The Impact of Ghana's Competing Independence Narratives After The

Strife Journal, Issue 5 (May/ June 2015) History Production after Undemocratic Regime Change: The Impact of Ghana’s Competing Independence Narratives after the First Coup d’État on Peace and Political Stability Clement Sefa-Nyarko Introduction since defended the airing of the documentary and insisted on its neutrality in all its The turbulence that accompanies undemocratic broadcasts. regime changes often shakes the socio-political and economic structures of societies that The dominance of the victor’s narrative is a experience them. Among others, the new common phenomenon in all post-conflict centres of power restructure history through societies, especially those conflicts which are the manipulation of memory, ‘since they decide resolved through outright victory of one party. which narratives should be remembered, Conflicts that end through settlements have preserved and disseminated’.1 Controversies different dynamics, since main actors in the over the memory of the 1994 genocide in conflict come together for peace-building and Rwanda, and the different narratives about state-building, and by implication, production Kwame Nkrumah and Ghana’s First Republic of history for society. Educational policies and typify this scenario. Narratives are subjective curricula are designed to achieve certain agenda recall of events, real or abstract, and form suitable to the victor or main actors. These are fundamental part of collective memory. It is in likely to affect peace-building and fact sine qua non for national history reconciliation, since collective remembrance has reconstruction. Some scholars believe that the healing effects on people who are grieved.4 official Rwandese government narrative of the genocide ‘selectively highlights some civilian The complexity of post-conflict history memories of violence, and represses others in production is characteristic of post-Cold War order to hide complicity of the Kagame regime Africa. Prior to this era, coup d’états were the in the hundred days of atrocities of 1994.2 The main instruments of regime change, especially Rwandese government has also responded in sub-Saharan Africa, and these became tools angrily to such attempts to accuse it of for both political stabilization and manipulating the history of the genocide. In destabilization. Ghana presents a typical case October 2014, for instance, the government where the writing and re-writing of history suspended British Broadcasting Corporation through coup d’états has progressively created a (BBC) radio programmes from Rwandese culture of silence which has contributed to airwaves through national legislation, in protest political stability in the last third of its fifty- against a BBC documentary that the Rwandese seven (57) years of existence. In history government found offensive.3 The BBC has construction, culture of silence occurs when ‘there is enduring absence of the whole truth’ in narratives about the past and inherent 1 Nascimento Araujo and Myrian dos Santos, ‘History, deficiencies that lack fairness, accuracy and Memory and Forgetting’, RCCS Annual Review, 2009, par. sensitivity to all members of society.5 When 12, online at http://rccsar.revues.org/157 (all online sources accessed last on 27 April 2015 unless otherwise stated). www.theguardian.com/media/2014/oct/24/rwanda- 2 Elizabeth King, ‘Memory Controversies in Post- bans-bbc-broadcasts-genocide-documentary Genocide Rwanda: Implications for Peacebuilding’, 4 But this is true only as far as the remembrance is from Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, Vol. their perspective. 5 (2010), p. 293. 5 Rea Simigiannis, ‘Do memory initiatives have a role in 3 ‘Rwanda bans BBC broadcasts over genocide addressing cultures of silence that perpetuate impunity in documentary’, The Guardian, 24 October 2014, online at South Africa?’, Perspectives Series Research Report for Impunity 20 Strife Journal, Issue 5 (May/ June 2015) such culture of silence is imposed by the state, silence, as in the case of Canadians after the it could lead to systematic suppression of bombing of an airline from Montreal to emotions and perspectives of some members London in 1985 that led to the death of 329 of society in formal narratives. Societies also people. After 22 years of silence, the Canadian subtly impose culture of silence upon Prime Minister Stephen Harper unveiled a themselves after major tragic events, especially memorial in Toronto during which he when the trauma associated with the tragedy is expressed some guilt over the apathy of his deep.6 They do this through careful countrymen over the event: ‘Like bystanders at subconscious mechanisms that select what to a public assault, many initially looked the other remember and what to forget.7 way and thought