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Detroit: Dalla Crisi Agli Esperimenti Di Rinascita

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Detroit: Dalla Crisi Agli Esperimenti Di Rinascita UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI SASSARI DIPARTIMENTO DI SCIENZE POLITICHE, SCIENZE DELLA COMUNICAZIONE E INGEGNERIA DELL'INFORMAZIONE CORSO DI DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN SCIENZE POLITICHE E SOCIALI XXIX CICLO IN CONVENZIONE CON L’UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI CAGLIARI DETROIT: DALLA CRISI AGLI ESPERIMENTI DI RINASCITA Coordinatore del corso Professor Camillo Tidore Tutor Professoressa Antonietta Mazzette Dottoranda Laura Dessantis 2 Indice Introduzione 3 Capitolo I La città nella storia: dalla città antica alla città contemporanea Introduzione 7 1.1 La città industriale 13 1.1.1 La dimensione socioeconomica 16 1.1.2 La dimensione economica 27 1.1.3 La dimensione urbanistica 34 1.2. La città postfordista e postmoderna 39 Capitolo II Detroit: storia, sviluppo e declino della capitale dell'automobile 2.1. La fondazione della città 50 2.2 Detroit nel XIX secolo 54 2.3 Detroit nel XX secolo: una metropoli industriale 60 2.3.1 The City of Tomorrow 60 2.3.2 The Arsenal of Democracy 84 2.3.3 Il boom del dopoguerra 90 2.3.4 Anni Sessanta: una città in tumulto 99 2.3.5 Detroit nell'era della crisi urbana (1970-1990) 105 2.4. Detroit nel XXI secolo 125 2.4.1 Il fallimento di Detroit 127 Capitolo III Agricoltura urbana: produrre cibo in città più verdi 3.1 Definizione del fenomeno 137 3.2 L'agricoltura urbana nella storia 146 3.3 Agricoltura urbana e food security 163 3.4 Il caso di Detroit: gli orti urbani della rinascita 168 3.4.1 Storia degli orti urbani a Detroit 170 3.4.2 Il Food System Planning a Detroit 178 3.4.3 Case Study: The Greening of Detroit, Earthworks Urban Farm e 184 Michigan Urban Farming Initiative 3.4.4 I volontari delle associazioni 188 Conclusioni 202 RIFERIMENTI BIBLIOGRAFICI 208 Laura Dessantis Detroit: dalla crisi agli esperimenti di rinascita Tesi di dottorato in Scienze Politiche e Sociali Università degli Studi di Sassari 3 Introduzione L'avvio della rivoluzione industriale segna un momento di grande mutamento nella storia dell'urbanesimo caratterizzato da un ampio complesso di trasformazioni socio-economiche che hanno accompagnato lo sviluppo di epocali innovazioni tecnologiche. Dal punto di vista sociale, la frantumazione degli stili di vita tradizionali ha fatto si che le trasformazioni sociali siano divenute il fulcro del dibattito su città e modernità. Sotto il profilo economico una delle caratteristiche distintive è consistita nello sviluppo di una divisione del lavoro altamente complessa e diversificata. La diffusione del sistema di produzione fordista è divenuta l'emblema di questo processo. Non tutte le città sono diventate fordiste, ma l'organizzazione di tipo fordista si è estesa ad ogni esperienza urbana, a partire da quella occidentale. Per circa trent'anni il fordismo è stato il modello di sviluppo economico e sociale dominante, ancorato a un complesso di condizioni quali la stabilità internazionale, l'egemonia economica e politica degli Stati Uniti e la centralità del dollaro in un regime di cambi stabili fra le monete. Il graduale declino del sistema di produzione fordista, iniziato negli anni Settanta, causato dalla sospensione della convertibilità del dollaro annunciato dal presidente Nixon nel 1971 che rappresentò la fine del sistema dei pagamenti internazionali fissato dalla Conferenza di Bretton Woods nel 1944 e dalla la crisi petrolifera del 1973, ha comportato la riorganizzazione di molte città europee e americane, in particolar modo di quelle in cui l'esperienza industriale ha inciso profondamente sotto il profilo territoriale, economico e sociale. Il caso di Detroit, città fordista per eccellenza, è solo l'ultimo in ordine di tempo ad attestare gli effetti della crisi di questo sistema produttivo. Nel 2013 la città ha presentato la richiesta di bancarotta più ingente mai presentata da una municipalità nella storia americana. Si è trattato dell'epilogo di una crisi iniziata da decenni, segnata dalla perdita di posti di lavoro dovuta principalmente al crollo del mercato dell'auto, cui la città è legata a doppio filo e da un inesorabile calo demografico che ha progressivamente svuotato la città. Laura Dessantis Detroit: dalla crisi agli esperimenti di rinascita Tesi di dottorato in Scienze Politiche e Sociali Università degli Studi di Sassari 4 Quando l’industria dell’auto fiorì, tra gli anni Dieci e gli anni Venti del Novecento, Detroit, sede delle Big Three (GM, Ford e Chrysler), era tra le dieci città più grandi degli Stati Uniti e divenne l’emblema del capitalismo fordista con conseguenti notevoli ripercussioni sull’andamento demografico. La popolazione aumentò costantemente fino agli anni Cinquanta, quando la città raggiunse l’apice del successo sia dal punto di