me, just ask the Russians! George Ulett stripped away the rituals and I don't know if I've converted any mem­ Peter Coster mysticism surrounding acupuncture to reveal bers of the hardcore moon landing hoax Ashland, Virginia that the needles release the body's natural believers, but many times I've received painkillers, the endorphins. These chemicals knowing nods and comments such as, "Well, are also the mechanism underlying much of maybe you're tight." pain relief by aspirin. I prefer aspirin because While I'm at it, on the UFO thing I tell Taken' they're cheap, easy to take, and are simpler to them I believe there's plenty of life beyond find at 2 A.M. than an acupuncturist. Earth, but I don't believe there's any evidence Timothy Ferris's article in the March/April issue ("'Taken' Off") was both cogent and we've been visited during recorded history. Joel Kirschbaum entertaining. I believe, however, that if he were There are thousands of professional and Hillsborough, New Jersey to "check it out," he would find that John amateur astronomers observing and pho­ Mack is a psychiatrist, not a psychologist. tographing the entire sky every night in George Ulett replies: The highest academic degree, the Ph.D., every wavelength from gamma and x-ray requires a background in the philosophy of through radio. Many know the sky like the The concerns raised by readers of my article on science and a demonstrated mastery of basic back of their hand. They discover comets, acupuncture are reasonable. I too would like to research methodology. Neither training nor asteroids, quasars, pulsars, supernovae, plan­ see scientific studies on this subject conducted by education in scientific method is required for scientists at U.S. medical schools. Unfortunately ets orbiting other stars, and galaxies at the a doctorate in applied fields, e.g., law or they have ignored such an approach. The Chinese edge of the universe, but none have ever medicine. claimed to have discovered a UFO. It always government, however, is supportive of studies to Therefore, no one should be surprised by seems to be people who can't tell a planet modernize Chinese medicine whose theories were eminent forensic experts who denounce the from a star or Venus from Mars who claim to developed when our modern understanding of theory of evolution from the armchair, or by brain chemistry and physiology was not avail­ have seen a UFO. Finally, when something is applied biologists who, lacking access to able. Dr. J.S. Han's large volume, referenced in really up there, like an unusually bright Occam's Razor, tangle speculation with anec­ my article, reviews in detail the many scientifi­ meteor, even though it only lasts a few sec­ dote to produce a Gordian knot of belief in cally sound experiments conducted in his modern onds, hundreds or thousands of people see it abduction by extraterrestrials. laboratory at Beijing Medical University A and, these days, some even videotape it. reading of this material together with the report With UFOs it's usually just a single or a few Robert T. Flint of recent fMRI studies by Professor Cho ofUC- observers. This explanation gets responses Concord, California Irvine will best answer die questions raised. The similar to my moon hoax one. evidence given there will support my contention I invite SI readers to use these arguments that tlrere is an evidence-based treatment derived the next time they encounter believers in the Hey, Professor Ferris, nice article but remem­ from studies of acupuncture and that it has the moon landing hoax or UFOs. ber "Taken" was on the Science Fiction potential, not just for brief pain amelioration, By the way, my second most often received Channel, not the Science Channel. SI stuff is but for long-term favorable results in treating on the Science Channel. We must not forget patients widi chronic conditions. question is, "Can you see the flag on the moon?" (it's too small for even die Hubble to to read the labels even on the snake oil bot­ tles. Great issue. detect!), which is encouraging because it sug­ gests that die vast majority of the U.S. public Lee Oldershaw Moon-Landing Deniers really does believe we went to the moon! Marco Island, Florida Herman M. Heyn As Baltimore's Street Corner Astronomer, for Baltimore, Maryland nearly sixteen years I have been offering mem­ The James Ossuary bers of the public glimpses of die moon, plan­ ets, and stars through an 8-inch telescope. Whenever I hear diat ridiculous claim diat Regardless of the questionable authenticity of What's the most often asked question I we never made it to the moon, I say this: the ossuary purported to have contained the receive? "How much did dial telescope cost?" The Russians were trying to land on the remains of the traditional disciple James, son But among my top dozen is. "Do you believe moon before wc did (that's why they called it of Joseph, brother of Jesus (popular media's diey really landed on the moon?" Having read a Space Race). In fan, they tried to launch a translation), ("Bone [Box] of Contention: James Oberg's "Lessons of die 'Fake Moon spacecraft a few days before we were sched­ The James Ossuary" by Joe Nickell, Right' Myth" (March/April 2003). allow me uled to go, but found they couldn't do it. If March/April 2003) perhaps the most ignored to report on how 1 handle diat question. they were successful in launching, they cer­ element of the funerary vessel's curious

