HeLDEANi CLOSEC SCHOOL CLASSICoS DEPARTMENNT MAGAZINE
The Wilson Challenge Life of a Roman Slave AS Temples and Structures The Man behind the Muscle
Volume 3 | Michaelmas Term 2016 Welcome
WELCoME To THE THIRD EDITIon oF THE DEAn CLoSE N CLASSICS DEPARTMEnT MAGAzInE ‘HELICON’ o C i L e
elcome to the third edition of the Dean Close Classics Department magazine Helicon. You will find in these pages submissions from teaching colleagues and
H the final crossword puzzle from our expert cruciverbalist, Eliot Tottman, who has left us to begin his Classics degree course at Exeter University and also contributes an essay on Plato. We are also sad to say goodbye to Mr Charles Wright, who had been helping us out in his retirement, and Miss Connie Chapman, who moves on to the Classics DWepartment of St John’s, Leatherhead. For the first time, Helicon includes two Contents collections of essays: the first is a set of literary analyses written by members of last year’s GCSE Latin set on a passage from Virgil’s Aeneid; the second is a 3. The Wilson Challenge number of submissions to our annual Wilson Challenge: a competition open to The mystery of Venus de Milo’s missing arms Phidias’ Statue of Zeus at Olympia all members of the school, which at the end of the Trinity Term 2016 required Praxiteles’ Aphrodite of Knidos entrants to investigate any work of art or building from classical antiquity that Forma Urbis Romae Atlantis has been lost to us and, then, to evaluate its significance. Since Mr 9. The Life of a Roman Slave Brian Wilson finally retired in July 10. Eliot’s Cruciverbalists’ Corner - crossword this year at the spritely young age 11. Practical Class Civ – Tooke and Flaxman of 80 years old, the members of the 12. To what extent are women portrayed as victims in Virgil’s Aeneid? Department would like to dedicate 14. Reflections on AS Temples and Sculptures this edition to him, in recognition of many years of loyal and 16. Does Plato provide an Authoritative Thesis of Wisdom? outstanding service as a teacher of 17. Greek Koine: the Language of the Romans? Classics at Dean Close. 18. Heracles in Tragedy: the Man behind the Muscle 20. Literary Analyses of Virgil’s Aeneid 9:314-50 23. How Athenian is our version of The odyssey? David Evans
2 The Wilson Challenge HeLiCoN
The Wilson challenge encourages students to be independent in their learning and to be able to develop an argument which is coherent, well supported and robustly defended The Wilso nChallenge Brian Wilson
was appointed Head of Classics in 1995 Brian’s knowledge of both Classical and English Literature following the retirement of Brian Wilson as was impressive and his lessons always started with what he both Head of Classics and Senior Master. Brian described as “a pearl”, a quotation form Thucydides, was a much revered figure, a schoolmaster of Aristotle or Homer, for example, by which means he was extraordinary talents equally at home discussing able to introduce scholars to the literature and history of the the merits of Horace as a poet with an Classical world. His contributions to the sixth Form oxbridge student as he was talking scrums and Symposium were always eagerly anticipated as he would rucks with a member of the first XV. always choose a passage from a favourite author of his to read Persuading Brian to return to the Classics Department on a out aloud. His pronunciation, and his sensitivity to the part-time basis must rank as one of the easiest tasks that I cadences of Latin verse in particular (delivered in a lilting have fulfilled in my role as Head of Department; it also Belfast accent) made the symposium an experience that I proved to be a stroke of genius! Brian’s command of both always looked forward to. Recital was followed by exegesis – IClassical languages is superb and many of our best scholars full of insight, marked by a clarity of exposition and have benefited from his lexicon-like knowledge of delivered with a quite brilliant economy of expression. I vocabulary, his ability to find just the right word in Latin and remember vividly Brian’s recital of Catullus LI (ille mi par in Greek. In fact, the Greek lexicon was never far away from esse deo videtur…) in which he Brian who appeared to be umbilically attached to it! Brian’s dissected the poem with surgical skill approach to language was rigorous, with the acquisition of and brought out the longing and grammatical and syntactical knowledge a key ingredient in urgency communicated by Catullus’ his teaching; principal parts, paradigms, conjugations and use of the Sapphic metre. declensions - they all had to be learnt so thoroughly that The Wilson challenge encourages they became part of one’s DnA. Brian carried out much of students to be independent in their his teaching in the Classics resources room which was learning and to be able to develop an renamed Plato’s Cave in recognition of the learning that was argument which is coherent, well generated within it. In his refusal to bow before the high supported and robustly defended – a altar of political correctness, his Juvenal-like scorn for fitting tribute to BKW, magister modern day preoccupations and his terse and witty magnus, homo universalis. pronouncements on everyday life, Brian ensured that there was never a dull moment when working alongside him. Jon Allen
3 The Wilson Challenge
Phidias’ Statue of Zeus at Olympia
he olympic Games were implemented during each olympics, founded in 776 BC. forbidding armies from entering olympia, Although for the first 200 suspending disputes, and outlawing the death years, these games only penalty. This had a very practical element, had regional importance, allowing athletes and spectators to travel to the with athletes coming games unimpeded, but perhaps more from nearby mountains, they expanded to importantly, provided a time of peace, in include all of the Greek cities, as well as Syria, which diplomacy and negotiations could take ATsia Minor and Egypt. Therefore, the original place, away from the arenas of war. shrine to zeus was no longer sufficient, so a much larger temple began construction in This helped to de-escalate conflicts and defuse 470 BC, designed by Libon of Elis. However, tensions, as both sides could meet in a peaceful when the temple finished construction in 456 context. The statue itself played a very BC, it was still deemed unworthy, as after all, important role, uniting the Greeks around the the very function of the olympics was to one thing they all shared – their poly-theistic worship the king of the gods. Consequently, a religion. opposing sides both used to sacrifice statue was commissioned – the Statue of zeus to the Statue of zeus, re-affirming their at olympia, which would become one of the similarities during conflict. Even during the seven ancient wonders of the world. The Peloponnesian War, a conflict between Athens sculptor Phidias was chosen for this and Sparta which in reality dragged in every monumental task, as he had already proven his Greek city, the olympics continued, and skill by erecting a 40 foot statue of the Sparta guaranteed safe passage through the goddess Athena in Athens. territory they held, into olympia. Although none of the statue remains, the geographer Pausanias and historian But how is this relevant today? During the London 2012 olympics, the idea Strabo give us detailed accounts of the statue. There are numerous theories as of an olympic truce was re-captured. In 2011, a United nations resolution to how the statue was destroyed; some believe the emperor Caligula was passed to “build a peaceful and better world through sport and the demanded the statue to be taken to Rome, during a recall of all statues, so that olympic ideal”. Despite this, at least 30 wars raged during this olympic zeus’ head could be replaced with his. However, Caligula was assassinated period, whereas only twice was the truce broken in ancient times. It is shortly afterwards, so this may not have been carried out. The statue was 40 inconceivable that in modern times such a truce would be effective, due to the feet tall and 22 feet wide, and had a highly ornate throne with gold, ebony, and huge cultural, religious and ideological rifts that exist between most warring ivory, inlaid with precious stones. zeus held a sceptre in his left hand, and a countries, and the all-encompassing, geopolitical nature of modern warfare. statue of the goddess nike in his right, symbolising the victory that athletes However, surely it is not implausible to suggest that, occasionally, countries pursued in the games. could learn from the ancients, putting their differences aside, working to create a more peaceful, co-operative world. To appreciate the significance of the statue, we first need to understand the geography of Greece at this time. Greece was not as we know it today, but a I end with a quotation from the President of the International olympic collection of small city states, most notably Athens and Sparta. City states were Committee during the height of the cold war, where it seemed that the games constantly competing for limited resources, so wars were frequent, making the would be cancelled: “In the Golden Age there was an olympic truce and all region very unstable. warfare stopped during the period of the games, after two thousand years of civilization, we stop the games and continue our wars.” The olympics originally only functioned to worship zeus, but began to gain political significance, unifying the Greek states. An ekecheira, or truce, was Hugo Till
4 The Wilson Challenge
Praxiteles’ Aphrodite of Knidos
y presentation is on the Praxiteles was both attracting and detracting our claim that her right arm was placed in this manner Statue named the attention from it. Her left hand is holding the not to cover herself or for modesty, but because Aphrodite of Knidos, drapery from her body, as she is interrupted in Praxiteles was trying to draw attention to her sculpted by Praxiteles placing it beside her. This interruption seems sexuality in an understated way. This was also out of marble around apparent in all aspects of her stature. The unheard of in the representation of the female 330BC. I’d like to begin contrapposto pose gives her a shift in weight and statue, especially on a goddess. The statue attracted by talking about her physique. Her head is held sense of informality. a lot of attention and gathered followers who high, instead of facing downwards in shame, adored it in a way that was new at the time. There The story behind the statue is this: in about suggesting that she is aware of her nudity or caught were people, who thought of her as proudly M 330BC the islanders of Kos commissioned off guard. Her entire form enticing in her figure, as if Praxiteles had created Praxiteles to create a statue of Aphrodite. So is that of a regular and manipulated her to be treasured in this way. Praxiteles sculpted two works of art, one nude and female, instead of Some viewers were convinced she was a real one fully draped. The citizens of Kos rejected the polished surfaces woman because of how realistic she was. nude statue because it was too controversial. and idealised body However, the nearby city of Knidos heard that a She had a great effect simply on the people who types. Her right stature of Aphrodite by Praxiteles was for sale, and saw her, but she also has a continuing significant arm is reaching for a low price (because it had been rejected), so which may not be considered. First, there is the down towards they bought it. It put Knidos on the map when case of the copies, which came in such an her pelvis, admirers of this statue travelled from all over to see abundance that they got a name for themselves, which her beauty, so they put her up in a rotunda to be Knidia. They came in a wide range of media, and shows viewed from all angles, as was intended. The statue sculptors played with her expression, the that also inspired a plurality of copies, which varied in placement of her arms and other motifs with her. both media and with her posture or expression. This clearly shows how celebrated the statue was, These copies became known as Knidia, also and how much of a breakthrough it made. The printed on coins, which was often how Roman most famous of these copies because known and sculptors had any idea what the original loved in their own right, ones such as the Venus de Aphrodite of Knidos looked like. The statue Medici or the Capitoline Venus. Due to the extent was lost in AD476 presumed burned in the of her fame, she had a great effect on art and the fire of Lausos in Constantinople after it direction it took. She paved the way for was stolen from Knidos. innumerable female nude statues that came after her, which could now be depicted both This statue clearly caused quite a stirring idealistically and realistically. She opened a among first the citizens of Kos and then doorway to an acceptance of the female body that eventually the entire Mediterranean came about in an unexpected way. Prior to her, the world, but why? First of all, simply for naked female body was only represented on vases being the first female nude statue. Male and jugs used for home decoration. She marked a nude statues had already been around turning point in history, whence the female body for three centuries, but this was the could be embraced and endlessly depicted from first of its kind, which in any case then on. would attract attention. The statue itself is very human; the I’d like to end with a quote, which comes from a weight shifts in her body give a letter sent to Praxiteles from Phryne, talking of the human manner to this goddess’ statue and its effect: "...have no fear; for you have form, whereas statues before wrought a very beautiful work of art, such as had always been rigid and nobody, in fact, has ever seen before among all inhuman. It is rumoured that things fashioned by men's hands: you have set up a the model for the statue was a statue of your own mistress in the sacred Greek courtesan, Phryne, who precinct....and do not begrudge me this honour. was rumoured to have had a For it is Praxiteles that people praise when they romantic affair with Praxiteles, have gazed at me..." something considered scandalous. Some interpretations of her stature Lauren Ferro
