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Chapter 11. Three Dimensional Analytic Geometry and Vectors
Chapter 11. Three dimensional analytic geometry and vectors. Section 11.5 Quadric surfaces. Curves in R2 : x2 y2 ellipse + =1 a2 b2 x2 y2 hyperbola − =1 a2 b2 parabola y = ax2 or x = by2 A quadric surface is the graph of a second degree equation in three variables. The most general such equation is Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + Dxy + Exz + F yz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J =0, where A, B, C, ..., J are constants. By translation and rotation the equation can be brought into one of two standard forms Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + J =0 or Ax2 + By2 + Iz =0 In order to sketch the graph of a quadric surface, it is useful to determine the curves of intersection of the surface with planes parallel to the coordinate planes. These curves are called traces of the surface. Ellipsoids The quadric surface with equation x2 y2 z2 + + =1 a2 b2 c2 is called an ellipsoid because all of its traces are ellipses. 2 1 x y 3 2 1 z ±1 ±2 ±3 ±1 ±2 The six intercepts of the ellipsoid are (±a, 0, 0), (0, ±b, 0), and (0, 0, ±c) and the ellipsoid lies in the box |x| ≤ a, |y| ≤ b, |z| ≤ c Since the ellipsoid involves only even powers of x, y, and z, the ellipsoid is symmetric with respect to each coordinate plane. Example 1. Find the traces of the surface 4x2 +9y2 + 36z2 = 36 1 in the planes x = k, y = k, and z = k. Identify the surface and sketch it. Hyperboloids Hyperboloid of one sheet. The quadric surface with equations x2 y2 z2 1. -
Calculus & Analytic Geometry
TQS 126 Spring 2008 Quinn Calculus & Analytic Geometry III Quadratic Equations in 3-D Match each function to its graph 1. 9x2 + 36y2 +4z2 = 36 2. 4x2 +9y2 4z2 =0 − 3. 36x2 +9y2 4z2 = 36 − 4. 4x2 9y2 4z2 = 36 − − 5. 9x2 +4y2 6z =0 − 6. 9x2 4y2 6z =0 − − 7. 4x2 + y2 +4z2 4y 4z +36=0 − − 8. 4x2 + y2 +4z2 4y 4z 36=0 − − − cone • ellipsoid • elliptic paraboloid • hyperbolic paraboloid • hyperboloid of one sheet • hyperboloid of two sheets 24 TQS 126 Spring 2008 Quinn Calculus & Analytic Geometry III Parametric Equations (§10.1) and Vector Functions (§13.1) Definition. If x and y are given as continuous function x = f(t) y = g(t) over an interval of t-values, then the set of points (x, y)=(f(t),g(t)) defined by these equation is a parametric curve (sometimes called aplane curve). The equations are parametric equations for the curve. Often we think of parametric curves as describing the movement of a particle in a plane over time. Examples. x = 2cos t x = et 0 t π 1 t e y = 3sin t ≤ ≤ y = ln t ≤ ≤ Can we find parameterizations of known curves? the line segment circle x2 + y2 =1 from (1, 3) to (5, 1) Why restrict ourselves to only moving through planes? Why not space? And why not use our nifty vector notation? 25 Definition. If x, y, and z are given as continuous functions x = f(t) y = g(t) z = h(t) over an interval of t-values, then the set of points (x,y,z)= (f(t),g(t), h(t)) defined by these equation is a parametric curve (sometimes called a space curve). -
Finite Projective Geometries 243
FINITE PROJECTÎVEGEOMETRIES* BY OSWALD VEBLEN and W. H. BUSSEY By means of such a generalized conception of geometry as is inevitably suggested by the recent and wide-spread researches in the foundations of that science, there is given in § 1 a definition of a class of tactical configurations which includes many well known configurations as well as many new ones. In § 2 there is developed a method for the construction of these configurations which is proved to furnish all configurations that satisfy the definition. In §§ 4-8 the configurations are shown to have a geometrical theory identical in most of its general theorems with ordinary projective geometry and thus to afford a treatment of finite linear group theory analogous to the ordinary theory of collineations. In § 9 reference is made to other definitions of some of the configurations included in the class defined in § 1. § 1. Synthetic definition. By a finite projective geometry is meant a set of elements which, for sugges- tiveness, are called points, subject to the following five conditions : I. The set contains a finite number ( > 2 ) of points. It contains subsets called lines, each of which contains at least three points. II. If A and B are distinct points, there is one and only one line that contains A and B. HI. If A, B, C are non-collinear points and if a line I contains a point D of the line AB and a point E of the line BC, but does not contain A, B, or C, then the line I contains a point F of the line CA (Fig. -
Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces Six basic types of quadric surfaces: • ellipsoid • cone • elliptic paraboloid • hyperboloid of one sheet • hyperboloid of two sheets • hyperbolic paraboloid (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) 1. For each surface, describe the traces of the surface in x = k, y = k, and z = k. Then pick the term from the list above which seems to most accurately describe the surface (we haven't learned any of these terms yet, but you should be able to make a good educated guess), and pick the correct picture of the surface. x2 y2 (a) − = z. 9 16 1 • Traces in x = k: parabolas • Traces in y = k: parabolas • Traces in z = k: hyperbolas (possibly a pair of lines) y2 k2 Solution. The trace in x = k of the surface is z = − 16 + 9 , which is a downward-opening parabola. x2 k2 The trace in y = k of the surface is z = 9 − 16 , which is an upward-opening parabola. x2 y2 The trace in z = k of the surface is 9 − 16 = k, which is a hyperbola if k 6= 0 and a pair of lines (a degenerate hyperbola) if k = 0. This surface is called a hyperbolic paraboloid , and it looks like picture (E) . It is also sometimes called a saddle. x2 y2 z2 (b) + + = 1. 4 25 9 • Traces in x = k: ellipses (possibly a point) or nothing • Traces in y = k: ellipses (possibly a point) or nothing • Traces in z = k: ellipses (possibly a point) or nothing y2 z2 k2 k2 Solution. The trace in x = k of the surface is 25 + 9 = 1− 4 . -
(Anti-)De Sitter Space-Time
Geometry of (Anti-)De Sitter space-time Author: Ricard Monge Calvo. Facultat de F´ısica, Universitat de Barcelona, Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain. Advisor: Dr. Jaume Garriga Abstract: This work is an introduction to the De Sitter and Anti-de Sitter spacetimes, as the maximally symmetric constant curvature spacetimes with positive and negative Ricci curvature scalar R. We discuss their causal properties and the characterization of their geodesics, and look at p;q the spaces embedded in flat R spacetimes with an additional dimension. We conclude that the geodesics in these spaces can be regarded as intersections with planes going through the origin of the embedding space, and comment on the consequences. I. INTRODUCTION In the case of dS4, introducing the coordinates (T; χ, θ; φ) given by: Einstein's general relativity postulates that spacetime T T is a differential (Lorentzian) manifold of dimension 4, X0 = a sinh X~ = a cosh ~n (4) a a whose Ricci curvature tensor is determined by its mass- energy contents, according to the equations: where X~ = X1;X2;X3;X4 and ~n = ( cos χ, sin χ cos θ, sin χ sin θ cos φ, sin χ sin θ sin φ) with T 2 (−∞; 1), 0 ≤ 1 8πG χ ≤ π, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π, then the line element Rµλ − Rgµλ + Λgµλ = 4 Tµλ (1) 2 c is: where Rµλ is the Ricci curvature tensor, R te Ricci scalar T ds2 = −dT 2 + a2 cosh2 [dχ2 + sin2 χ dΩ2] (5) curvature, gµλ the metric tensor, Λ the cosmological con- a 2 stant, G the universal gravitational constant, c the speed of light in vacuum and Tµλ the energy-momentum ten- where the surfaces of constant time dT = 0 have metric 2 2 2 2 sor. -
Arxiv:2101.02592V1 [Math.HO] 6 Jan 2021 in His Seminal Paper [10]
International Journal of Computer Discovered Mathematics (IJCDM) ISSN 2367-7775 ©IJCDM Volume 5, 2020, pp. 13{41 Received 6 August 2020. Published on-line 30 September 2020 web: http://www.journal-1.eu/ ©The Author(s) This article is published with open access1. Arrangement of Central Points on the Faces of a Tetrahedron Stanley Rabinowitz 545 Elm St Unit 1, Milford, New Hampshire 03055, USA e-mail: [email protected] web: http://www.StanleyRabinowitz.com/ Abstract. We systematically investigate properties of various triangle centers (such as orthocenter or incenter) located on the four faces of a tetrahedron. For each of six types of tetrahedra, we examine over 100 centers located on the four faces of the tetrahedron. Using a computer, we determine when any of 16 con- ditions occur (such as the four centers being coplanar). A typical result is: The lines from each vertex of a circumscriptible tetrahedron to the Gergonne points of the opposite face are concurrent. Keywords. triangle centers, tetrahedra, computer-discovered mathematics, Eu- clidean geometry. Mathematics Subject Classification (2020). 51M04, 51-08. 1. Introduction Over the centuries, many notable points have been found that are associated with an arbitrary triangle. Familiar examples include: the centroid, the circumcenter, the incenter, and the orthocenter. Of particular interest are those points that Clark Kimberling classifies as \triangle centers". He notes over 100 such points arXiv:2101.02592v1 [math.HO] 6 Jan 2021 in his seminal paper [10]. Given an arbitrary tetrahedron and a choice of triangle center (for example, the circumcenter), we may locate this triangle center in each face of the tetrahedron. -
Surfaces in 3-Space