64 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

inscription is that of the inscription itself. I have a fairly comprehensive Web page some forty shrouds, including the "Fraud of As Joe Nickell noted in the article, the lit­ devoted to debunking die hoax theory for die Turin"), not a single one has been proven eral transliteration of the text (I have taken moon landings, and in my experience a belief authentic. the liberty to fine-tune this) is: in conspiracies is die single most infallible Whether or not the James ossuary is an sign of the crank. So when a writer argues for exception must be decided on the evidence, not Ya'aqob bar Yosep ahuy Yesu'a a hoax as the best explanation for a phenom­ on a dismissal of the evidence and ad enon widiout strong evidence, my pseudo- homincm insinuations. science detector goes into Red Alert Mode. Meanwhile, a "very prominent" Israeli col­ Jacob, Joseph, and Jesus (or Joshua) were lector has come forward to allege that the common enough names in first-century ossuary had been offered to him a year before Israel, so there could easily have been a num­ the Biblical Archaeology Review article. The ber of people whose genealogy matched that inscription at that time, he stated bore only the on the alleged ossuary of James. Jesus Christ words "James son of Joseph. " did not come from a prominent family, and the relic craze had not yet infected Christianity, so the odds are against the Jack the Ripper ossuary, even if it's genuine, being that of This would read, translated properly, as Christ's brother. Why would it have received Regarding Joe Nickell's review of Patricia "Jacob, son of Joseph, brother of Joshua." any special preservation? Cornwell's Portrait of a Killer: Jack the Allow me to briefly explain. It bothers me when skeptics react with Ripper Case Closed (March/April 2003), he The name/«Kf is die Anglicized-Latinizcd- something close to panic at the notion that states that Cornwell begins her story of Hellenized form of the Aramaic form (Yelua) there could be physical relics connected Walter Richard Sickert "without ever really of Old Hebrew Yehohta which we read as with Jesus Christ. Their reasoning is almost explaining how she chose him." Actually Joshua in die Christian English-language Old identical with that of fundamentalists—they on page 12 of her book she says that she Testament (recension notwithstanding). How seem to believe that verifying any pan of the was told about him by Scotland Yard's Yaaqob became "James" is somewhat more Bible at all somehow proves the whole Deputy Assistant Commissioner John complicated (Greek Iakobos = Latin lacobus = thing. Even if the ossuary is genuine and Grieve who said, "There's one other inter­ Old Italian Giacobo - Italian Giacomo = actually that of a relative of Jesus Christ, it esting chap.... An artist named Walter English James, omitting two or dirce steps). proves only that three people mentioned in Sickert. . . . I've always wondered about Thus "Jacob, son of Joseph, brodicr of Joshua" the New Testament actually existed, some­ him." This makes me think that she heard better approaches die translation consistent thing that there's no particular reason to about Sickert from Grieve and not just that with die Anglicized Hebrew understood not doubt anyway. So why muddy die water she started wondering about him after "flip­ only by scholars but by English-speakers of with accusations of a hoax over an artifact ping through a book of his art." Jewish heritage. The media's translation is that, in the final analysis, doesn't tell us any­ Christian embellishment. thing new at all? Tina Seaborg It would, therefore, be equally as valid to Decatur. Alabama Steven I. Dutch translate said text, Professor, Natural and Jake, son of Joe, brother of Josh Applied Sciences Regarding Joe Nickell's review of Patricia University of Wisconsin- ... or even Cornwell's "contribution" to Ripperology: Green Bay After all the laudatory crapola about Hamish, son of Joey, brodier of Jess Green Bay, Wisconsin Cornwell's book, how refreshing to read an ... depending on personal or collective accurate piece. Joe Nickell replies: predisposition. However, it is the only Jewish While reading the book I was astonished ossuary inscription that I've ever encoun­ that it managed to get published, much less The letter of Thomas L. Munden is as intelli­ tered which ever made a reference to the get any press at all. One suspects that had gent and informative as that of the other writer brother of the deceased. Though the Cornwell not been an established fiction is ill-formed and hostile. Having been con­ Aramaicized names were common enough in writer, her Jack the Ripper book would never sulted in many famous cases involving ques­ Roman-Era Palestine during the First have found a legitimate publisher. tioned documents and other artifacts, and hav­ Century B.C.E.—First Century C.E. (also It's die most blatant example of begging ing published extensively on the subject noteworthy), I'd be willing to wager that die question I think I've ever seen. As Nickell through the item itself seems genuine, the (including the book Detecting Forgery/ / so eloquently pointed out, Cornwell obvi­ inscription is » fake. have to wonder at someone who equates find­ ously arrived at her lame conclusion and then ing evidence of possible forgery with offering And whether you call the deceased Jacob, shopped for details. She found just enough crank conspiracy theories. Jimmy. Yaakov, Hamish, Jake or James, he ingredients to cook up a decidedly thin gruel. As to the suggestion that I may be panicky certainly deserves better than diat! I'm just glad I didn't pay full price for the at the possibility of there being "physical relics" Another of many fine articles by Joe book, although I paid 100 percent more associated with "Jesus Christ. "Professor Dutch's (Yehoisap J Nickell. than it was wordi. attempt at mind-reading has failed In any Thomas I. Munden case, while there have been numerous Jake relia Tom Pantera Kapa'au, Hawaii of Jesus (for example, at least thirty-nine of Fargo, North Dakota