5 The Wilson Challenge
Forma Urbis Romae
ll Latinists will know that map survives… and what is left is broken into details at top, more than 40 feet up the wall. Forma Urbis Romae mean 1,186 pieces. For centuries, scholars have tried to Besides, it would have been near useless because ‘The Shape of the City of match the fragments and reconstruct this great only a small percentage of its features were labelled Rome’. Hence, it is a colossal puzzle, but progress is slow – the marble pieces are with inscriptions to guide the viewer. map of Rome. It covered an heavy, unwieldy, and not easily accessible. others How about a cadastral map? For those, who are not entire wall in the Templum are so small that their carved surfaces do not familiar with this term, cadastral maps are used to Pacis (Temple of Peace). It was carved between 203 provide much identifiable information. document who owns which properties in a city. and 211 AD. It depicted the floorplan of every This fragment shows part of the Subura, a Unfortunately, here we draw another blank. Unlike architectural feature in the ancient city, from large A notorious neighbourhood of imperial Rome. It the few known Roman cadastral maps of stone, the public monuments to small shops, rooms, and even includes a major street, the Clivus Suburanus, as Severan plan delineated walls with single lines (as staircases. It was built under the emperor Septimius well as alleys, street front shops, apartment opposed to double outlines) and it lacked Severus. Thus, another name for it is the Severan buildings, courtyards, possible commercial and ownership annotations. Marble Plan. His reign is famous for the industrial spaces, and a neighbourhood bathing militarization of the government, growing It’s most likely that rather than serving a utilitarian establishment (balneum). oriental influences in society, and development of purpose, it was a decorative showpiece – to civil law. Unavoidably, time aided the gradual destruction of demonstrate the truly majestic ancient city. the plan; but it was not the only cause. In the early The Plan was an enormous 60x40 feet. That’s a The Severan Marble Plan would be a crucial 5th century, the Plan suffered its first major damage similar area to a Wimbledon tennis court! It was resource for studying the ancient city of Rome. Its when a passageway was punched through the wall incredibly detailed, showing every back entrance, enormous scale and astonishing detail means that it behind it. The large, circular hole demolished the every secret staircase of every taverna, balneum and contained unique information about the city in the area on the Plan that depicted key spaces such as insula. A handful of Renaissance artists attempted early 3rd century AD. It would have shown famous the Roman forum and Palatine Hill. Furthermore, to sketch or paint the Marble Plan, however their monuments, Rome’s lesser-known sometime in the late medieval period, the pieces are so small compared to the original that neighbourhoods and its major streets. It would Templum Pacis, in which the Marble Plan was the amount of detail is nowhere near as abundant. have given us invaluable understanding of the lives housed, was unfortunately abandoned and of normal people: where they bought their This is Patrizio Di Sciullo’s attempt at recreating eventually deteriorated. Many of the marble slabs groceries, where their children went to school, the Plan. The Italian text at the top means were robbed for reuse as building material or for their religious lives. The Plan also could have ‘Monumental plan of Rome for the Great Jubilee the production of lime. The rest gradually fell from taught us about ancient Roman ideas of the city, of the Year 2000’. You can make out the the wall and, with time, were buried. ideologies of representation, and mapping and Colosseum, the river Tiber, the Imperial Forum An almost greater puzzle than the Forma Urbis surveying. The more we knew about the Forma and the iconic Circus Maximus. However, we Romae itself is the question of its function. Could Urbis Romae, the more we would know about already know about these ancient monuments as it have been used as a locator map? Possibly… imperial Rome. I hope that this ancient lost they are still standing; what this map is missing is however David Reynolds – a historian – has artefact has interested the reader as much as it has the meticulous detail captured by the real Forma demonstrated that this could not have been the fascinated me. Urbis Romae. Plan’s function. First, it was too large to be The Severan Marble Plan is a key resource for the consulted. Someone standing on the floor in front study of ancient Rome, but only 10-15% of the of it would not have been able to make out the Pollyanna Harris
6 The Wilson Challenge
irst recorded in 360BC by Plato in the art of writing, and a polished language. They The unfathomable evidence for the existence of ‘Timaeus’ and ‘Critias’, Atlantis is had come from the direction of the setting sun and Atlantis is opposed by an equal amount of disproof. an ancient lost civilisation existing were the most ancient of men.’ Intervention from So, it is unlikely that we will ever really know if it over 12 000 years ago, thought to Atlantis could explain certain enigmas in Ancient did exist, or to what extent Plato’s descriptions are have been situated in and around Egypt such as the pyramids, which were deemed factual. It is clear that certain elements have been today’s Atlantic ocean, before it too advanced to have been built by the Egyptians, exaggerated, such as the flooding of Atlantis in one sank around 10 000 BC. The Atlantic is calculated since we would still struggle today to construct day and one night, unless we really do uphold to have been 350 feet shallower then than it is them, even with modern technology. belief in some kind of divine intervention: today, thus exposing more land on which to build. polytheistic, as Plato described it, or indeed like the F In 1938, alleged psychic Edgar Cayce made this There is so much evidence for and against the biblical account. prediction: ‘A portion of the temples [of Atlantis] existence of Atlantis in so many locations, such as may yet be discovered under the slime of ages and However, if we are to assume that Atlantis did Japan, the Mediterranean and even Antarctica, that sea water near Bimini… expect it in ’68 or ’69 - indeed exist, it encourages us to change our it is very difficult to define its existence. However, not so far away.’ Interestingly, on the 2nd perception of great civilisations, viewing them in if it did exist, we are faced with an entity, which September 1968, Joseph Mason Valentine the light of sharing a common ancestor, the questions the delicate relationship between myth discovered this structure off the coast of Bimini Atlanteans. This new perspective could potentially and reality. (just east of Miami), 20 feet underwater. This unveil new evidence and allow us to better A central component in the story of Atlantis is the megalith, The Bimini Road as it is now known, understand where we came from - a regaining of notion of The Deluge. This cataclysm appears in stretches for half a mile underwater, with large, flat lost cultural memory. Added to this, we may give over five-hundred strikingly similar legends, rocks cut at right angles, set in mysteriously straight more attention to other so-called ‘myths’ and including the Bible which features noah’s Flood. lines. perhaps extract the seeds of truth from various Hence, we are tempted to believe that this flood really did happen, causing the destruction of Atlantis, thought to be brought about by the onset of the Holocene interglacial in 10 000 BC. Whilst many civilisations can be traced back to Atlantis, such as the Aztecs and the Greeks, particularly curious and significant are the Atlantean links to Ancient Egypt. Plato’s recording of Atlantis can be traced to the Egyptian Priests of supposedly fictional accounts, greatly altering the Egerton Sykes, a 20th century British scholar, Sais, who obtained the story from ancient tablets Atlanhistoricatl landscaipe of ous r development. and writings in Egypt. Plato recorded that Atlantis ascertained that Bimini was once the location of was ruled by ten kings before its demise, reflected the Mitchell-Hedges Crystal Skull, discovered in Plato recalls that Atlantis was initially a utopia, until by the Egyptian mythology which states that there 1924 in Southern Belize. Made from a single the inhabitants were corrupted by power and were originally ten god-kings, who ruled in a quartz crystal, the skull itself is life-size, and greed, and were then destroyed by the gods in one foreign country, Atlantis. anatomically perfect, featuring an intricate network day and one night. Although this account may not of prisms and lenses which illuminate the face. be entirely factual, we can still learn valuable But where is the actual physical link between the After extensive analysis on the skull, researchers at lessons from the downfall of Atlantis. We are two cultures? on the marble sarcophagus of Seti I, Hewlett-Packard reached a number of conclusions: introduced to a previously unconscious lost extract the Egyptian god nu is shown waist deep in water, those who created it had a crafting ability at least as of the world’s experience, recording an episode carrying the 10 god-kings across the sky. This is advanced as our own; it would take a single man where aggression and violence led to a cataclysmic supposedly a representation of the Eastern 300 years to carve it, and to recreate it accurately culmination. other Greek myths recall a Great War migration of Atlanteans that occurred after the would be virtually impossible. preceding this, chillingly resonant today in the deluge. Identified by hieroglyphs is the 8th god- potential of modern nuclear warfare. It makes us Quartz was a fairly abundant material in the king, Thoth. Thoth is credited with the invention wonder if we might do it again, destroying our volcanic Mid-Atlantic Ridge at the time of Atlantis, of writing, thus adding tremendous significance to civilisation just as the Atlanteans destroyed theirs. making it quite possible that Atlanteans carved the the continent of Atlantis - the origin of all skull. Carbon dating does not test quartz, but the language. skull is estimated to be around 12 000 years old, William Bunker This idea is supported by Diodorus of Sicily, who which slots into the Atlantean time frame. This wrote in 50BC: ‘The Egyptians were strangers, indicates the technological significance of Atlantis, who settled on the banks of the nile, bringing suggesting that we can study the arts of this with them the civilisation of their mother country, civilisation in order to further advance our own.