vista economico, sia dal punto di vista dell'espansione demografica. Tuttavia, in quegli anni, la città cominciò a registrare l'esodo dei residenti bianchi. Detroit, come altre città americane, fu caratterizzata dal white flight, fenomeno che vide i bianchi spostarsi verso l'hinterland. Al white flight si aggiunse la scelta delle Big Three di intraprendere un imponente processo di decentralizzazione della produzione con la conseguente contrazione della domanda di manodopera. Il decentramento produttivo contribuì a determinare la rotta verso il collasso economico di Detroit. Dagli anni Sessanta in poi la città ha cominciato a spopolarsi e ciò ha contribuito a mutare profondamente la sua fisionomia. Le ripercussioni sul tessuto sociale della città, provato dal disagio economico e dal perdurare del conflitto tra bianchi e afro americani sono state dirompenti. Detroit conta un numero elevatissimo di vacant lots rimasti inutilizzati a seguito delle demolizioni che hanno interessato vaste aree della città e altrettanti edifici dismessi abbandonati dai proprietari. Queste aree, che attendono di essere rifunzionalizzate, occupano un terzo della superficie totale della città. Fra le strategie di riqualificazione urbana delle aree dismesse, anche a Detroit si sta diffondendo la pratica degli urban gardens installati proprio nei vacant lots. La produzione di cibo in ambito urbano non è una pratica nuova nella storia della città e ha sempre giocato un ruolo importante nell’economia urbana. Anche Detroit non è nuova alla pratica degli urban gardens che ricorre, nel corso della sua storia, soprattutto nei periodi di crisi. Al fenomeno dell'agricoltura urbana si legano diversi aspetti quali, ad esempio, il contrasto alla povertà urbana e alla urban food-insecurity, il miglioramento della gestione ambientale urbana, il contributo all’integrazione sociale e altre funzioni educative, ricreative e sociali. Laura Dessantis Detroit: dalla crisi agli esperimenti di rinascita Tesi di dottorato in Scienze Politiche e Sociali Università degli Studi di Sassari 5 Tuttavia, dall'analisi del fenomeno, con specifico riferimento al caso di Detroit, emergono alcuni nodi problematici. In particolare l'analisi prende in esame tre diverse associazioni impegnate nel campo dell'agricoltura urbana e che operano a Detroit. Si tratta delle tre realtà più rappresentative nel panorama delle associazioni attive in città. Il percorso di ricerca è partito da un soggiorno studio a Detroit finalizzato a capire in che modo orientare il tema della ricerca, lavoro che è poi proseguito con lo studio e l'approfondimento del materiale raccolto e la realizzazione delle interviste semi-strutturate. La ricerca sul campo, coadiuvata dalla professoressa Cynthia Vagnetti, nativa di Detroit, profonda conoscitrice della città e studiosa del fenomeno dell'agricoltura urbana e della food-security, ha agevolato la comprensione di una realtà urbana così complessa. L'esperienza, come volontaria, in alcuni orti urbani presenti in città ha consentito di entrare in contatto con residenti e volontari, comprendere meglio le dinamiche che regolano l'organizzazione degli urban gardens di Detroit e creare una rete di contatti utili per i successivi sviluppi della ricerca. Si è scelto di adottare un orientamento non-standard della ricerca (Ricolfi, 1995; Marradi, 2007). Le interviste, che prevedevano un insieme fisso e ordinato di domande aperte, hanno coinvolto i volontari membri delle associazioni Agli intervistati sono state poste sempre le stesse domande, organizzate per macroargomenti, e nello stesso ordine, lasciandoli liberi di rispondere (Bichi, 2002; 2007; Cardano, 2011). La traccia dell'intervista riporta una lista di aree tematiche1 la cui identificazione è stata guidata dagli interrogativi conoscitivi a cui la ricerca intende rispondere e scaturiti dalla rassegna della letteratura, dall'analisi del contesto e dall'esperienza sul campo. Le aree tematiche riportate nella traccia di intervista seguono un ordine predefinito: prima gli argomenti volti a mettere a proprio agio l'intervistato con alcune domande relative al proprio background socio-economico, di seguito quelli generali e, infine, quelli più specifici (De Lillo, 2010). 1Quali ad esempio informazioni sull'associazione, i rapporti con le istituzioni e con i cittadini, il tema della food-security e gli scenari futuri in termini di job opportinities. Laura Dessantis Detroit: dalla crisi agli esperimenti di rinascita Tesi di dottorato in Scienze Politiche e Sociali Università degli Studi di Sassari 6 Ottenere il consenso dei volontari ad essere intervistati ha comportato alcune difficoltà e, spesso anche rifiuti. Ad esempio, una associazione, scelta inizialmente come quarto caso di studio, ha rifiutato di rilasciare interviste. Frequenti sono state anche i problemi emersi nella ricerca di altri volontari da intervistare. In merito alle fonti
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