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 65 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Has anyone mentioned that Patricia Corn- well was not the fint to accuse Sicken, she per­ he distinguishes them, sometimes he confuses well's central thesis about the Whitechapel haps undentandably did not want to bring up and reconciles them." murders borrows from a prior book entitled, the "Joseph Sicken" silliness. She had enough of Carl Sagan cherished science. Whitman only Jack the Ripper: The Final Solution by the late her own to offer. pretended to. Even as he Imrralicd science, he rel­ Stephen Knight? I mean, give credit where egated it to inglorious handmaiden for mysticism. credit is due. Whitman was indeed a poet, one of the best. Regrettably, he was also a poet pseudoscience. Dan Riga Walt Whitman Burlington, Ontario Canada Gary Sloan's article about Walt Whitman (March/April 2003) misses a pivotal element in Whitman's poetry and cosmology. Whit­ Once again Joe Nickell has done a good job man certainly believed that life goes on on a tough subject. Barring a supreme beyond our individual endings, but he was a a stoke of luck (finding a diary in an old believer in recycling rather than reincarna­ trunk in an attic, or something similar) the tion. His statement tJiat "No doubt I have murders attributed to Jack the Ripper will died myself ten thousand times before" is never be solved. At this point they are about elucidated by an abundance of evidence of 115 years old and what evidence exists is his belief in recycling. As "Song of Myself" more than cold. Like most people, I am ends, he writes, "I bequeath myself to the curious as to the identity of Jack, although I dirt to grow from the grass I love. If you am not entirely comfortable with smearing want me again look for me under your boot- the reputations of men who are beyond soles." In "This Compost," he tells of how defending themselves. the earth "gives such divine materials to I find Cornwell's thesis unlikely. In addi­ men, and accepts such leavings from them at tion to Nickell's criticism I would add last." For Whitman, immortality lay in recy­ another line of reasoning. As far as we know, cling. Other examples abound. the Ripper murders ceased in 1888 after two Sloan's accusarion that Whitman "preyed 1 take great pleasure in being a subscriber and a half months in which six women were on science" seems unduly fussy. It is a charge to SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. I am also a great murdered. In today's language. Jack sounds that, if allowed to stand, should also be lev­ fan of Sherlock Holmes—which prompts like a serial killer on a roll. Suddenly he stops eled at Carl Sagan. Both Whitman and me to comment on the introductory para­ and is apparently never heard from again. I Sagan honored "positive science" and were graph of the article "Omission Neglect" am the first to admit that human beings are able to find inherent beauty in it. That's not in the March/April 2003 issue. The capable of doing unpredictable things. But a "preying" on science; it's a reasonable exten­ recounting of the incident from "The serial killer who suddenly voluntarily stops sion of science. Adventure of Silver Blaze" (not "The Silver killing after two and a half months is rare, if I also need to ask why Sloan and SI chose Blaze") is inaccurate. not unheard of. I am forced to conclude that to critique a poet who never claimed to be a Sherlock Holmes did not ask Dr. Watson Jack either took his business on the road or scientist, who has been gone for more than a immigrated.. .. to consider the previous night's "curious inci­ century, and who despite a less than pristine dent" involving a dog. It was die local scientific perspective gave American writing Inspector who asked Holmes, "Is there any Phil Trice its most distinctive voice. He was a poet, not other point to which you would wish to (By e-mail) a faidi healer, a medium, or a pseudoscicn- draw my attention?" tist. Lighten up, guys. Joe Nickell replies: "To the curious incident of the dog in the Jacob D. Stone night-time." It's a pleasure to write for such alert and engaged Doylestown, Pennsylvania "The dog did nothing in the night-time." readers. Regarding Tina Seeborg's point, what I "That was the curious incident," re­ was referring to was not how Cornwell heard Gary Sloan replies: marked Sherlock Holmes. about Waller Sicken but why she decided to pick Perhaps the article's subtitle ought to be him from the proliferating lineup. Cornwell In The Evolution of Walt Whitman, Roger "The Importance of Missing Correct Infor­ states (on the same page 12 Ms. Seaborg cites), 7 Asselineau notes that Whitman's belief in rein­ mation." began to wonder about Sicken when I was flip­ carnation, expressed in such poems as "Faces" ping through a book of his an. " and "So Long," was intermittently reasserted Lloyd S. Nelson Dan Riga is correct that Stephen Knight Whitman opined that "sooner or later all will Londonderry, New Hampshire previously accused Sicken of being the Ripper, be saved for all the transfen [reincarnations! but as pan of a high-level government conspir­ undergone by living beings are 'promotions.' acy involving a second killer and an accom­ Each being rises gradually in the hierarchy of Inconsolations of plice. The main source was one "Joseph Sicken" the universe." Whitman did vacillate in his Philosophy who claimed to have been Sickens illegitimate assessment of our post-mortem condition. "He hesitated "sap Asselineau, "between the mysti­ son. He later confessed that his conspiracy story Ralph Estling, in "Inconsolations of cal concept of a dissolution in the Great All was "a hoax; I made it all up," he said, but Philosophy" (March/April 2003), managed and the belief in personal survival Sometimes later retracted his confession. Although Corn- to entangle himself in his very entertaining