7 The Wilson Challenge
The mystery of Venus de Milo’s missing arms
Today I’m going to you about the mystery that does not even depict Aphrodite. Victory (or surrounds the statue known to us as Venus de nike) is often depicted nestling a shield on her Milo. It is believed to depict Aphrodite (Venus to left knee, recording names of heroes on the the Romans), the goddess of love and beauty. It back. This is a position which could feasibly be was discovered on the island of Milos (which is taken up by Venus de Milo and hence has also called Milo or Melos in antiquity) in 1820 become a popular theory. Further to that, some by a peasant named Yorgos Kentrotas and his people speculate that perhaps it is Aphrodite son, within the ruins of the ancient city, and was after all and she is using the shield, again, as a removed and taken to France by French naval mirror. officers where it is now on display in the Another theory from Archaeology professor and Louvre, Paris. textiles expert Elizabeth Wayland Barber You may well be wondering why, when suggests that the statue is portrayed to be choosing an example of lost art, I have elected to spinning thread, which in turn suggests that it discuss a statue which was actually recovered. It represents a prostitute as this was an activity is not the statue itself that I am considering but associated with Greek sex workers. the mystery that surrounds her missing arms.We All these theories, however, are very difficult, if will almost certainly never be able to find not impossible, to prove. And so, I do not want closure as to what her arms were doing, as to to focus on what could have been there but what sort of position she is holding herself, as to more on what is not. whether this statue may have been part of a bigger piece, positioned alongside depictions of Venus de Milo owes a lot of its fame to the fact other gods or mortals. The way that she was that it has no arms. It has become a staple of positioned could easily alter our perception of modern pop culture due to this irregularity. In how the ancient world viewed the gods. 1936, Salvador Dali recreated the statue complete with a set of drawers protruding from There are many theories as to what exactly her body. She is also constantly included in Aphrodite was doing with her arms, ranging cartoons like this one, depicting an amusing way from the sublime to the ridiculous, and here are she originally positioned her arms. some of them: she was imagined for a while, standing next to a great warrior such as Mars or Perhaps, for poor old Venus anyway, it is good Theseus, with her left hand grazing his that the arms were never recovered. Most of the shoulder, or perhaps even balancing a spear in fame of the piece rests in the mystery that her own hand; as the goddess of beauty, one surrounds it. 200 years ago, aristocrats rushed to particular theory, which has remained the Vatican museum to see the Apollo Belvedere, popular, is that she was portrayed gazing at a statue which is a good example of the rational her reflection in a handheld mirror; clarity of divine beauty, but it lacks the mystery however, the most commonly accepted that comes from being incomplete. nowadays, theory believes her to be holding an we seem to be fascinated with sculptures and apple in one hand and leaning on a other pieces of art which time has left not quite pedestal (the apple being a possible whole. It allows each person to fantasise with reference to the golden apple awarded to their own theories behind the mystery. The her in the famous story of the Louvre itself is full of these ‘imperfections’, with judgement of Paris). This was even which the modern world seems to be so suggested as a possible restoration to obsessed. This obsession with the Venus de Milo’s the statue by one, Adolf Furtwangler. lack of arms highlights the modern world’s ambivalence towards classical beauty. Some slightly more far-fetched theories suggest that the statue Patrick Coniam
6 The Life of a Roman Slave
n Roman Times, slavery was a part of on the other hand, however, masters could treat allowed to use a whip’. As we know, whipping everyday life, and was not seen as cruel their slaves in a very cruel way. The master was was a common form of punishment. Moreover, I or immoral. By the 1st Century AD, allowed to physically abuse the slave, whether it think that slaves were treated badly due to their about 30% of the population of Rome was sexual assault or a beating with a whip. Also, low status in society. They were treated as ‘non- were slaves. A slave was the property of if the slave had children, the master had a right of citizens’ and masters clearly lacked respect for his/her owner (called the master or the killing or selling the children, showing that slaves them. Therefore, I believe that slaves were more Paterfamilias), and the treatment of slaves could be treated in an extraordinary way. often treated awfully by their masters, despite depended on the master’s personality. All masters Furthermore, as a punishment, a slave could be some masters treating slaves relatively well. had full control of their slaves and chose their sent to the Arena, to take part in Gladiator Fights I Personally, having studied the Life of Slaves in own way of treating them. (a form public entertainment). Seneca, de Ancient Rome, I have developed a wide variety Clementia I, 24.1 talks about how ‘savagely hard’ on the one hand, masters could treat their slaves of knowledge about Roman Social life and the the life of slaves was at the time. Also, this with kindness and generosity, providing them treatment of slaves. I found it fascinating how the primary source suggests that due to slaves being with plenty of food and a shelter. Furthermore, Romans operated the slave trade and it has threatened by their owners, ‘mercifully’ their life the masters might pay their slaves money, influenced my opinions towards slavery; despite was also very ‘short’. This portrays the fact that a eventually to buy their freedom and be released it in the past being morally acceptable, I now master’s cruel treatment of slaves can affect the from slavery. Additionally, a kind master could believe that it is cruel and wrong from an ethical slave’s life greatly. Finally, cruel masters limited free a slave, if the owner felt that the slave had viewpoint. Furthermore, throughout my study the slave’s social lives; they had full control of deserved his/her freedom, due to either long of this topic, I was shocked by the horrifying their lives, disallowing them to even have a service, obedience or a heroic act. Besides, a slave treatment of slaves; they often lived in an relationship outside of the household. This shows could be kept in a comfortable environment, uncomfortable environment and lacked any that many slaves lacked freedom and had to be whilst working for their master. For example, in recognizable legal rights. However, I found it very obedient. Varro, Rerum Rusticorum I, 17.1, 5-7 it says that very interesting to analyse some benefits of being slaves have been kept in a household with ‘food’, In conclusion, I believe that Roman masters a slave. For example, slaves were often provided ‘clothes’, ‘permission to graze their own cattle on were both cruel and kind to their slaves, with shelter, food and, sometimes, slaves were the estate’ and ‘other concessions’. This clearly although the treatment of slaves completely even paid a wage, called a ‘peculiam’. overall, I shows that slaves could benefit from working in depended on their master; kind masters would discovered that learning about Slavery isn’t only someone’s household, being provided with be more likely to be nice to their slaves, whereas educationally beneficial, but it has developed my essentials: clothes, shelter and food. Also, the same cruel masters tended to be much more strict and moral viewpoint on controversial topics, making source (Varro, Rerum Rusticorum I) talks about aggressive. Generally, I think that slaves were me recognize the difference between Roman masters giving their slaves ‘longer breaks’ treated badly by their masters. This is due to the Times and now. between their working times. This vividly fact that there are numerous primary sources, Timur Yakubson demonstrates that, despite slaves being properties which emphasise the unfair treatment of slaves. of their masters, some were treated with For example, Varro, Rerum Rusticarum I, 17.1, appreciation, understanding and sensitivity. 5-7 says that a slave’s foreman ‘must not be
9 Eliot’s Cruciverbalists’ Corner
ACRoSS
1. Pale Headmaster of Hogwarts (5) 4. Practice exams apparently soon (3) 5. They say he's frozen - surely not? (3) 7. noisy second place prize is a wood (5) 10. Ground reported fear (5) 12. Earth bone contains broken rib (gen.) (5) 13. For, reflect male human (3) 14. Why cut off the pavement? (3) 15. Catholic leader containing riot is near (5) 6 17. Scarcely 14 returned (3) 18. Loved to transfer a United midfielder (fem. abl. Sing.) (5) 20. The sun cut Han short (3) 24. Regularly blips twice (3) 26. I say (5) 28. Fear the clock! (4) 30. Kill sibling's daughter losing interest! (4) 33. Conversation reflects Spanish names, dropping Ben and nora (5) 34. I besiege part of corn cob, side of mayo (7) 35. Bow arch? (5) 37. To give in Latin or audere in English (4) 40. Accusative of ego (2) 42. But start Amidala's transport (2) 43. Either true/false (4) 46. Shout, regularly collar my ogre (6) 48. Able marsupial! (6) 50. Lost lamb ut baa began to walk (9) 51. I did not know to cook some gaping void (6) 54. Greek letter (6) 57. That part is toλo much (not ille) (abl. masc.
Sing.) (4) DoWn 44. I feast (5) 58. quam or tops Anakin Skywalker (2) 45. Unequal, I'm rap false (5) 59. Be him? (ωnoς m.) (2) 1. R oman emperor after wh om a month is nam ed ( 8 ) 47. My noisy mayonnaise (abl. masc.) (3) 61. Rose killed guilty men (acc.) (4) 2. In order to (2) 49. Phone card, I am (subj.) (3) 63. Blind (gen. masc. sing.) (5) 4 3. Saw false rares (5) 52: Goddess of indignation against evil deeds (7) 64. You are Spanish about Greek earth poverty 4. Early name change (4) 53. A vision: Six also lead Skywalker into swamp (dat. pl.) (7) 6. Delay reborn love (4) (5) 66. rudior (5) 7. Stop sibling having tail cut off! (5) 55. Saint inside altar stars (5) 68. Tuilagi, with his hand (4) 8. (Same as 58 across) (2) 56. Deep red or blue (7) 69. I drink (4) 9. Thin old woman contains wind (8) 58. Mental torment cut short by snake (6) 71. Either way, it's empty (dat. sing.) (5) 11. W hateve r, hear tless loan c ompany! (8) 60. He will stand what to do to Cicero's tongue with a 72. Star Wars ___ Eisley custom (3) 16. Sm ash up pot s after (4) hair pin (6) 75. His men start sucking up ink (nom.) (3) 19. W arn me abou t Kyl o Ren ultima tely! (4) 62. With that whole crowd: ______turba 76. For himself is simply not poetry (3,2) 21. Te ar (7) (abl.) (n ot ille or totus ) (4,4) 78. I buy a headless nobody (3) 22. H e was becom ing ( 6) 63. Stirred ._ _ _ and having been moved (8) 79. Bone (gen.) (5) 23. T hey warn Fren ch artis t holding nab oo (6) 64. Greek for 'in' (2) 80. Pull left intestum (3) (English) 24. B et that w e'll w in out loud, Greek god of wine (7) 65. If first, Sebulba's irked (2) 81. Journey cut out India three times (3) 27. I defile c ooked e-food ( 5) 67. Turns out it's cruel having been left (masc. nom. sg.) 82. Cover and detect everything within! (5) 29. M etho d of operatio n (abbrev.) (2 ) (8) 83. He burns dead trade (5) 31. I go and begin eating onions (2) 68. Mountain is just weekdays abbreviation (4) 85. We are the greatest, reportedly (5) 32. I tell you it's endlessly slender (5) 70. Burden partially weighs on us (4) 86. Help surgeries? (abbrev.) (3) 36. Sone of Gaza crisis is fierce (gen.) (5) 73. Cities falsely resub (5) 87. He says thus reborn (3) 38. Celebrations, without PE, of art (gen.) (5) 74. Main river in Rome is lost tribe (5) 88. Having thought, hiding zebra tusks (nom.) 39. Muse of lyric poetry is partially era toggled (5) 77. I need (4) (5) 41. Lies, u messed up, you wash away (5) 79. He begs public speaker to lose end conjuction (4) 42. Alternative Padme, a droid, is bitter (dat.) (5) 82. You are primarily toasting umbrellas (2) 43. Avenger (5) 84. Greek neuter nominative plural definite article (2)
10 Flaxman’s illustration of the struggle over the body of Patroclus; the subjects appear on the black figure vase, but the Practical Class Civ vigour of the combatants is close to the red figure scene. How did so many men and women of previous This was the sort of tour that many wealthy centuries become so versed in Classical art, young men undertook at a younger stage of mythology and culture? one such was John their career; it was only open to Flaxman Flaxman. He was born in 1755 to a father who because he had shown himself to be a very was well known as a moulder and seller of plaster promising artist and Wedgwood must have been casts in London; he was definitely a working confident that his study would repay his support. man rather than a gentleman of leisure. John’s So where did a young man first develop such an mother died when he was nine; he had little interest? one great influences of the eighteenth schooling, so was largely self-educated. He took century was Tooke’s Pantheon. The Headmaster delight in drawing and modelling from his of Charterhouse translated this from a book father's stock-in-trade, and studied translations written in the middle of the Seventeenth In the British Museum you can see this vase with from classical literature in an effort to understand Century by the Jesuit Francois Pomey; it is little Achilles fighting Hector them. His father's customers, such as the painter compendium, which helped all those interested George Romney, helped him with books, in the Classical World to appreciate its culture. advice, and later with commissions. Many schoolchildren probably had copies but it When he was twenty he was employed by the was also essential reading for any who wanted to potter Josiah Wedgwood, for whom his father cope in polite society and not to be ignorant of had also done some work, modelling reliefs for the works of Antiquity. It is really the first text use on the company's famous jasper ware. book for Class Civ; Tooke tells his readers that Engravings of Sir William Hamilton's collection the previous books are too detailed, not adequate of ancient Greek vases were an important for pupils needs, or just too boring. Tooke’s influence on his work, but he would have seen version was called ‘Tooke’s Pantheon of the them only once his interest in such Classical Heather Gods and Illustrious Heroes’. First work was well appreciated by Wedgwood. published in 1698, it was reprinted thirty two times by 1806. It was still being distributed in In 1782, Flaxman married Anne Denman who America in 1859. Title page of Tooke’s Pantheon was well-educated, and a devoted companion. no doubt she encouraged his enthusiasms. Five By 1780 Flaxman had also begun to earn money years later they set off for Rome, on a journey by sculpting grave monuments. His best partly funded by Wedgwood. His activities in monumental work was admired for its pathos the city included supervising a group of and simplicity, and for the combination of a truly modellers employed by Wedgwood, although he Greek instinct for rhythmical design and no longer made any work for the potter himself. composition with a spirit of domestic tenderness His sketchbooks show that, while there, he and innocence. When you see his work, you can studied not only Classical, but also Medieval and see the classical influence, but also his own Renaissance art. While in Rome he produced creative input; it is in this field that he is best the first of the book illustrations for which he known to us today. was to become famous, illustrating the works of Homer, Aeschylus and Dante. Charles Wright Black figure vase showing the struggle over Patroclus