it’s none of our business. It is terrible, hurtful mistake that Canada will always Memory therefore becomes ‘a selective process’ regret’.11 Grayling justifies such silence and that either ‘become a political weapon’ in the forgetting in his account of painful events at hands of power wielders to achieve subjective World War II: interests,8 or a socio-cultural process of healing and connection with the past that shapes the Everyone wants to move on as quickly as present. The time it takes for this culture to possible after such immense trauma; the fade depends on how traumatic the event is, immediate post-war years were not a but also on other social and political factors. In time for self-examination and a clear- 2006, for instance, Tony Blaire publicly declared eyed adjustment of accounts. Even in ‘his regret over British involvement in the slave the much larger and more significant trade over two hundred years earlier’ and stated matter of the Holocaust, time had to how ‘profoundly shameful’ the era was.9 In pass before survivors and witnesses were responding to why it took so long for such a able to recover enough, after a period of public acknowledgement, John Prescott, the forgetting and silence, to address the then Deputy Prime Minister, responded in a experience and its profound meanings.12 way that explains how the culture of silence works in societies: Not all such cultures of silence evolve naturally. Some are imposed by politicians and power Like the Holocaust we are learning to wielders as in the case of Ghana following the talk about the slave trade openly and overthrow of Nkrumah. honestly. Tragic and terrible as it was, the slave trade defied anyone to talk about it Fifteen years after the imposition of cultures of because it was so horrendous.10 silence over the memory of Nkrumah following his overthrow in 1966, the competing Some societies look back with regret at the narratives about his memory in the post-1980 occurrence and time span of their culture of era of remembrance have created a forum for national conversation that has galvanized Watch (2012), p. V; P. Freire, The Politics of Education: national cohesion and stability in the Fourth Culture, Power and Liberation (Macmillan, 1985) Republic.13 National cohesion and political 6 Sara McDowell, ‘Time Elapsed: Untangling Commemorative Temporalities after Conflict and Tragedy’, Journal of War and Culture Studies, Vol. 6, No. 3 11 In McDowell, ‘Time Elapsed’, p. 186. (2013), p. 187. 12 A. C. Grayling, All the Dead Cities: Is the Targeting of 7 Ibid., p. 191; see also Vered Vinitzky-Seroussi and civilians in war ever justified? (Bloonsbury, 2006), p. 207. Chana Teeger, ‘Unpacking the Unspoken: Silence in 13 Ghana has had four republican constitutions since Collective Memory and Forgetting’, Social forces, Vol. 88, independence in 1957. The First Republic was led by No. 3 (2010), pp. 1103-1122, as well as Freire, The Politics Kwame Nkrumah from 1960 to February 1966. The of Education. Second Republic was led by K. A. Busia (Prime Minister) 8 Maria Paula Nascimento Araujo and Myrian Sepulveda between 1969 and 1972. The Third Republic was led by dos Santos, ‘History, Memory and Forgetting: Political Hilla Limann (president) between 1979 and December Implications, RCCS Annual Review, No. 1, 2009 1981. The Fourth Republic has had three governments 9 McDowell, ‘Time Elapsed’, p. 185. so far since 1992, and these have been led by Jerry John 10 P. Wintour, ‘Commemoration Day to Recall Slave Rawlings, J. A. Kuffour, J. E. A. Mills and John Dramani Trade and make UK Face up to Past’, The Guardian, 23 Mahama. Prior to the Fourth Republic, each republic was March 2007, p. 4 truncated by police/military coup d’états. 21 Strife Journal, Issue 5 (May/ June 2015) stability have been achieved partly through the prominent opposition members, some of exceptional spotlight placed on Nkrumah – for whom died in prison (like J. B. Danquah).16 or against him and his ideals (personality cults) Opposition members also launched many – which has overshadowed sectarian, ethnic, undercover, guerrilla-styled, attacks on religious and other ideological divisions in Nkrumah’s government. national politics. This paper explores how the remembrance of the memory of Nkrumah A second source of tension existed between after fifteen years of imposition of culture of adherents of Capitalism and Socialism, silence on his memory has contributed to supporters of the Western and Eastern blocs.17 sustainable national cohesion. According to Biney, Nkrumah’s drift towards the East in 1961 increased animosity against his Fundamental sources (history) of tension leading to the government, gradually building up the pressure first coup d’état in Ghana in 1966 until his overthrow in 1966.18 A third

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