66 tuly/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

prose and to come up with a philosophical you to publish an article whose righteously "South Park" (News & Comment, March/ mishmash of the very kind he disparages. no-nothing [sic], anti-intellectual tone is so April 2003), a real "boys will be boys" load of Space prohibits me from defending fully the antithetical to every single value that your tripe that pollutes the media and one reason above assertion. The evidence is to be found magazine says it stands for? I won't turn on tli.it appliance. in die essay itself. Vulgarity is rapidly replacing civility. In Robert P. Crease Suffice it to say, however, that in the space other words, we arc returning to the grunt. I [email protected] of two pages Estling first dumps all French believe the more fashionable crude behavior philosophies down a French toilet, and dien and speech become, the more insidiously Ralph Estling replies: ultimately reserves die same fare for all phi­ total invasion of privacy is invited. losophy. He also informs us that the "funda­ It is hard for mc to fadiom dial Greg Mike Nichols once said about lepers that there mental and immutable trutJis ... offer very are good lepers and bad lepers. I believe there Martinez would admit to sitting and watching little in the way of solace," a claim that pre­ are good philosophers and bad philosophers but insipid trash and then having a reputable mag­ sumably can only be made by die holder of mostly bad ones, starting in the late eighteenth azine report his opinion. I am stunned.... those truths. A touch of humility would not century with the German Idealists. The bad Margot Plummer be misplaced. ones are bad because they do not seem to live in Golden, Colorado However, a grain of an important idea or care very much about this world, so what appears in the last few paragraphs, where he they think and philosophize over is likely to be seems to be saying that we should replace not very relevant, except perhaps to other South Park is an excellent resource for skepti­ philosophy with science. This deserves to be philosophers. But real, worthwhile thought cal views—Martinez righdy praised episode rephrased clearly lest it be lost: Science should amount to something more than just 615—"The Biggest Douche in the should stake as much of a claim into the taking in each other's laundry. I think it was Universe." ground of philosophy as it is possible to do Aldous Huxley who said that philosophy is I can also recommend: without compromising its methods. what we do when we don't know what we are • Episode 407 "Cherokee Hair Tampons" Stated in this form, the idea deserves a talking about and I'm fairly certain it was (alternative medicine); better defense than was offered in the essay. Wittgenstein who said that philosophy occurs when language goes on holiday. My own view, •Episodes 410/411 "Do the handi­ Such defense would include an historical per­ for what it's worth, is that philosophy occurs capped go to hell.'/Probably" (religion and spective of how science answered a number of when people with intelligence don't know what Pascal's wager); questions that were once thought to be the to do with it and so invent word-games to fill • Episode 504 "The Super Best Friends" exclusive concern of philosophy and how in in their time and thereby escape the otherwise (conjuring and religion); and the process it brought some fresh air to maddening boredom of their existence. At least •Episode 513 "Kenny dies" (stem cell replace the often hot air of philosophical that seems to have been the case in the last 200 research). debates. Cautionary tales of extrapolation years or so. South Park has also dealt delicately with beyond the point where the scientific method environmcntalism, false abuse allegations, ends should also be included. Perhaps Estling By and large, philosophers of the last 200 or rainforests, sex education, freedom of speech will consider putting his admirable writing so years come in two shapes and sizes: those that and drugs. . . . talent to use in such an endeavor. hold up a hand in front of their face and say "I see a hand " and those that hold up a hand Peter Lucey Pantazis Mouroulis in front of their face and say "I see no hand. " Berkshire Glendora, California What is there to say about either of them? I United Kingdom think there is nothing to say about either of them. Nothing at all Nothing. As a philosopher who for three years has As for the wit and humor of Martin Cobb County Clowns written a column for Physics World entitled Heidegger, when he was not acting as a "Critical Point," which frcquendy broaches defender of the Nazis he was telling us all about William J. Hoyt, Jr., led readers astray with issues from competition to pseudosciencc the Beingness of Nothingness, e.g., "This wholly pics he threw ("Cobb Country Clowns Stage to whose clarification philosophical con­ Other to all entities is the Non-entity But this Another Pi Fight," March/April 2003). First, cepts are essential, I'm utterly baffled by Nothing essentiates as Being . . . As historical, Peter Beckmann's A History of Pi informs your decision to publish "The In- Beingness is possible only by reason of its tempo­ that the pi bill failed the Indiana Senate and consolations of Philosophy," by Ralph rality and temporality temporizes itself in the never became a law. Estling. The author knows zero about what ecstatico-horizontal unity of its raptures. " Creationists didn't mangle Darwin's philosophy is and does. He appears to So there. book tide. Rather, publishers are primarily lament its failure to provide a "philosophy of responsible. A student might sensibly con­ life"—but as Heidegger wittily said, that clude Origins is title enough after repeated phrase has about as much meaning as "the South Park*? encounters with An Abstract of an Essay on botany of plants." What would you think the Origin of Species by Means of Natural about an article diat attacked science as Wow! Am I surprised and skeptical! 1 was Selection, Darwin's proposed title; On the bogus for failing to cure die common cold under the assumption that SKEPTICAL Origin of Species by Means of Natural and land a man on Jupiter, and whose idea INQUIRER was an intellectual, sophisticated Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races of a scientist is somewhere between Michael magazine with culture and class. Then I read in the Struggle for Life, John Murray's 1859 Guillen and Ralph Nader? What motivated Greg Martinez expounding on an episode of publication; The Origin of Species & the