11 To what extent are women portrayed as victims in Virgil’s Aeneid?
here are many females in the appearance, admired and respected and a leader Aeneid, all of whom could be in battle, even concluding the catalogue of the shown as victims of Aeneas’ Italians, after Turnus himself (Aen. 7.803-17). In mission to found Rome, but many ways she is another Dido, a foreign and I will focus on four main successful leader. Furthermore, she is loved by female victims: Dido, Diana, seen when Diana describes her, and in her Camilla, Creusa and Lavinia. I will explore anger and vengeance at her death (Aen. 11.534- Virgil’s characterisation of these women and it is 94). However, these “male” qualities pose a Tworth noting that Virgil dedicates much less time threat. In Book 11, she is described as horrenda to Aeneas’ wives, who are dictated by his fate, and (507), aspera (664), furens (709; 762), accensa much more to Dido and Camilla, who are (709), and lastly, as a dira…pestis (792). These unique individuals and potential obstacles to the adjectives show her male passion for war and the founding of Rome. disdain it is met with by her enemies. terrified, mad and lonely as she is removed Furthermore, she is seen as a ‘dangerous further and further from her glory and wealth as The most prominent woman in the Aeneid, anomaly’, further illustrated by the similarity of queen, so much so that even her sister Anna is Dido, is arguably the most tragic victim. She is the arguments used against her to those used by not even allowed to know the extent of her introduced as a beautiful, powerful, successful octavian against Cleopatra. In both cases, there is suffering, until her isolation is concluded in queen who leads men in a peaceful empire. The a shame of being frightened by a woman, and death. Moreover, we sympathise with her, in grand description of Carthage, with its citizens celebrations of beating both are odd considering Aeneas’ heartlessness in leaving and her ensuing busy improving it further (Aen. 1.423-36) and they thought beating a woman unworthy of suicide. Aeneas’ lack of sympathy, Dido, surrounded by her people, law-giver and being celebrated. Augustan poetry depicts acknowledgement of his own fault or love for founder of the city, (Aen. 1.497; 507-8) arguably Cleopatra as a bloody but unbowed queen, her, or regret at leaving (Aen. 4.333-61), provoke portrays her as, in Wilhelm’s words, ‘achieving paying tribute to her courage, which is very sympathy, as she is rejected and betrayed. The what Aeneas aches to achieve’. However, the similar to Camilla as Viparelli comments that her deceit in his departure, which leads to her death, focus on her as queen serves to heighten her ‘royalty is… unswerving; she is killed but not is an example of Aeneas’ part played in the deaths vulnerability, giving the sense that she will not be defeated’. Furthermore, the reference to Camilla of others to achieve his destiny, and Perkell points content and regal for much longer. She becomes as dira…pestis is similar to that of Cleopatra as out that Aeneas’ pietas is frequently synonymous a play-thing for the gods, unconcerned for her fatale monstrum. Viparelli believes that the image with the death of a woman. It is also worth well-being, as her love for Aeneas consumes her of a ‘queen who does not submit to her enemies’ noting that Aeneas’ part in Dido’s suicide is likely and she loses all she has. Referred to repeatedly triumph’ would lead Augustan society to to have been an invention of Virgil. In some as infelix and misera in Books 1 and 4, she is envisage Cleopatra, as Camilla is depicted as ‘one legends, Dido kills herself to escape marriage to a destined for ruin, as Venus and Juno scheme and of the most dangerous enemies for the Trojans neighbouring king, completely separate from deceive each other at her expense (Aen. 1.657-8; and their allies’. Although it can be argued that Aeneas. Furthermore, Dido and Aeneas were not 4.105). The fact that Dido is not presented as a Camilla’s ‘male’ characteristics lead to her thought to be contemporaries. As a result, the dangerous woman right from the very downfall as she is incompatible with the ideals of love story between them is thought to be beginning leads us to sympathise with her Roman gender roles, it has been suggested that original by Virgil, so much so that Macrobius instead of accepting her fate as someone who Virgil did not intend this to be a problem. His criticises him for creating a story, which dared to stand in the way of the founding of reference to her upbringing, that she was ‘everyone knows is not true’, and changing the Rome. It is therefore made more stark that in less motherless, raised by her father like a man for way Dido is viewed from then on. Therefore, than one hundred lines she falls dramatically, war and possesses godlike abilities (Aen. 7.805- Dido becomes another ‘casualty of the Roman from the height of her empire, as her previously 11; 11.573-80), explains her non-traditional role; mission’, with Perkell even implying that loved busy citizens cease their building work and and her chastity, dedication to Diana and love for women are included in the Aeneid purely so that military training, and her city is neglected (Aen. her country show her to be ‘an ideal root of that they can be eradicated quickly from Aeneas’ life, 4.86-9). This is also made more profound Italic generation which would in the future highlighting ‘the emotional cost to the Romans through her struggle to build Carthage to its become Rome and its powerful civilisation’. of becoming an imperial people’. Ross agrees present state and Virgil causes us to sympathise Insults from her enemies can merely be due to that Dido’s story is another of the ‘impersonal with her through her shame at what has bitterness at a woman surpassing them. It is an heroic world that meets, fascinates, and finally happened, both in neglecting the city and honour to be killed by Camilla (Aen. 11.688-9) consumes and destroys an individual deceived breaking her vow to Sychaeus. Her inner and yet there is no honour in killing her (Aen. and abandoned’. torment, caused by her passion for Aeneas, 11.806-15). Furthermore, despite similarities to highlighted through imagery of fire and being We also see Camilla, the warrior leader, as a Cleopatra, Virgil evokes great sympathy for wounded, like a doe caught unaware by a victim. Camilla is portrayed, in Viparelli’s words, Camilla through her death. It is told ‘with great shepherd (Aen. 4.66-73), show her lack of as a ‘character of a mythical, heroic time, both compassion and understanding’ as she is caught control over what is happening. She becomes distant and exceptional’. She is royal in unaware (Aen. 11.802-4). As a virgin who
12 ‘abandons Diana’s reign for the sole purpose of The last victim I will discuss is Lavinia. Most of defending… the freedom of Italy’, Viparelli Lavinia’s characterisation is seen through what asserts that Camilla is sanctified by Virgil for Virgil does not portray. She is a silent character, giving her life to the destiny of Rome and that passive about her future. Formicula suggests the the reason she dies is ‘because she fights for the reason for this as being that her importance is wrong side’. Furthermore, it is put forth that only in the future, resulting in Virgil being Camilla is Virgil’s own invention, created to unconcerned with her past or present. She is underline the great cost of Rome’s progress. ‘“historically” consequential’, known as filia, nata, gnata and virgo; her role is as a marriageable Another victim is Creusa, whom Virgil also girl, ‘constantly directed towards the future as adapted from tradition, allowing her to die rather coniunx and regia coniunx’. However, this does than accompany Aeneas on his mission. Her not stop her from being a victim and even death is at least partially caused by Aeneas’ enhances her victimisation, as she has no control neglect, as he allows her to fall behind, done first over her future. She is controlled by fate, which through separation from the male members of deprives her of her family, as she must marry the Aeneas’ family and then through being forgotten man who killed her betrothed, the very act by Aeneas. Aeneas comments that he does not which causes her mother’s suicide and the loss of know “whether she stopped or lost her way or the throne for her father. She can only observe sat down exhausted” and that he did not “look the events unfolding and Virgil does not even behind… or think of her or realize that she was obvious differences between these situations, include her thoughts towards this situation. Her lost” (Aen. 2.739-43). Despite his attention to notably that there is no suggestion that Lavinia is sole reason for being is to continue the race detail and care for the male family members and burning with love for Aeneas, they are women which will eventually become Roman. household gods, Perkell calls him ‘fatally who give up everything, even losing family, for a Furthermore, Virgil’s characterisation of Lavinia inattentive’ to Creusa. Virgil enhances our man, only to receive nothing back from him. has hints of the Euripidean Iphigenia. They are sympathy though her only speech made while both daughters of leaders, sacrificed for a In conclusion, Virgil includes these four women alive, in which she begs Aeneas not to abandon “greater” cause. However, neither oppose the as victims of Aeneas’ mission to found Rome, her, Iulus and Anchises, with herself emphatically sacrifice but it is the betrothed instead who does. and yet he characterises them as individuals to placed at the end (Aen. 2.677-8). As with Dido, Unlike the other female victims in the Aeneid, gain greater sympathy for them. Virgil devotes her relationship with Aeneas ends with her Lavinia willingly gives herself to Aeneas’ mission considerable time to Dido and Camilla, crafting death, as she becomes another ‘casualty of the to found Rome, as she becomes a vital part of its rich and memorable characters, who are to be Roman mission’. Aeneas is not ‘bound decisively history. She is self-sacrificial, modest and passive, admired and whose deaths are tragic. Although it to any female by love... [but] absorbed and driven an example of a virtuous Roman matrona. is not an outrage that they die, Virgil still causes by the political-military goal of founding the However, Formicula believes that she is the most us to pity them despite their threat to Rome and Roman empire’ resulting in any love for a grieving female in the Aeneid, with ‘an authentic ‘male’ qualities, an unexpected reaction for woman being subordinate to this mission. Virgil’s tragic depth’, and with whom Virgil ‘feels the women such as these. There is an unfairness as decision to let her die shows ‘deliberation and deepest affinity’. In one of her only appearances each of these four women become sacrifices, purpose’ in highlighting the human cost of (Aen. 12.64-9), her blushing reminds us of both whether willingly or unwillingly, for the ‘greater’ Aeneas’ mission as she becomes an icon of Medea and Ariadne blushing because of Jason cause of Aeneas’ mission. sacrifice. and Theseus respectively. Although there may be Lydia Evans (oD)
13 Reflections on AS temples and sculptures