Differential Geometry of Some SURFACES IN 3-SPACE Nicholas Wheeler December 2015 Introduction. Recent correspondence with Ahmed Sebbar concerning the theory of unimodular 3 3 circulant matrices1 × x y z det z x y = x3 + y3 + z3 3xyz = 1 y z x − brought to my attention a surface Σ in R3 which, I was informed, is encountered in work of H. Jonas (1915, 1921) and, because of its form when plotted, is known as “Jonas’ hexenhut” (witch’s hat). I was led by Google from “hexenhut” to a monograph B¨acklund and Darboux Transformations: Geometry and Modern Applications in Soliton Theory, by C. Rogers & W. K. Schief (2002). These are subjects in which I have had longstanding interest, but which I have not thought about for many years. I am inspired by those authors’ splendid book to revisit this subject area. In part one I assemble the tools that play essential roles in the theory of surfaces in R3, and in part two use those tools to develop the properties of some specific surfaces—particularly the pseudosphere, because it was the cradle in which was born the sine-Gordon equation, which a century later became central to the physical theory of solitons.2 part one Concepts & Tools Essential to the Theory of Surfaces in 3-Space Fundamental forms. Relative to a Cartesian frame in R3, surfaces Σ can be described implicitly f(x, y, z) = 0 but for the purposes of differential geometry must be described parametrically x(u, v) r(u, v) = y(u, v) z(u, v) 1 See “Simplest generalization of Pell’s Problem,” (September, 2015). -
Analytic Representation of Envelope Surfaces Generated by Motion of Surfaces of Revolution Ivana Linkeová
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 8, Issue 8, August-2017 1577 ISSN 2229-5518 Analytic Representation of Envelope Surfaces Generated by Motion of Surfaces of Revolution Ivana Linkeová Abstract—A modified DG/K (Differential Geometry/Kinematics) approach to analytical solution of envelope surfaces generated by continuous motion of a generating surface – general surface of revolution – is presented in this paper. This approach is based on graphical representation of an envelope surface in parametric space of a solid generated by continuous motion of the generating surface. Based on graphical analysis, it is possible to decide whether the envelope surface exists and recognize the expected form of unknown analytical representation of the envelope surface. The obtained results can be used in application of envelope surfaces in mechanical engineering, especially in 3-axis and 5-axis point and flank milling of freeform surfaces. Index Terms—Characteristic curve, Eenvelope surface, Explicit surface, Flank milling, Parametric curve, Parametric surface, Surface of revolution, Tangent plane, Tangent vector. ———————————————————— 1INTRODUCTION ETERMINATION of analytic representation of an enve- analysis of the problem in parametric space of the generated D lope surface generated by continuous motion of a gener- solid. Based on graphical analysis, it is possible to decide ating surface in sufficiently general conceptionof the whether the envelope surface exists or not. If the envelope generating surface as well as the trajectory of motion is a very surface exists, it is possible to recognize expected form of ana- challenging problem of kinematic geometry and its applica- lytical representation of the envelope surface and determine tions in mechanical engineering [1], [2]. -
Projective Space: Reguli and Projectivity 3
PROJECTIVE SPACE: REGULI AND PROJECTIVITY P.L. ROBINSON Abstract. We investigate an ‘assumption of projectivity’ that is appropriate to the self-dual axiomatic formulation of three-dimensional projective space. 0. Introduction In the traditional Veblen-Young [VY] formulation of projective geometry, based on assump- tions of alignment and extension, it is proved that a projectivity fixing three points on a line fixes all harmonically related points on the line. The Veblen-Young assumptions of alignment and extension are then augmented by a (provisional) ‘assumption of projectivity’ according to which a projectivity that fixes three points on a line fixes all points on the line. See [VY] Chapter IV and Section 35 in particular. In [R] we proposed a self-dual formulation of three-dimensional projective space, founded on lines and abstract incidence, with points and planes as derived notions. The version of the ‘assumption of projectivity’ appropriate to this formulation of projective space should itself be self-dual. Such a version is ready to hand in [VY]: indeed, Veblen and Young note that (with alignment and extension assumed) their ‘assumption of projectivity’ is equivalent to Chapter XI Theorem 1; and this theorem is expressed purely in terms of lines and incidence. Our purpose in this brief note is to indicate some of the results surrounding this self-dual ‘assumption of projectivity’, presenting them within the axiomatic framework of [R]. 1. Framework We recall briefly the axiomatic framework of [R]. The set L of lines is provided with a symmetric reflexive relation of incidence satisfying AXIOM [1] - AXIOM [4] below. For convenience, when S ⊆ L we write S for the set comprising all lines that are incident to each line in S; in case S ={l1,...,ln} we write S = [l1 ...ln]. -