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 67 LETTERS TO TH E EDITOR

Pigliucci is merely repeating common­ (Letters, March/April 2003) was wrong. But places if he is saying i li.n conclusions must let us be charitable and assume that Nagy did be to a degree tentative and that future evi­ not understand what Mole was saying. He dence cannot presently be known. But we was not saying that the probability of getting have no basis for saying that an evidentiary just one head from ten coin tosses is the same statement may be wrong unless and until as that of getting five heads. He was saying contrary evidence is observed. that the probability of getting any particular In his example in the March/April sequence e.g., his series (1) is the same as that "Thinking about Science" column, air pres­ of getting any other particular sequence e.g., sure affected whether electrical charge could his series (2). Obviously there are only ten be detected for cathode rays (electrons). ways of getting just one head but 252 ways Until that variable could be eliminated, the of getting five heads. resulting statement could only be about the Brian Gibney nature of the experiment, not about die Sandy Hook, Connecticut nature of electrons. Descent of Man (no dates). Random House's Scientific investigation proceeds not by combined publication with Darwin's later amassing conclusions but by accumulating book with J he Origin of Species by Means of In response to George K. Nagy's letter on incremental evidence, which is all that we Natural Selection or the Preservation of coin flip odds (March/April 2003), Nagy Favored Races in the Struggle for Life on the can know. Conclusions, being not knowable appears to have fallen into exactly the kind of title page and The Origin of Species on con­ in the same sense as evidence, perhaps incorrect reasoning that our common sense tents page; Origin of Species, a common ref­ should be excluded from empirical thought. frequently leads. Phil Mole's article was erence; and The Origin of Species, popular William S. Bunn describing odds based on an exact, pre­ 1979 Gramercy edition. This last is the Algonac, Michigan defined sequence of results. Nagy's applica­ exact words used by Georgia's Cobb County tion of the binomial coefficient would be Board of Education mystifyingly objected to Massimo Pigliucci replies: correct if one were looking for the odds of by Mr. Hoyt. getting any one result out of all possible with a 50/50 split as compared to the odds of get­ Students of Darwin might learn to dis­ Bunn finds it puzzling that I assert that present ting any one result out of all possible with a tinguish facts (observations) from other scientific knowledge may be wrong. And yet 90/10 (for example). notions. They might discover that the this is a point on which alt philosophers of sci­ ambiguous word "species" isn't automatically ence, and even most scientists in their most By Nagy's reasoning, one would be wise singular. Come on, students and professors. sober moments, surely would agree. The nature to bet that out of the next ten flips, five Allow skepticism! of scientific knowledge is tentative, and it is would be tails and five heads, rather than therefore perfectly possible that what we con­ betting that out of the next ten flips one Daniel F. Baright sider true today may turn out to be incorrect in would be heads and nine would be tails. This Lebanon, Missouri the light of future evidence. is correct, but that was not the point of Phil However, my column—which was largely Mole's example. presenting ideas discussed in much more detail William Hoyt attributes efforts to legislate pi Thad Engeling in Peter Achinstein's The Book of Evidence— Austin, Texas to be 3 to a desire to make things simple. In focused on the nature of evidence. Bunn claims a sense, he is right. The idea of the proposal that while scientific conclusions are tentative, is to bring mathematics in line with the evidentiary statements are objective, yet my Bible. Put yourself in the frame of mind of a point was not about objectivity (an interesting While reading George K. Nagy's letter to the Biblical litcralisi, read I Kings 7:23, and "do subject in its own right, and to which I intend editor, I wondered how I, as an applied sta­ the math." to return in a future column), but about what tistician, missed die apparently obvious fail­ criteria can be used to consider an experimen­ ure by Phil Mole in neglecting the binomial David P. Babcock tal result or observation as evidence for a par­ formula when calculating the probabilities of New York, New York ticular conclusion. given sequences of heads and tails in coin tosses in his article "Are Skeptics Cynical?" In the case of research on cathode rap, the But upon rereading Mole's article, I early results were taken as evidence that elec­ Evidence vs. Conclusions quickly realized that Mole and Nagy were trons did not have charge, until that evidence using two different definitions of a sequence was re-evaluated and shown to be insufficient I am puzzled and dismayed by Massimo of heads and tails. Mole was calculating the to reach the conclusion. So, both conclusions Pigliucci's continued assertions that present probability of obtaining a very specific and evidence are tentative. scientific knowledge may be wrong. ordered sequence, while Nagy was not con­ First, we must distinguish between con­ sidering die order, just the number of heads clusions and evidentiary statements. The lat­ and tails. Each was correct in his calculation, ter, including explanations of how evidence Coin-Flip Odds Confusion given his definition of die characteristics of was obtained, are objective. But conclusions, die sequence. at least insofar as they exceed restatements of I am no statistician either but surely Phil This difference in interpretation relates evidence, are unavoidably to some extent Mole ("Are Skeptics Cynical?", November/ very much to Massimo Pigliucci's article subjective. December 2002) was right and George Nagy "Hypothesis Testing and the Nature of