In the Lower 6th scholars who take Classical Civilisation can study a module corners convey the ebbing away of in Greek temple architecture and sculpture. The scholars enjoy considering the their lives in a convincing manner. messages (about the gods and the community) that were communicated by The sculptures that decorate the temples and the sculptures that adorned them. They also enjoy carrying out temple of zeus at olympia are in the stylistic analysis which helps them to appreciate the sculptures that they study severe style and display a much as works of art. Here are some thoughts about temples and sculptures that we greater degree of individualisation. have studied: This is particularly true of the figures from the east pediment such as the The Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, the Temple of Zeus at seer, whose balding head, wrinkled Olympia and the Parthenon – a sculptural comparison. brow and sagging flesh contribute to The triangular space of a temple’s pediment provided excellent opportunities the telling characterisation of age in to sculptors for arranging figures in an interesting way; it also presented them marked contrast to the proud Seer from the east pediment of the with serious constraints. All three temples reflect similar approaches to the maturity of Pelops and oinomaos or temple of Zeus at Olympia problem of peopling the pedimental space credibly with a larger-than-life god the tender youth of the boy beside him. in the centre (eg zeus and Apollo at olympia) and reclining figures in the The metopes tell the story of Heracles’ Labours and the viewer is able to corners (e.g. dead warriors on the temple of Aphaia). By the end of the 6th contemplate the hero’s transformation from young, beardless man when he century BC sculptors had found a way of treating the pedimental shelf as if it encounters the nemean Lion, (his smooth brow creased by a single, weary, were a real space, populated with credible figures conceived of in terms of a anxious furrow) into a mature man supporting the heavens for Atlas, his unified scale and involved in a single story. on the East pediment of the resigned face revealing the Temple of zeus at olympia all the figures await the beginning of the chariot experiences of a lifetime of toil. race between oinomaos and Pelops whilst on the east pediment of the However, few of these Parthenon figures are seen to react in varying degrees to the news of the sculptures reveal much astonishing birth of Athena. In both pediments the postures of the figures are emotion: for example, the plausible although adapted to the awkward triangular space they inhabit. Lapith women on the west pediment appear to withstand the assault of the centaurs with a remarkable degree of calm The river god, Ilissos from the restraint. The sculptures that west pediment of the Parthenon adorn the Parthenon are in the high classical style; those of the metopes are of varying quality. However, many of the surviving figures from the pediments demonstrate greater confidence in the representation of anatomy like the Ilissos River from the corner of the west pediment, whose sinuous body reveals convincing distinctions between muscle, hard bone and soft layers of fat. The drapery of many of the female Reconstruction of the west (top) and east (bottom) pediments of the Parthenon figures is deeply carved to provide both drama (e.g. Iris from the west pediment) and a suggestion of the body beneath, perhaps best exemplified by Metopes demanded designs that were reduced to a very few figures but, the three goddesses, who gradually turn towards the centre of the east nevertheless, could be used to present a coherent narrative effectively. Whilst pediment on receipt of the news of Athena’s birth. the metopes were externally positioned on the Parthenon, the sculpted The pediments of all three temples tell stories effectively. The pediments on metopes on the Temple of zeus were much less visible, since they were the Temple of Aphaia relive two different sieges of Troy, in which combatants positioned above the pronaos and the opisthodomos. Meanwhile a frieze had fight each other arranged around the central figure of Athena and to be filled with subjects which permitted indefinite extension in either accommodated by the slope of the pediment through their deliberately varied direction and was, therefore, an appropriate medium for representation of the postures. However, there is no discernible difference in the treatment of both Panathenaic procession as on the Parthenon. However, its position inside the stories. By contrast, the Temple of zeus’ pediments treat two entirely different peristyle reduced its visibility and the frieze could only be appreciated in myths in a very different manner: the east pediment depicts a moment of calm sections when viewed in between the columns of the temple. before the chariot race between oinomaos and Peleus begins, whilst the west The sculptural decoration of all three temples exhibit different styles. The west pediment focuses on the violent assault of the Centaurs on the Lapith women pediment of the Temple of Aphaia is late archaic with a very stiff looking over which Apollo looms, bringing order to disorder. The metopes represent Athena beneath its apex and with dying warriors in the corners, who display the Labours of Heracles in a strikingly original manner: the metope of the inappropriate stereotypical smiles. The east pediment dates from the early nemean Lion, for example, shows Heracles exhausted and consumed by his classical period and, consequently, reveals a much more active Athena and struggle, an image most unlike those on innumerable vase paintings that show warriors in the corners, whose twisting bodies and heads that sink into the the hero wrestling with the creature. The Parthenon pediments show crowd
14 Some thoughts on drapery and the female form in 6th and 5th century BC sculpture: reactions to events of special significance to emale sculptures were used for a variety of different Athens: Athena’s birth on the east, and the purposes: the Berlin goddess was probably a grave marker, competition between Athena and Poseidon on the Peplos kore was a votive, whilst Paionios’ Winged nike the west; the metopes, of which there are 92, commemorated a military victory secured by the Messenians show scenes from four entirely different myths and the naupactians over Sparta in c.420 BC. Female figures also (Amazonomachy, Centauromachy, the Trojan pFerformed roles in the narratives provided by the sculptural decoration War and Gigantomachy), which appear to of several temples in this period. Drapery was used in every instance to celebrate the defeat of Persia and Athens’ role underline their functions. in the war. Meanwhile, the frieze depicts the Panathenaic procession, the movement of In the 6th century BC statues were created that were, first and which is seen to vary at different points and foremost, objects of aesthetic delight, and drapery was utilised to which culminates in the east before an emphasise largely symmetrical patterns that made such figures assembly of olympian deities. pleasurable to the eye. The Berlin goddess’ skirt falls in regular straight folds that obscure rather than reveal the body beneath. The drapery of the peplos worn by the so-called Peplos kore is treated in terms of broad, simple masses with some slight irregularities to convey a sense of the young body it conceals. Both the Berlin goddess and the Peplos kore display static, upright stances, their bodies engulfed by heavy drapery that underlines their modest, dignified appearance. In the 5th century sculptors’ approach to drapery changed and more attention was paid to revealing the body beneath the garment. Athena on the metopes from the Temple of zeus at olympia wears a peplos, the The Berlin goddess c.570 BC lower half of which is carved with regular, flute–like folds where it falls over the supporting leg. However, the folds over the projecting knee of the weightless leg are smoothed out to reveal her stance. By the middle of the 5th century modelling and motion lines had Metope from the centauromachy that Metope from the centauromachy that decorates the been added to the sculptor’s repertoire so that drapery was carved in an increasingly freer style, still decorates the south side of the Parthenon south side of the Parthenon decorative in the way in which light and shade played with the ridges of the fabric but also more The sculptural decoration of all three temples dynamic to add movement and drama, as well as being transparent. This development is well illustrated is integral to the messages that the buildings by Iris from the west pediment of the Parthenon whose drapery is pressed flat against her body, the communicate. The sculptures of the Temple of folds of which swirl back from her advancing leg in a double curve that conveys her haste. Paionios’ Aphaia celebrate the island of Aegina through nike combines smooth areas with delicate ridges to suggest drapery clinging to her body with the the exploits of two of its most distinguished force of the wind; this combined with the exaggeratedly billowing swirls of her cloak behind suggests heroes, Telamon and Ajax. The appropriateness the drama of a goddess swooping down from the heavens. of the sculptures that adorn the Temple of Sculptors’ attitudes towards the portrayal of female form also zeus is best appreciated by considering the underwent several changes. The Berlin goddess is block-like Labours of Heracles as fitting subject matter: and has a similar pose to the male kouros. It is more a symbol of Heracles was the son of zeus and he is said to matronly dignity and rectitude than a lifelike portrayal of a have established the olympic Games in his woman with little indication of any femininity other than her father’s honour. He is also an exemplary role swelling hips, jewellery and pomegranate clutched to her model for aspiring athletes and participants in womb. The Peplos kore, on the other hand, is a much more the games as he has to do much more than just convincing female figure: she is relatively small so as to suggest a use his brute strength to complete his labours. girl and has her hair braided, providing a contrast with the However, the sculptural decoration of the broad swathe of largely undifferentiated drapery below. There is Parthenon celebrates myths that were some indication of her waist and small, rounded breasts with specifically Athenian and underlines the special much more modelling of the face. The emphasis was clearly on relationship of the Athenian community to the the, now lost, offering in her extended hand as befits a votive gods. It also communicates messages about statue. Paionios’ nike was designed to be eye-catching as it had Athenian pre-eminence and cultural to compete with many other statues and attractions within the superiority through the lavish deployment of Altis at olympia. It succeeds in this through its daring exposure sculpture, which matches the chryselephantine of the female anatomy (one breast is left exposed) by means of extravagance of the colossal cult statue of windswept drapery. Athena Parthenos within the temple. In this sense, as a visual image of the Athenians’ In conclusion, Greek sculptures of females appear to reflect stereotypes of female roles performed with perception of themselves, their goddess and modesty and decorum – Hippodamia, a bride to be, from the east pediment of the Temple of zeus is a their city within the Greek world and beyond, good example of this. As a consequence there is greater attention to covering drapery than to the body the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon is but this does not appear to have applied to goddesses, treatment of whom was less constrained and an improvement on the sculptural programmes which led to the representation of increasingly transparent drapery for visual impact. of earlier temples. Jonathan Allen