11.5: Quadric Surfaces
c Dr Oksana Shatalov, Spring 2013 1 11.5: Quadric surfaces REVIEW: Parabola, hyperbola and ellipse. • Parabola: y = ax2 or x = ay2. y y x x 0 0 y x2 y2 • Ellipse: + = 1: x a2 b2 0 Intercepts: (±a; 0)&(0; ±b) x2 y2 x2 y2 • Hyperbola: − = 1 or − + = 1 a2 b2 a2 b2 y y x x 0 0 Intercepts: (±a; 0) Intercepts: (0; ±b) c Dr Oksana Shatalov, Spring 2013 2 The most general second-degree equation in three variables x; y and z: 2 2 2 Ax + By + Cz + axy + bxz + cyz + d1x + d2y + d3z + E = 0; (1) where A; B; C; a; b; c; d1; d2; d3;E are constants. The graph of (1) is a quadric surface. Note if A = B = C = a = b = c = 0 then (1) is a linear equation and its graph is a plane (this is the case of degenerated quadric surface). By translations and rotations (1) can be brought into one of the two standard forms: Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + J = 0 or Ax2 + By2 + Iz = 0: In order to sketch the graph of a surface determine the curves of intersection of the surface with planes parallel to the coordinate planes. The obtained in this way curves are called traces or cross-sections of the surface. Quadric surfaces can be classified into 5 categories: ellipsoids, hyperboloids, cones, paraboloids, quadric cylinders. (shown in the table, see Appendix.) The elements which characterize each of these categories: 1. Standard equation. 2. Traces (horizontal ( by planes z = k), yz-traces (by x = 0) and xz-traces (by y = 0). -
Polarity in Tetrahedral Complexes
Polarity in Tetrahedral Complexes Nick Thomas Introduction Line Geometry, as the name suggests, is a study of the properties of figures formed of lines. In elementary projective geometry the set of coplanar lines in a point, or flat pencil, is well known, as well as the set of tangents to a conic section. Quadric surfaces are of the second order and class in that a line meets one in at most two points and at most two tangent planes lie in that line. In projective geometry there are three types: ellipsoids, ruled quadrics and imaginary quadrics. Only in affine geometry are hyperboloids distinguished from ellipsoids, and only in metric geometry are spheres distinct. Ruled quadrics are generally well known, and may be hyperboloids, paraboloids or cones. They are the next most basic form in line geometry. The abbreviation ªwrtº will be used for ªwith respect toº. Generally lower case latin symbols will be used for lines, upper case latin for points and Greek for planes and parameters. Exotic or italic capitals will be used for figures or configurations. When the term ªgeneralº is used, e.g. 6 general points, this means that special cases such as collinearity of three of them is excluded. Many standard results must be assumed to retain focus and brevity, which if not otherwise referenced will be found in S&K. Line Geometry In spatial geometry figures composed of planes or points are defined by means of a construction or an equation. Those with one degree of freedom possess ∞1 points or planes forming a curve or a developable, while those with two degrees of freedom are surfaces. -
Lesson 5: Three-Dimensional Space
NYS COMMON CORE MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM Lesson 5 M3 GEOMETRY Lesson 5: Three-Dimensional Space Student Outcomes . Students describe properties of points, lines, and planes in three-dimensional space. Lesson Notes A strong intuitive grasp of three-dimensional space, and the ability to visualize and draw, is crucial for upcoming work with volume as described in G-GMD.A.1, G-GMD.A.2, G-GMD.A.3, and G-GMD.B.4. By the end of the lesson, students should be familiar with some of the basic properties of points, lines, and planes in three-dimensional space. The means of accomplishing this objective: Draw, draw, and draw! The best evidence for success with this lesson is to see students persevere through the drawing process of the properties. No proof is provided for the properties; therefore, it is imperative that students have the opportunity to verify the properties experimentally with the aid of manipulatives such as cardboard boxes and uncooked spaghetti. In the case that the lesson requires two days, it is suggested that everything that precedes the Exploratory Challenge is covered on the first day, and the Exploratory Challenge itself is covered on the second day. Classwork Opening Exercise (5 minutes) The terms point, line, and plane are first introduced in Grade 4. It is worth emphasizing to students that they are undefined terms, meaning they are part of the assumptions as a basis of the subject of geometry, and they can build the subject once they use these terms as a starting place. Therefore, these terms are given intuitive descriptions, and it should be clear that the concrete representation is just that—a representation.