68 July/August 2003 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Skeptical Investigations" in the November/ referring to but they certainly arc not the were no effect at all, you may get the same December 2002 issue. The proper interpre­ global mean surface air temperatures pub­ result five times out of 100 by plain luck. tation of statistical probabilities is not easy lished by NASA (www.giss.nasa.gov/ Rarely one can say how often one can and is dependent on the exact definitions of data/update/). These data show that the last expect a repeat performance of the outcome what is being observed. There are several twenty-five to thirty years of temperature of an experiment.... statistical "paradoxes" arising from misdefi- rise are absolutely unprecedented in the his­ nition of what is being observed. Among tory of recorded climate data (and the rate Jan Willem Nienhuys them is the so-called "Monty Hall Problem" of change continues to increase). He may be Dommelseweg, The Netherlands popularized some years ago by Marilyn Vos referring to the satellite data from the past Savant. Martin Gardner, commenting on thirty years but these arc now hotly disputed (Earlier letters on this were published in our an earlier version of the problem, observed as to validity and relevance. May/June issue.—ED.) that "in no other branch of mathematics is Furthermore, and more importantly, the it so easy for experts to blundet as in prob­ rise in CO; and other greenhouse gases in the ability theory." past 100 years is also unprecedented (ice core Science vs. Religion Firing data from Greenland and the Antarctic). The Paul Kuckein current level of CO; is now at the highest level Here is a potential news story: I wrote an Los Altos, California it has been in the past 420,000 years (by 25 essay whose thesis is that science and religion percent from previous highs) and possibly are incompatible. The editor who published since the early Eocene over 50 million years it has been fired. In the index which just George Nagy's criticism of Phil Mole's article ago. The fact that we arc now adding about 18 came out, any reference to the essay and its "Are Skeptics Cynical?" only shows that he billion tons of CO) to the atmosphere annu­ follow-up do not appear. didn't get the point. The human mind will ally provides an undeniable strong human Details: The essay, "Suicide Bombers and focus at least as much on patterns as on component to the observed temperature rise. Their Deity," was published in Spring 2002 number counts. I have no doubt that if the issue of IEEE Technology and Society order of example (1) were to be rearranged so Bruce Bartleson Magazine, pp. 5, 6. The text appears as Essay that heads and tails alternated, John Doc Gunnison, Colorado #18 on my Web site, www.siddcutsch.org. would estimate this to be a less than random The editor is (or was) sequence. Five heads followed by five tails P. Aarne Vesilind would appear even less random. Danish Committee Decision Civil & Environmental Engineering The binomial formula calculates the Dept. probability of different heads/tails combina­ Readers who wrote to complain about the Bucknell Univ. tions. It doesn't calculate the probability of treatment of Bjorn Lomborg's book The Lewisburg, PA 17837 sequences within those combinations. Skeptical Environmentalist (Letters, March/ e-mail: [email protected] John Doe's estimates and George Nagy's April 2003) might be interested in the deci­ Readers' responses were published in Fall four-decimal binomial calculations ore both sion by the Danish Committee on Scientific 2002 issue, pp. 4-6; this text appears as wrong. Every sequence of the same length is Dishonesty (an officially established group) Essay #21 on my Web site. The 2002 Index an equally probable permutation. Grouping upon their review of the book. They found appears in the Spring 2003 issue. these sequences into either patterns or that the book was "objectively speaking, Sid Deutsch counts of heads and tails is a construct of the deemed to fall within the concept of scientific Sarasota, Florida mind. Once John Doe spots a pattern his dishonesty." Some social scientists have come focus narrows and he gives too much impor­ to Lomborg's defense, claiming that it's okay tance to its perceived improbability. The sci­ to use data selectively as Lomborg has entist partitions results into hits and misses because selection of information is common and then might rush to publication when the in the social sciences and is important to null hypothesis is not supported. Sec develop theories in those fields. What limita­ Massimo Pigliucci's article on hypothesis tions this places on their conclusions they testing in the same issue.. .. don't say.

Barry Zimmerman Bill Ferrell Lake Mary, Florida Philomath, Oregon

Deep Denial on Warming? Statistical Analyses

In his response to letters (March/April Richard Fisher (January/February 2003) 2003, p. 70), Vojtech Mornstein appears to explains the meaning of p < 0.05. He seems be in deep denial concerning global warm­ to imply that this means that you can show ing. He states: "I saw some temperature by statistical analysis that if you repeat the change plots which do not seem to differ experiment 100 times you would be from those measured in previous decades." I expected to get the same result ninety-five don't know which temperature plots he is times. Wrong. It means that even if there

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER July/August 2003 69 THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL AT THE CENTER FOR INQUIRYHNTERNATIONAL (ADJACENT TO THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT BUFFALO) AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION Network of Affiliated Organizations International