15 Does Plato Provide an Authoritative Thesis of Wisdom?
roviding authoritative theses of with this ‘Socratic’ view of wisdom. However, he older one gets, the wiser one becomes – a view abstract concepts, such as wisdom, adds to this description in The Republic, where he not clearly expressed by Plato in his descriptions of has always challenged even the states that, in a city, wisdom is a virtue present in wisdom. Although there is a ‘rough and steep greatest philosophers. Underlying the knowledge and good judgement of the people. ascent’ to exit the cave, it does not take particularly Plato’s fascination with this topic Therefore, Plato suggests that wisdom is a long to escape. is his Theory of Forms, in which tripartite virtue, which includes: self-knowledge, It appears, from these descriptions, that wisdom is he claims that there is a perfect form of good judgement, and using one’s knowledge directly related to knowledge. However, the exact everything, and we can only experience imperfect effectively. This tripartite distinction has wide nature of this relationship is contested; Socrates replicas of those forms. He is attempting to support: Mahatma Gandhi once said that it is P and Plato believe that wisdom is knowledge of conclude from his dialogues what the perfect form “unwise to be too sure of one’s own wisdom”. oneself and an understanding of one’s limitations, of wisdom really is. Although it is impossible to This quotation corresponds to the idea that whereas many other thinkers argue that wisdom examine every single different interpretation of wisdom is self-knowledge. Bertrand Russell also requires great knowledge of the world around wisdom, this essay will explore whether Plato’s claimed that the beginning of wisdom is to us. Therefore the question becomes: what sort of hypotheses are reasonable, and if they are “understand the actual world as it is”, which is knowledge is required for wisdom? sophisticated enough when contrasted with similar to Plato’s allegory of the cave. In this different interpretations from other thinkers. allegory, Plato argues that knowledge is seeing In order to explore this question, it might be things as they really are. niccolo Machiavelli also useful to ask three related questions: ‘Where does First, let us examine various interpretations of argued that “wisdom consists in being able to wisdom occur?’ ‘How it is acquired?’ and ‘Can it wisdom, beginning with Socrates. In The Apology, distinguish among dangers and make a choice of be sought?’ By doing this, we can build up a more we learn that Plato’s teacher, Socrates, was once the least harmful”, agreeing with Plato’s theory accurate picture of wisdom and whether it is the told by the Delphic oracle that he was the wisest that wisdom includes having good judgement. knowledge of the self or the external world. man in the world. Socrates was confused by this, This seems to imply that Plato’s thesis on wisdom because he had heard of many men who were Before we can answer these questions, however, has received some support over time, and therefore supposed to be more knowledgeable than him. we need to determine what ‘knowledge’ is. In that it is an authoritative one. However, when questioned, these men were Plato’s Theaetetus, Socrates asks the young discovered to be far less knowledgeable than they Theaetetus this very question, and he replies claimed to be - the implication being that Socrates “knowledge is a justified, true belief”. Socrates was the wisest man because he recognised his own proceeds to show that knowledge is not a true lack of knowledge. His famous quotation: “All I belief: one can believe something which is in fact know is that I know nothing” recognises that true, and believe it justifiably, but one does not human knowledge is severely limited, and that he know that it is true, because knowledge requires has more to learn. In Charmides, Critias employs certainty. Therefore, to have absolute knowledge of the words inscribed at the Temple of Apollo at something one must have seen or experienced it Delphi to summarise this view of wisdom: oneself. “ ” (“Know thyself”). With Plato’s tripartite description in mind, where “Kγνnωowθiιngσ εyoαuυrτseοlfν ” really means knowing that does the greatest wisdom occur? one suggestion you know relatively little, or knowing that there is might be that it features most in judges, who use uncertainty in what you think you know. Aristotle their knowledge and training to make good echoed this particular view when he stated: decisions for the community. It might also be “Knowing yourself is the beginning of all assumed that most judges have good judgement, wisdom”. Socrates, near the end of the Apology, since this is their profession. However, the majority also states: “the unexamined life is not worth However, certain other thinkers have expressed of adults, judges included, seem not to recognise living”. His point here is that we should live a their belief that wisdom requires experience. the limitations of their knowledge. So perhaps virtuous life, which involves acting justly, and Aeschylus, in the Agamemnon, writes that philosophers such as Socrates really are the wisest, therefore that there is a practical part of being “wisdom comes only through suffering”, implying because they recognise their own limitations of wise. I shall hereafter refer to this as the ‘Socratic’ that one must suffer during one’s life to gain knowledge and tend to have good judgement view. wisdom, a view also expressed by Benjamin through their intelligence. Despite these two It is sometimes difficult to distinguish whose Whichcote, who asserts that “none of us was born aspects of wisdom, however, it seems problematic opinion is being expressed in Plato’s dialogues, knowing or wise, but men become wise by to claim that Socrates put his knowledge to good since he presents many of the arguments through experience”. Leonardo Da Vinci saw the two as use, since he wandered around the city asking Socrates, who never wrote his own opinions directly related: “wisdom is the daughter of difficult questions (and really being a bit of a down, but I believe that, in this case, Plato agrees experience”. These arguments suggest that the nuisance), and was sentenced to death by his own
16 people. In Plato’s Republic, Adeimantus even tells wise adult, as it might appear from Socrates’ The Republic, when he states that philosophers Socrates that philosophers are “made useless to the argument, then wisdom is lost over time, rather (literally “wisdom-lovers”) are not lovers of sights world by the very study which they extol”. than gained. As we develop, our innocence is and sounds, but of true knowledge only (meaning Therefore perhaps there is no one who, in reality, corrupted by external views, and we increasingly “knowledge of the self”). Therefore, wisdom does fits Plato’s description of the wise – there are find that we no longer truly know ourselves, or not necessarily come with experience. However, examples of people who exhibit some of the three remember our relative ignorance. Although our the nature of wisdom is such that it is always aspects of wisdom, but it is difficult to think of judgement improves with age, the main factor of subject to the reader’s interpretation, since it is an examples of people who have all three. This may ‘knowing that you know nothing’ seems to be abstract concept. Therefore, it is very difficult to be a sign that Plato’s interpretation of wisdom is forgotten as we begin to learn more. define accurately what wisdom is. Perhaps wisdom invalid, but also Socrates’ version, since he was can be seen as a virtue, or perhaps there is no such In contrast to this is Benjamin Whichcote’s view unable to exhibit his own account of wisdom. If thing as wisdom at all, but we just associate it with that “none of us was born knowing or wise”. This we did accept the ‘Socratic’ version, a troubling knowledge, experience and other qualities, and use implication is that it might be argued that children assertion seems to make much more sense, because an overarching term for all these as one main exhibit the greatest wisdom. They certainly know it suggests that as we get older and become more virtue: wisdom. that they themselves know nothing, since they are knowledgeable, our wisdom increases. This In conclusion, the argument above endorses Plato’s always asking questions. They are wise not because argument implies that wisdom can be acquired tripartite description of wisdom as the they know so little, but because they recognise through experience of life and increasing one’s combination of self-knowledge, good judgement, their relative ignorance. Children also seem to use general knowledge. Plato seems to agree that and effective use of one’s knowledge, but also as any knowledge they have as effectively as possible: wisdom can be acquired through enlightenment something which, though rarely occurring, can be if a child does not know an answer, they attempt to in his analogy of the cave, and through better acquired. For this reason, Plato’s thesis appears work it out using the knowledge they do possess. judgement, which seems to improve with age. more authoritative than Socrates’. Despite this, the The tripartite view allows us to reject this This brings me on to the last of our three theory of self-knowledge seems to be a far better argument, because children are generally regarded questions about the knowledge required for profession of wisdom than claiming to know as having limited judgement – or, at least, good wisdom: can it be deliberately sought, or is it everything, however knowledgeable one is. judgement seems to be a skill they acquire rather acquired, almost accidentally? Knowledge can be Therefore, Plato provides an authoritative account than one that is innate. This shows that Plato’s sought easily, from reading textbooks to playing of wisdom, which is sufficiently sophisticated to interpretations of wisdom are more authoritative quizzes online, and it is also relatively easy to put meet various objections and counter-arguments. than Socrates’. ourselves in many kinds of situations, thus Eliot Tottman (oD) Responses to our first question have so far implying that experience can be sought. assumed that wisdom and knowledge might be nowadays, we can sign up for a wide variety of separate. now, however, it is worth considering a activities with a phone call, and from these counter-argument that wisdom is necessarily activities we gain experience. Therefore, the based on a wealth of both knowledge and argument that wisdom is a result of experience experience. This argument suggests that the and extensive knowledge means that wisdom can greatest wisdom is found in the most be sought. However, Plato’s argument that wisdom knowledgeable and most experienced people. on is acquired through enlightenment suggests that it this account, elderly judges do seem to be the cannot be sought, since this does not happen wisest: they have good knowledge of the external because of any deliberate action by the individual. world and experience of many different situations, In summary, Socrates argues that wisdom is based having witnessed many cases. The mere fact of mainly on self-knowledge, implying a point of their appointment implies that the general opinion view which might mean that children are wise, dictates that these judges have good judgement. and wisdom is lost over time. Plato suggests that The fact that this is a much easier idea to interpret wisdom is self-knowledge but also good shows that it could be a more realistic description judgement and understanding, which means it can of wisdom. be acquired, but not necessarily sought. one Let us return to the second question: ‘How, if counter-argument to this is that wisdom consists possible, can wisdom be acquired? If it is easier to of extensive knowledge and experience, implying be born with wisdom and more difficult to be a it can be sought. Plato clearly disagrees with this in
17 Greek Koine: The Language of the Romans?’
When the Romans conquered the Hellenistic world We know that Greek linguistic features and had on Latin, and this developed into somewhat of a during the 2nd-1st centuries BC, they kept the loanwords did not go unnoticed by a Roman sore spot for Latin speakers. Could Greek really be Greek koine (a version of 5th century Attic Greek audience from the surviving works of grammarians called the language of the Romans or was it a sign adapted and simplified for the masses) as their such as Quintilian and Servius. one such example that Roman dominance over this region was never language of administration in the Eastern empire, as picked out by Servius is “navigat aequor” (Aeneid complete? opposed to imposing the Latin language as they had 1.67) about which he says “figura Graeca est; nos Although Greek was widely accepted by the done throughout Italy, Gaul and Spain. Why would enim dicimus ‘per aequor navigat’.” (‘This is a Greek Romans, they still wanted to exert their dominance the Romance cede their dominance by allowing the expression, for we say ‘he sailed through the sea’.’) over the East and did so through their use of native language to prevail? The reasons are twofold: The use of the verb without the preposition is language. All magistrates and senators were expected first, it was more practical to retain a language which reminiscent of Greek π . to speak only in Latin for official business, even when was not only spoken very widely, but which had τήν θάλασσαν λέει At the lower levels of society, not only Greek words addressing foreign ambassadors and Cicero was already stood the test of time as a language of but also Greek phonology (sounds/ pronunciation) criticised for using Greek on a visit to Syracuse in administration in the regions conquered by was adopted. While early Greek loanwords were Sicily; while they accepted Greek language by and Alexander the Great; secondly, Greek held a special adapted into Latin phonology, which lacked aspirated large, there was still a desire not to appear ‘too and prestigious place in Roman culture due to its consonants (purpura, as opposed to purphura derives Greek’. literary heritage. from Greek π ), we later see spellings such one of the best examples of Romans trying to assert Rochette (2010) states that “Greek is both internal as ‘triumph’. Lοatρinφ bυeρgαins to use spellings
18 HeLiCoN
Heracles in Tragedy: The Man behind the Muscle