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OH 44101 US. www.south McGaha. E-mail: JMCGAHAePimaCC.Pima.EDU. 5100 shoreskeptics.org/. N. Sabino Foothills Dr.. Tucson. AZ 85715 US Phoenix LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge Proponents of Rational Inquiry Skeptics. Phoenix. AZ Michael Stackpole. P.O Box and Scientific Methods (BR-PRISM) Louisiana. Marge Association for Rational Thought (ART) Cincinnati 60333. Phoenix. AZ 85082 US. Schroth Tel. 225-766-4747 425 Carriage Way. Baton Roy Auerbach. president Tel: 513-731-2774. e-mail: CALIFORNIA Sacramento Organization for Rational Rouge, LA 70808 US. raaOcinci rr.com PO Box 12896. Cincinnati. OH Thinking (SORT) Sacramento, CA Ray Spangen- MICHIGAN. Great Lakes Skeptics (GLS) SE Michigan 45212 US. www.cincinnati skeptics.org. burg. co-founder Tel: 916-978-0321. e-mail: Loma J. Simmons. Contact person. Tel.. 734-525- OREGON. Oregonians for Rationality (04R) Oregon Dave kitrayOquiknet.com PO Box 2215. Carmichael. CA 5731; e-mail Skeptic3'Oaol com 31710 Cowan Chapman. President. 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Jerry Mertens Tel 320-255- PA 15237 US Philadelphia Association for Critical Sacramento CA 9S841 Tel: 916 489-1774. E-mail 2138, e-mail gmenensOstcloudstate.edu. Jerry Thinking (PhACT), much of Pennsylvania. Eric terryOsandbek.com. San Diego Association for Mertens. Psychology Department. 720 4th Ave, S, Krieg. President. Tel.. 215-885-2089; e-mail: Rational Inquiry (SDARI) President. Todd Rockhold St Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN 56301 US ericOphact.org PO Box 1131. North Wales, PA Tel: (Todd's personal phone) 760 943-8977 Web 19454 US www.phact.org/phact. site www.sdari.org. Email: infoOsdan.org PO Box MISSOURI. Gateway Skeptics, Missouri, Steve Best. 623. La Jolla. CA 92038-0623. 6943 Amherst Ave.. University City. MO 63130 US. TENNESEE. Rationalists of East Tennessee. East Kansas City Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Tennessee. Carl Ledenbecker. Tel: 865-982-8687; e COLORADO. Rocky Mountain Skeptics (RMS) Colo. Wyo, Missouri Verle Muhrer. United Labor Bidg . 6301 mail: AletallOaol.com 2123 Stonybrook Rd, Utah, Mont. Bela Scheiber, President Tel: 303-444- Rockhlll Road. Suite 412 Kansas City. MO 64131 US Louisville, TN 37777 US. 7537; e-mail: rmscentralOmindspring.com PO Box NEBRASKA. REASON (Rationalists. Empiracists and TEXAS. North Texas Skeptics NTS Dallas/Ft Worth area, 7277. Boulder. CO 80306 US. httpy/bcn.boulder Skeptics of Nebraska), Chris Peters. PO Box 24358. John Blanton. Secretary Tel.: 972-306-3187; e-mail: co.us/community/rms Omaha, NE 68134; e-mail reason010hotmail.com, skepticOntskeptics.org PO Box 111794, Carrollton, CONNECTICUT. New England Skeptical Society (NESS) Web page" www.reason ws. TX 75011-1794 US. www.ntskeptics.org. New England Steven Novella MD. President. Tel: NEVADA. Skeptics of Las Vegas, (SOLV) PO Box 531323. VIRGINIA. Science & Reason. Hampton Rds. Virginia. 203-281-6277; e-mail: board Henderson, NV 89053-1323. E-mail: rbanderson Lawrence Weinstein. Old Dominion Univ.-Physics Otheness.com 64 Cobblestone Dr., Hamden, CT Oskepticslv.org Web si«: www.skepticslv.orgy. Dept, Norfolk. VA 23529 US 06518 US. www.theness.com NEW MEXICO. New Mexicans for Science and Reason WASHINGTON. Society for Sensible Explanations, Western D.C./MARYLAND. National Capital Area Skeptics NCAS. (NM5R) New Mexico. David E Thomas. President Washington. Tad Cook, Secretary. E-mail: Maryland. DC, Virginia. D.W. "Chip- Denman Tel.: 505-869-9250; e-mail: nmsrdaveOswcp.com PO k7vwOarrl.net. PO Box 45792. Seattle. WA 98145- Tel 301-587 3827 e-mail: ncasOncas.org PO Box Box 1017. Peralta, NM 87042 US wwwnmsr.org. 0792 US httpy/seattleskeptics org. Advocates for 8428. Silver Spring. MD 20907-8428 US NEW YORK. New York Area Skeptics (NYASk) metro­ Critical Thinking. Larry Henderson. Secretary. Tel.: 509- http://www.ncas.org politan NY area. Jeff Corey, President. 18 299-6778; e-mail: ACTinSpokaneOincamail.com. 3901 S Brooks Rd Medical Lake, WA 99022 FLORIDA. Tampa Bay Skeptks (TBS) Tampa Bay, Florida Woodland Street, Huntington. NY 11743. Tel: (631) Gary Posner. Executive Director Tel: 813-584-0603. 427-7262 e-mail: jcoreyOliu.edu. Web site e-mail: ibskepOaol com 5319 Archstone Dr. #102. www.nyask.com. Inquiring Skeptics of Upper New Tampa. FL 33634 US. http.//members.aol com/ York (ISUNY) Upper New York Michael Sofka. 8 The organizations listed above have aims similar to tbskep. Providence St, Albany. NY 12203 US Central New those of CSICOP but are independent and York Skeptics (CNY Skeptics) Syracuse. Lisa Goodlin. autonomous Representatives of these organizations GEORGIA. Georgia Skeptics (GS) Georgia Rebecca President Tel: 315 446-3068; e-mail: infoOcnyskep- Long. President. Tel.. 770-493-6857, e-mail: arlong cannot speak on behalf of the CSICOP. Please send tics.org. Web site cnyskeptics org 201 Milnor Ave, updates to Barry Karr. P.O. Box 703 Amherst NY Ohcrc.org. 2277 Winding Woods Dr.. Tucker. GA Syracuse. NY 13224 US 30084 US 14226-0703 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL CONSULTANTS