eracles, is one of the most renowned heroic figures in raises the question of whether Heracles will appear to save them in time. antiquity. He is evidently a highly adaptable character, Heracles arrives and it seems as though the family have escaped their previous since he appears throughout mythology in a range of ill-fortune until a possessed Heracles murders his helpless wife and children. This genres, all of which interpret him in many different ways. is when Heracles’ true suffering begins. When Heracles’ madness leaves him and Some present the son of zeus as a fearless, semi-divine he realises what he has done, he decides to commit suicide. There is a glimmer of figure with an appetite for all things dangerous; others as hope, however, when Heracles’ planned suicide is prevented by Theseus, who is a jovial family man. From works as early as Homer, he has been a famous eventually able to convince the troubled hero to stay alive. character and is still a well-known paradigm of valour in the modern day. Heracles undoubtedly spends his life being dominated by others, whether by the THragedy often takes a hero and places him outside his comfort zone, in a setting gods, especially Hera, or by men, such as Eurystheus, who brought about his away from the usual surroundings for his heroic endeavours. For Heracles, this is labours. However, in such circumstances he almost always succeeds, whereas in away from his monstrous opponents and instead within a familial and domestic tragedy he is depicted with no power over his own life, resulting in disastrous environment. A tragic hero typically displays many virtues as well as a particular consequences for everyone involved. overall, tragedy is able to bring even this vice or flaw in character. Heracles is no exception to this format; he divine and seemingly imperishable hero down to a human level. Consequently, demonstrates his bravery and heroism while also revealing his aggressive and regardless of how many times he has been victorious in the past, tragedy has hubristic side. demonstrated that it only takes one catastrophic event (that is, the madness sent by the gods in Euripides’ Heracles) to utterly destroy one of the strongest and Euripides’ Heracles is one of the surviving tragedies concerning Heracles and his most enduring of the Greek heroes. family. The murders in this play are accidental and a result of confusion, triggered by the prevailing power of the gods. Euripides’ Heracles is about Heracles’ Francesca Stewart family, who are about to be killed by the original villain of the tale, Lycus, and
19 LITERARY AnALYSES oF VIRGIL’S AEnEID 9:314-50
An Intoxicated Slaughter inter lora rotasque viros, which means ‘men among the leather harnesses and wheels’. viros has been noctis per umbram (line 314) highlights the postponed because one is expecting to find horses darkness through which nisus and Euryalus are LITERARY AnALYSES oF among the chariots, but instead they find men, venturing, showing their elusiveness to the Latins, emphasising their drunken state. Also, the chiasmus and is enjambed for greater emphasis. In line 316, simul arma vina simul, which means ‘both the passim shows that the Latins’ unguarded state weapons and the wine jars lying around’, tells us persists everywhere, with a complete absence of VIRGIL’S why the Rutulians are in their current state. This is security. Virgil uses corpora, an impersonal noun, AEnEID 9:314-50 because of the ‘vina’, meaning wine. perhaps reflecting Euryalus’s frame of mind, wishing to bring indiscriminate slaughter in pursuit of Secondly, the mass slaughter is emphasised by the heroic glory. The participle fusa, meaning ‘poured metaphor of the lion. Virgil writes: out’, is ironic given that wine is indeed the cause of impastus ceu plena leo per ovillia turbans their sprawled-out state. This is emphasised by the (suadet enim vensana famens) manditque trahitque repetition of vina, and the delaying of viros in an molle pecus mutumque metu, fremit ore cruento. emphatic position before the caesura, showing that the men lying in chariots is not a sight to be ‘Just like a hungry lion causing havoc among the expected. The chiasmus simul arma iacere/ vina packed flocks of sheep – for its mad hunger urges it simul conveys the Latins’ indulgence, and once on – and chews and pulls at the delicate flock, silent again attributes the wine to the cause of their in fear, and roars with its bloody mouth.’ unprepared state, ignoring responsibilities to guard The lion’s hunger for blood is equivalent to nisus’ the camp. When nisus recognises the opportunity hunger for glory, which overpowers him and leads for slaughter, he orders Euryalus with two to indiscriminate slaughter. nisus’ indiscriminate imperatives: custodi et consule. This shows that slaughter is shown by the word turbans which nisus believes that he is Euryalus’ senior, and also means ‘run riot’ and so shows how he has no shows the importance of Euryalus’ task: to guard control over whom he kills. This is also shown by and keep an extended watch. This foreshadows his the accumulation of verbs manditque trahitque, neglect of these responsibilities, and the eventual meaning ‘chews and pulls’, highlighting how nisus’ outcome, culminating in their capture. killing is uncontrolled and extremely violent. vesana Virgil invokes various aspects and connotations of a fames shows nisus’ ‘mad hunger’ for glory and lion to convey nisus’ indiscriminate slaughter. triumph. Also, the phrase fremit ore cruento, vesana fumes emphasises the ferocity of the attack, meaning ‘roars with its bloody mouth’ shows nisus and the Latins are compared to sheep, to highlight exulting in his slaughter, conveying how it has their vulnerability. Virgil creates a verbal picture by completely overpowered him. enclosing leo with plena and ovilia, thus comparing drunkenness. Finally, an oxymoronic description of Lastly, Virgil makes this passage effective by nisus’s carnage to a lion being loose in a sheep’s Euryalus’ movements are given: furto fervidus – conveying just how many people surround pen, showing the ease with which the Latins are ‘raging but stealthy’. Somehow, despite Euryalus’ Euryalus. This is conveyed in two ways. Firstly, in the disposed. The accumulation of verbs in manditque reckless actions, he remains quiet, extending the line (scanned) perfuit ac mult(am) in medio sine trahitque implies that nisus’ blood-lust is being time period available for slaughter, though not nomine plebem, meaning ‘raged in frenzy and in satisfied, as he mercilessly drags the Latin corpses. indefinitely. the middle of the great crowd without a name,’ the Euryalus equally exalts in slaughter, and is incensus phrase in medio, meaning ‘in the middle,’ comes in – ‘on fire’. This suggests that Euryalus is intoxicated Hugo Till the middle of the line, reflecting how Euryalus is by his blood-lust, no longer having control over it as completely surrounded by bodies. Also, the elision destruction spreads around him. In line 343, in of the mult(am) in medio brings together a word medio is placed in the middle of the line, and is Slumber and Slaughter that refers to the Rutulians, multam, and a phrase surrounded by multam and plebem, showing that that refers to Euryalus, in medio, and so reflects their he is surrounded by anonymous corpses: sine Firstly, Virgil creates the image of the Rutulian proximity; he is literally wading through bodies. nomine. The elision of mul(tam) in medio further camp as unguarded and how they have succumbed Secondly, in the line Fadamque Herbesumque subit conveys Euryalus’ proximity with the bodies. to drink-induced sleep. The word passim, meaning Rhoetumque Abarimque, meaning ‘he went for ignaros is enjambed to emphasise the Latin’s ‘everywhere’, indicates the extent of the area, which Fadus and Herbesus, and Rhoetus and Abaris,’ vulnerability , which is contrasted with Rhoetus’ has been littered with bodies, the bodies of the Euryalus, again, is shown to be surrounded by alert state. Virgil elects for Rhoetus to hide behind a Rutulians, which have resolved to a drunken people. This is shown by the verb subit, meaning mixing-bowl: crater, a most suitable object, acting as stupor. Their drunken stupor is also shown by the ‘attack,’ sandwiched between four names. The a reminder of the cause of their deaths. His death in hendiadys somno vinoque, meaning ‘sleep and polysyndeton within the line also conveys just how line 350 is given graphic detail, with wine and wine’. This hendiadys identifies the two agents that many people were slaughtered, and the fact that this blood becoming interchangeable, as they are mixed have brought about their disregard for security. The was also done indiscriminately. together: sanguine mixta vina. Virgil employs this extent of their drunkenness is shown by the word description to show the extent of their viros, meaning ‘men’, being postponed in the phrase Hannah Woods
20 HeLiCoN
A literary analysis of Virgil 9:314-350 a hendiadys. Here it is used to highlight the two reader’s attention to the fact that the Latins have left agents that have delivered the Rutulians to the their weapons scattered around the camp, because near the start of the extract in line 315, Virgil situation they now find themselves in – a state of they have had too much to drink, over-indulging writes: castra inimica petunt (‘they made for the drunken slumber. themselves on wine. Later on in the section, one of enemy camp’). The short and simple nature of this the less drunken Latins, Rhoetus, hides from The role of alcohol in the scene is further sentence shows that Virgil does not want to waste Euryalus behind a huge mixing bowl. This moment highlighted in lines 318-319’s chiastic arrangement time talking about the journey, but, instead wants to depicted by Virgil is extremely ironic because it of simul arma iacere,/ vina simul. The reader’s write about the events that follow. certifies that the drunken stupor has caused all of attention is drawn to how the weapons are in the slaughter. He then builds the tension by describing the disarray as a consequence of the excessive wine disorganised and careless state of the Rutulian drinking. Word order is also employed to accentuate Alongside the slumber and drunkenness, Virgil also camp. This therefore increases their vulnerability the paradox between enthusiasm and secrecy. furto creates a sense of quietness and stillness by and the word passim (‘here and there’) is in an and fervidus are juxtaposed as Euryalus portraying Messapus’ horses to be grazing emphatic position at the start of the sentence and demonstrated his assassin-like skills. Finally, in the peacefully on the grass, a restful scene in implies that they are all over the place and unaware line perfurit ac mult(am) in medio sine nomine comparison to the genocide committed by nisus of everything. The long length of this sentence also plebem the elision is used to draw a verbal picture and Euryalus. conveys their disorganisation. of the proximity of nisus, Euryalus and the Another way in which Virgil makes this section surrounding Rutulians. in medio also fulfils its own In line 320, Virgil once again raises the suspense engaging to the reader is the depiction of the brutal meaning by being in the centre of the line, just as with the use of the gerundive audendum (‘your slaughter performed by both nisus and Euryalus. the assailants are amongst the enemy camp. right hand must’) and nunc ipsa vocat res (‘now the Virgil uses strong vocabulary such as caedes, perfurit matter itself calls for this’). These two phrases show Virgil uses zoomorphism to assimilate nisus’ rage and condidit to emphasise the inhuman actions and the high importance of the matter at hand. and blood lust to that of a lion amongst a ‘packed hellish murder committed. Virgil’s use of the word In the last part of the extract, Virgil goes on to flock of sheep’: leo per ovilia turbans. This turbans meaning ‘running riot’ in this context, describe the bloodiness of the fighting. For underscores the vulnerability and delicacy of the conveys an indiscriminate, un-methodical killing. example, in line 142, Virgil writes: nec minor Rutulians and the savagery of nisus’ slaughter and The metaphor incensus suggests the anger searing Euryali caedes (‘no less was the slaughter of the lion’s mouth is described as ‘bloody’: ore and burning through nisus during the assault. Virgil Euryalus’). The word caedes is emphatic as it is often cruento. highlights this indiscriminate violence through the phrase sine nomine, as if the victims have no names; translated as ‘slaughter’, ‘massacre’ or ‘carnage’. Dramatic irony also plays a role in the description in they have no value or worth to nisus and Euryalus, Euryalus is also described as being in medio. The the phrase: post cratera tegebat. This foreshadows and Virgil implies this anger in Euryalus through the position of this is right in the middle of the line the wine mixing with the blood of the man hiding phrase in medio, which is emphatically positioned highlighting the fact that he seems to be behind the bowl et cum sanguine mixta, and draws in the middle of the line to heighten the reader’s surrounded by enemies. attention to how it is the wine that has caused the senses that Euryalus is right among the bodies of the spilling of his blood. Also, earlier in the passage, A very graphic image is created in line 347 an Latins. Virgil emphasises this proximity between tamen suggests that part of the thought process has onwards when a sword is buried to the hilt in Euryalus and the bodies by the elision of the phrase been omitted, building tension and doubt as to Roetus’ chest by Euryalus: pectore in adverso totum multam in, which essentially brings together a word whether the mission will be successful. cui comminus ensem. It is then withdrawn multa referring to the closeness of Euryalus and the Latin morte (‘thick with death’). This accumulation of Finally, Virgil creates a sense of the murderers being corpses. bloody words highlights the sudden change to gore indiscriminate by writing that the bodies are sine Virgil’s use of the word condidit refers to Euryalus and violence. nomine (‘without name’). Yet, he goes on to name burying his sword in the torso of the Latin general, the victims Fadumque Herbesumque…. Perhaps Andrew Whitford Rhoetus. This not only suggests the anger and this is done to show how Euryalus is picking his hatred, causing Euryalus to carry out these actions, way through the anonymous crowd. but also shows the confidence the bloodlust and Havoc among the packed flocks of Jonathan Woods youthful testosterone has driven into the younger sheep man. During nisus and Euryalus’ slaughter scene, Virgil Joshua Stott employs a variety of rhetorical devices in order to ‘Blood, guts, gore and peace.’ enhance their sense of blood lust and the brutality In this section, Virgil conveys the slaughter of the of the massacre. These include the use of hendiadys, Latins in their own camp, carried out by nisus and Aeneid 9:314-50 A Literary word order, zoomorphism and dramatic irony. Euryalus, on their quest to find their leader Aeneas. Appreciation Virgil effectively creates a tableau of nisus and Firstly, Virgil often yolks two similar nouns together Virgil precedes this passage by implying that there is Euryalus’ actions, and produces a dramatic scene. to form one over-arching concept; a hendiadys. The a doubtful and uncertain element to this mission: first example of this is in line 314: noctisque per one way in which Virgil makes this section the necessary instructions of Iulus are scattered umbram. This is done to emphasise how un-lit the dramatically successful is by the creation of suspense inrita by the wind and not registered by nisus or camp is and therefore its vulnerability as guards (of through the ways he portrays the alcoholic slumber Euryalus. This proleptic adjective foreshadows the which there are none) are unable to detect potential of the Latins. Virgil uses a chiasmus in the phrase failure of this operation. A tense atmosphere is intruders. somno vinoque (‘sleep and wine’) is also simul arma … vina simul in order to focus the similarly created by using the connotations of the