George Agogino. Dept of Anthropology, Eastern New Laurie Godfrey, anthropologist University of Massachusetts Massimo Pigliucci. professor of evolutionary biology. Mexico University Gerald Gokfin. mathematician, Rutgers University. New Jersey University of Tennessee, Knoxville Gary Bauslaugh. educational consultant Center for Curriculum. Donald Goldsmith, astronomer; president Interstellar Media James Pomerantz. Provost and professor of cognitive and lin­ Transfer and Technology, Victoria. B.C. Canada Alan Hale, astronomer. Southwest Institute for Space guistic sciences. Brown Univ. Richard E. Berendzen. astronomer, Washington, D.C Research. Alamogordo, New Mexico Gary P. Posner. M.D, Tampa. Fla. Martin Bridgstock. Senior Lecturer. School of Science. Griffith Clyde F. Herreid professor of bidogy SUNY. Buffalo Daisie Radner, professor of philosophy, SUNY, Buffalo University. Brisbane. Australia Terence M. Hines, professor of psychology, Pace University, Robert H. Romer, professor of physics. Amherst College Richard Busch. magician/mentalist Pittsburgh, Penn Pleasantville N Y Karl Sabbagh. journalist Richmond. Surrey, England Shawn Carlson, Society for Amateur Scientists, East Michael Hutchinson, author. Sumou IHCWWI representa­ Robert J. Samp, assistant professor of education and medi­ Greenwich, Rl tive. Europe cine. University of Wisconsin-Madison Roger B. Culver, professor of astronomy, Colorado State Urav Phip A lama, assoc professor of astronomy. Unrv of Virginia Steven D. Schafersman. asst professor of geology, Miami Felix Ares de Bias, professor of computer science. University William Jarvis, professor of health promotion and public Univ.. Ohio of Basque. San Sebastian, Spain health, Loma linda University, School of Public Health Beta Scheiber.* systems analyst Boulder, Colo Michael R. Dennett writer, investigator. Federal Way. I. W. Kelly, professor of psychology. University of Chris Scott, statistician, London, England Washington Saskatchewan Stuart D. Scott Jr, associate professor of anthropology, Sid DWitsch. consultant Sarasota. Fla Richard H. Lange. MD, Mohawk Valley Physician Health SUNY. Buffalo J. Dommanget astronomer. Royale Observatory. Brussels Plan. Schenectady. NY Erwin M. Segal, professor of psychology, SUNY, Buffalo Belgium Gerald A Larue, professor of bblical history and archaeol­ Carta Selby, anthropologist /archaeologist Nahum J. Duker, assistant professor of pathology, Temple ogy. University of So. California. Steven N. Shore, professor and chair, Dept of Physics and University Wiiam M London, consumer advocate. Fort Lee. New Jersey Astronomy, Indiana Unrv South Bend Barbara Eisenstadt psychologist educator, clinician. East Rebecca Long, nuclear engineer, president of Georgia Council Wadaw Szybabki, professor. McArdle Laboratory, University Greenbush. N Y Against Health Fraud. Atlanta, Ga of Wisconsin-Madison William Evans, professor of communication. Center for Thomas R. McDonough. lecturer m engineering, Caftech, and Ernest H, laves, psychoanalyst Cambridge. Mass Creative Media SETI Coordinator of the Planetary Society Sarah G. Thomason. professor of linguistics. University of John F. Fischer, forensic analyst Orlando. Fla. James E. McGaha. Major, USAF; pilot Pittsburgh Robert E. Funk, anthropologist New York State Museum i Joel A Moskowitz. director of rr*dical psychiatry, Calabasas Tim Tracnet journalist and science writer, honorary chairman Science Service Mental Hearth Services. Los Angeles. of SKEPP. Belgium Eileen Gambrill professor of social welfare. University of Jan WIHem Nienhuys, mathematician, Unrv of Eindhoven, David WiHey. physio instructor. University of Pittsburgh California at Berkeley the Netherlands Sylvio Garattini, director. Mario Negri Pharmacology John W. Patterson, professor of materials science and engi­ • Member. CSICOP Executive Council Institute. Milan. Italy neering. Iowa State University "Associate Member, CSICOP Executrve Council

METRO NEW YORK PERU CENTERS FOR INQUIRY 30 Rockefeller Plaza. «2829 0. Casanova 430. Lima 14, Peru www.centerforinquiry.net New York. NY 10112 Tel: (212) 265-2877 EUROPE INTERNATIONAL Dr. Martin Mariner P.O Box 703 Arheilger Weg 11. D-64380 Rossdorf, Germany Amherst. NY 14226 FRANCE Tel.: +49 6154 695023 Tel : (716) 636-1425 Prof. Henri Broch. Universite of Nice MOSCOW WEST Faculte des Sciences Professor Valerii A Kuvakin 4773 Hollywood Blvd. Pare Valrose. 06108 119899 Russia. Moscow, Vorobevy Gory. Los Arvgefes. CA 90027 Nice cedex 2. France Moscow State University, Tel.: (323) 666-9797 www.unice.fT/ietetics/ Philosophy Department fi Center for Inquiry International k to promote and defend reason, science, and freedom of inquiry in all areas of human endeavor."

THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION &--1 OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL

Auroras over Canada with the 200-million-year-old, 42 mile-wide Manicouagan impact crater in Quebec, Canada in the foreground.

Clouds and Earth's surface are illuminated by the same picture we have two moonlight. This image was taken from the Inter­ phenomena: asteroid impact damage on the sur­ national Space Station (ISS) by astronaut Don face of Earth and auroras," noted Pettit. This photo Pettit, the ISS Expedition 6 science officer. "Here in was issued by NASA on March 24, 2003. Image Credit: (NASA Johnson Space Center / Earth Sciences & Image Analysis) jkL Skeptical Inquirer THE MAGAZINE FOR SCIENCE AND REASON The Committee is a nonprofit scientific and educational organization. The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is its official journal. The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of about the results of such inquiries to the scientific communi- the Paranormal encourages the critical investigation of ty, the media, and the public. It also promotes science and paranormal and fringe-science claims from a responsible, scientific inquiry, critical thinking, science education, and scientific point of view and disseminates factual information the use of reason in examining important issues.

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West Europe Metro New York Los Angeles, California Rossdorf, Germany Manhattan, New York Peru France Moscow Peru Universite of Nice, France Moscow State University

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