21 word tamen, such that some of the thought is suppressed: they will bring death to many, even though they are going to their own deaths. Virgil constructs the image of a vulnerable, unguarded camp, consistently alluding to the agent responsible for this state – vinum. Virgil draws our attention to the weapons lying around, identifying this as a direct consequence of drunken stupor by A critical appreciation of Virgil’s plena leo per ovilia turbans (‘just like a hungry lion the deployment of the chiasmus simul arma Aeneid 9: 314-350) causing havoc among the packed flocks of sheep’). iacere/vina simul, since these weapons are This portrayal demonstrates nisus’ savagery and The only book in which Aeneas fails to make an connected to the wine jars scattered across the violence but also his lack of control over what he is appearance, Book IX of Virgil’s epic ‘The Aeneid’ is camp. The word vina is enjambed and postponed to doing. The depiction of the Latins as ovilia (‘sheep’) one that requires more subservient characters, stress the idea of inebriation. The men sprawled on conveys both their helplessness but also their within the context of the poem as a whole, to take the ground are described as fusa, literally ‘having innocence as they are slaughtered. This shows nisus the fore. nisus and Euryalus are two such been poured out’, a reminder of the drinks in a more negative light as he manditque trahitque characters, eager for glory and riches respectively, consumed by the Rutulians. molle pecus (‘chews and pulls at the delicate flock’). but, while their role within the book is partly to This description of his violence also conveys the This word fusa also connotes nisus’ thirst for provide heroic inspiration, in lieu of Aeneas, Virgil indiscriminate nature of his violence. Through the military glory, an idea present before this passage. also attributes them a due amount of youthful use of the word pecus (‘flock’), Virgil conveys the Virgil employs the emphatic pronoun ego to foolishness. This passage, while it is the height of random nature of nisus’ savagery, thus making his communicate nisus’ intense motivation to their glory, is both proleptic and causal to their actions seem less monstrous. The reader is then personally ‘lay waste’ to the camp. The words downfall. informed of Euryali caedes (‘Euryalus’ slaughter’), impastus and turbans reflect the indiscriminate Within this passage, Virgil employs a range of described as nec minor (‘no less’) than nisus’. nature of nisus’ slaughter – he is overpowered by diction which specifically focuses on the causal link Euryalus, who was supposed to be on watch, is his ravenous hunger for glory, equated to a lion’s between the drunkenness of the Latins and their depicted as incensus (‘on fire’) and perfurit (‘he hunger for meat. This simile suggests a loss of deaths. Described as somno vinoque corpora fusa raged’) and this demonstrates the appeal of the human compassion, killing with a primeval (‘sprawled out by sleep and wine’), Virgil highlights violence as even the younger and less hungry for bloodlust. The word leo is enclosed within plena the irresponsibility of the Latins, having failed to set glory of the two is taken in by the desire for and ovilia, indicating that this figurative lion is in up guards and this is endorsed by the vina simul violence. Perfurit occupies an emphatic position amongst the sheep it slaughters, with this verbal (‘wine jars also lying around’). Virgil adds to this within the line, and Virgil uses this to draw attention picture conveying the proximity of these killings. effect as he depicts Rhoetus post cratera tegebat to Euryalus’ violence and lack of control thereof. In The Rutulians are compared to sheep due to their (‘hiding behind a mixing bowl’). These mixing the following line, Fadum Herbesumque subit lack of retaliation. Virgil then utilizes the image of bowls would have been used by the Latins to dilute Rhoetumque Abarimque (‘he attacked Fadus, this lion roaring (fremit), a symbol of pride and their wine and this irony reminds the reader of the Herbesus, Rhoetus and Abaris’), Virgil creates a glory to reflect the exultation which nisus now drunken stupor of the Latins that has led to their verbal image of Euryalus as the verb referring to feels. demise. This link is portrayed most poignantly in him is encased by those he is killing. Thus, Virgil Shifting the narrative towards the actions of final lines of the passage with a visual depiction of conveys the idea that Euryalus is right among the Euryalus, Virgil uses the word incensus to reflect the Rhoetus who purpuream vomit ille animam sleeping Latins, as he attacks them. The use of unmanageable destruction of Euryalus, as he burns (‘threw up his life in deep red’) and cum sanguine polysyndeton in this line also conveys something of with fiery rage, together with the word perfurit. mixta vina refert (‘brought up wines with blood the extent of their attack. This may serve as a solemn reminder of Euryalus’ mixed in’). This visual picture at the end of his life The purpose of this passage within the book as a youth and immaturity. However, Virgil uses the along with the emphatic position of purpuream whole is to convey the way in which nisus and alliterative phrase furto fervidus to demonstrate his describing the deep red of the mixture, Euryalus get carried away, and stray from their savagery and professional stealth in juxtaposition. demonstrates the difficulty in distinguishing mission, as they venture through the Rutulian between wine and blood, suggesting that both are Virgil contrasts the vigilance of Rhoetus with the camp. Virgil uses a number of literary devices to equally pivotal in the slaughter. This attributes vulnerability of the other Rutulians, emphasizes by draw the reader’s attention to, and remind the blame for the slaughter to the Latins, rather than just the emjambment of the word ignaros. Ironically, reader of, the drunkenness that leads to the nisus and Euryalus, and Virgil deflects responsibility Rhoetus hides behind a large mixing-bowl, again a Rutulians’ deaths. The wholly indiscriminate in this way to heighten the sense of glory associated reminder of the most significant factor behind the violence of the two protagonists is perhaps a little with nisus and Euryalus’ savagery. deaths of these men. proleptic of their own demise as, in bringing death Indeed, Virgil depicts nisus and Euryalus at certain to so many others, they bring it upon themselves. A multitude of literary devices such as imagery, points in different ways to convey particular Indeed, just as the unsuspecting Rutulians are hendiadys, juxtaposition, alliteration, enjambment, messages through the text. At this point in the caught out after getting carried away with wine, and word order are applied to stress certain motifs book, nisus and Euryalus are portrayed as savage nisus and Euryalus are set to be caught out after of this passage to the reader, notably the death dealt and indiscriminate with the former’s claim vasta getting carried away with blood and slaughter. by the two companions, and the drunken stupor of dabo (‘I will lay waste’) and this is particularly the Rutulian camp. prominent in the zoomorphic depiction of nisus in William Bunker line 339. nisus is described as being impastus ceu Louis Morford
22 HeLiCoN How Athenian is our version of The Odyssey?
Two of the reasons I love Classics are that the "Hipparkhos son of Peisistratos as the oldest of his “In the garden are two springs; one flows in channels literature encountered can be read over and father’s children and the wisest of the Athenians. He to all parts of it; the other, starting next to it, first over again, and that sometimes in the re- first introduced the poems of Homer to Athens and provides a watering-place for the townspeople and reading new ideas spring to mind. obliged the singers to perform them at the then runs . . .” Panathenaia." I recently set out to re-read the odyssey (in English There was a water fountain house (Enneakrounos) thus far, I confess) because I have asserted so many Incidentally, Pisistratus eventually seized control of in the agora from Pisistratus’ time; is this being times over the last 30 years that The Iliad is the Athens permanently at the 3rd attempt. How long alluded to here? greatest work of literature, followed by The Aeneid, was there between his 2nd and 3rd attempts Since Athens is a sea-faring/trading nation under followed by some Greek tragedy (Sophocles’ according to the evidence we have? 10 years. In Pisistratus (we know that trade flourishes from oedipus and Antigone; Aeschylus’ Agamemnon), those 10 years Pisistratus did a lot of travelling we are Athenian pottery all over the Mediterranean world), and only then followed by The odyssey. It is one told and made his fortune. How long was odysseus’ there should be plenty of nautical imagery in The thing to assert it; quite another to justify it through journey back to Ithaca from Troy? 10 years. He too odyssey – and there is! How about the simile used detailed argumentation, so I decided that I would did rather a lot of travelling and eventually returned to describe the stabbing of Polyphemus, the study The odyssey more seriously and then decide home with a fortune. . . . a nice co-incidence! Cyclops’, eye? whether my opinion still held or not! In Book 3 of the poem, Pisistratus (somewhat out of Homer, Odyssey 9.381 In the course of beginning that study, I began to nowhere) appears as the name of the son of nestor, form in my own mind several theories, and it is one who acts as the guide of Telemachus to Menelaus’ “Seizing the olive pole, they drove its sharpened end of these that I wish to present. I found myself palace in Sparta. Pisistratus traced his descent from into the Cyclops’ eye, while I used my weight from thinking a number of times, as I worked my way neleus, father of nestor of Pylos. above to twist it home, like a man boring a ship’s through the 24 books of The odyssey, that there timber with a drill which his mates below him twirl Homer, Odyssey 3.36 appeared to be a significant Athenian influence on with a strap they hold at either end, so that it spins the poem as we have it now – so my question is “nestor’s son, Peisistratus, who was the first to reach continuously.” ‘how Athenian is The odyssey?’ them (Telemachus and Athene disguised as Mentor), I could cite more evidence: which goddess plays took them by the hand and gave them places at the Having made my own notes, I decided to look into such a huge part in the odyssey (Athene) and which banquet . . . “ how much this idea had already been discussed by is the god opposed to odysseus (Poseidon)? Which scholars, and was somewhat pleased to discover that The final stage on odysseus’ journey home is two deities according to mythology vied for being it has indeed been a subject for Homeric Scherie, the land of the Phaeacians. Homer describes the patron deity of Athens – Athena and Poseidon! Scholarship, and that there are scholars lined up on these people in Book 7 The olive tree or olive wood is associated with both sides of the argument – some arguing strongly Homer, Odyssey 7.108 Athene and Athens: olive wood appears several times for an Athenian influence and some denying equally in the odyssey – we’ve seen that the staff used to strongly such a thing. “For the Phaeacians’ extraordinary skill in handling blind the Cyclops is olive wood; when odysseus first ships at sea is matched by the dexterity of their In the 6th century BC, a noble called Pisistratus reaches the land of the Phaeacians, having escaped womenfolk at the loom, for Athene has given them seized power in Athens unconstitutionally and so from a storm at sea, he goes to sleep – under a wild outstanding skill in beautiful crafts and such fine became a tyrant. His first two attempts did not last olive bush; his marriage bed, which only Penelope intelligence.” very long but his third attempt established his rule knows about was carved out of – an olive tree. for nearly 20 years. When he died, his sons, Hippias Under Pisistratus and his sons’ rule, Athens Either the Athenians loved the odyssey because and Hipparchus, succeeded him. developed quite a wide trading network (Athenian there were so many resonances with their own city, pottery from that time has been discovered all over We know that Pisistratus organised and promoted culture and interests or, as I am beginning to believe, the Mediterranean) so a good number of Athenians the Panathenaia, the great annual Athenian festival in perhaps the poem we now have were involved in ship-building and sailing. Another honour of Athene: as the two quotations here show, shows traces of an Athenian aspect of the Panathenaic festival was the annual there is evidence of the introduction of recitations of influence from the city procession up to the Acropolis to present the statue the Homeric poems by rhapsodes during the time where quite probably of Athene Polias with a new, beautifully woven robe of his son Hipparchus. So a clear connection this poem was or peplos. between The odyssey and Athens can fairly be written down established. The Phaeacians’ king is Alcinous, who has a in the form in magnificent palace, described in Book 7 in which we have Plato, Hipparchus 228b: remarkable detail by the poet, almost as if he has a it today. "Sokrates : Hipparkhos [an Athenian tyrant late real palace in mind. Is Alcinous some sort of David Evans C6th B.C.] . . . among the many goodly proofs of depiction of Pisistratus? Alcinous’ vineyard, vegetable wisdom that he showed, first . . . compelled the plot and garden are also described in detail, rhapsodies at the Panathenaia to recite them in relay, including having its own spring, supplying water to one man following on another, as they still do now." the people: Aelian, Historical Miscellany 8. 2 : Homer, Odyssey 7.129
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