Identity Terms and Organizing for Women in Same-Sex Relations In

CEU eTD Collection

Identity TermsandOrganizing ForWomenin In Partial fulfillment for the degree of Master of Arts in Gender Studies Gender Artsin of the degree of Master for Partialfulfillment In Same Main Supervisor: Hadley Renkin Hadley Main Supervisor: Support Supervisor: Mark Johnson Supervisor: MarkJohnson Support - Sex RelationsinMainlandChina Submitted to Central European University CentralEuropean to Submitted Department of Gender Studies of Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Yu Qi 2013 By 1

-

Central European University European Central

-

University of Hull of University

CEU eTD Collection CEU eTD Collection future that is notforetell globalLGBTby the movement. oftheglobalLGBTreflection movement. openup also of for unpredic Theyunderstanding by obscured simply theterms astranslationof reading and identities sexual situation the as inChina andconting These differences concludes that the identity termsmultiplicities formed multiplicities offorces. byinterpenetrating Tong withinformal anational organization interviews lesbian sourceistwomonths inof data fieldwork Chinainthespring 2013: participant observation and why both formed andreflect field.complexity ofthelocal Thisthesis asks how termsused, these are and Language, power, andsocial identities movements interrelated are andthus terms these identity are thesearound terms fromseeing themas interpenetra ofinvestigation.object It aimstheidentities, powerrelations,and toreveal social movements sexual identity termswomen forwomen loving Chinese, in toglobalizingrelation sexual movements deservesattention. research This thesis takes boomingmainland the and China, culture activism lesbian P.R.China andits intoday’s Abstract Although little re are they used in this theyare usedin way, expose complexitiesthat to areotherwise the obscured.Themain - zhi Center

, Nu search done situationhas been of and onthe lesbians lesbian activism in - tong - zhi encies particular concernsreveals andproblems the wouldbe that Center ( La - la Salon) i

ting multiplicities rather separate than unities. , andXi’an: Tong tong - yu - xing

and Relax -

three localgroups inBeijing: lian Tong , tong - xue - zhi - she

and

. The thesis . Thethesis current la - table la as the CEU eTD Collection Chapter 4How does the informal Chapter 3Appropriations of Chapter 2Dubbing the homosexual into Chapter 1Theoretical framework Introduction Abstract Table ofContent References Conclusion 3.2 Mainland: The failure ofthe 3.1 HongKong: “I amnot 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.3 Social movements as “infrapolitics” 1.2 Globalization of sexuality 1.1 Power,language and identity 4.4 T 4.3 Mainland: From 4.2 Internet: 4.1 Taiwan: The Lian Xing Tong he limitations offormalization of

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or ...... (sex): To talkor not totalk

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(love): “Love between homosexuals isthe real love” - la nu

s a tremendous imagined community

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zhi movement and thepersona ...... -

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tong ...... becomes a new - la Tong la

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CEU eTD Collection that mostChinathat in identifywithtoday. lesbians nu tomen.Whenrefer women, is to aprefix added referring newsignification in this 1990s.Both the Kong activists from “ abnormality,psychic and aderogatory term for name till now,century equivalentwestern in translational sexologyof “homosexual” from onlybeenwidelyusedsince Taiwan has the2000s. used since the twentieth early century; withcorrelate “lesbians.” astranslation self not is possib (Engebretsen, 2009,p.4).”Howeverit noapproval, nodisapproval,nos”: no don’t promotion,tell versionofthe“don’task aChinese isalwaysanswer generally “ambiguous.”Some that mightthere is theprinciple say of“thethree Introduction in 1 sex relations acquiredequal concept tong mentioned female eroticism same sex 1995).the twentieth (Dikotter, In early century, theterm Chinacenturies condemning itneverdistinguished sodomy, homose withconsistent polygamy was Althoughthere (Sang,2003). law ineighteenth nineteenth and same2000; Kang,2009).Female eroticism generally sex trivialized, was ignored and considered

I use lesbians to refer to womenloving womenin China, while “lesbians” with quotation mark to stress themeaning the specific English context. - Same eroticism sex inpremodern China existed but never as anidentity(Hinsch, 1990; All theseidentity terms quiterecent mainland are in China. Theoldest, me,When ask people of the “Whatis situation lesbiansinChina, repression tol or tong - xing - zhi - lian . La

was introduced through intellectuals’ translationswas introduced sexology. ofwestern Female same - la tong -

evident, the because terms Chinese is the termfirst only torefer women.tomy it research According

- comrade” to signify comrade” to xing

1

- lian lian

has been perceived generally aclinical both as term sexualand a for ional ground subcategorywith male the under tong tong tong - zhi - xing - xing came from 1990s; Hong Kong inthe

1

- le le to talk about“lesbians”assuming the lian - lian - tong calling. calling.

and . It . It traveled back tomainland Chinawith -- Tong - nu xing tong

(female) Tong writings. From writings. late twentieth the - xing - lian, lian, tong - zhi - - zhi xual xual and heterosexual, or lian

are gender --

was reappropriated byHongwas reappropriated as in

was introduced asthewas introduced - tong zhi nu or - - xing - neutral mostly but tong la

nu - la - lian erance,” my la - - xing tong do not

- is the is the term la, , st - - Chou, arrived lian xing arted

and - CEU eTD Collection particularities, byinvestigationtheinto terms: sexual identities, thepurposeof this thesis is toanalyze localculturalthe and historical To avoidareducedand oversimplified reading of in of lesbians globalization China as sexual and identities, yettheon China research lesbians in these hasmostly take termsidentity for granted. sex marriage, a“cooperate marriage” or gaymen 2009; with Kam, (Engebretsen, 2013). many Thusreproduction. prefer lesbians atraditional heterosexualmarriage same arrangement to asmuch forthisreason is pathological asnot conforming pressuredirect for lesbiansmainland in Chinaare from relatives. families, parentsThe andclose nos.” “three Neither the government public unanimous northe holdan most the Moreover opinion. of Classification Mental Disorders in 2001. hooliganism wasdroppedfrom lawin1997,and century.In twentieth the 1990s, Maochanged after their withanopeningpolicies, thatbearsome upprocess the to early similarities but was ofChinaRepublic in1949, lian 3 political. place. It can include any transgression thatis considered anti 2 lian literary elite writings in thepublic howsphere. Shediscusses diversemeanings the of traces theemergence(2003) ofl cultural gayness andChinese for global citizenship. Howeveris a study it onlyongaymen.Sang analysis gay cosmopolitan in identity offers Beijing agreat argument combination onthe of longing

Several books was published on Hooliganism isavague legal and political termthe Mao’s in China. Itisliterallymeans people roaming or out of Very few scholars haveVery few onfemale scholars written relations same sex in main and toAccording Foucault Butler la The

in early centuryintellectualtwentieth translational worksnarroweddown, andhow the but werepathologized aswell (See, After Sang,2003). theestablishmentPeople’s ofthe

tong

occasionally punished under ambiguously an defined label “hooliganism.” - xing - lian

issue isnot today simply toleration about or suppressionasrepresented byt

tong tong

- - tong esbians in China esbians in from premodern the tocontemporary byanalyzing xing xing - - lian - xing lian nguage and nguage and names great importance inpower have relations,

inthe 1990s.Li & Wang (1992),Zhang, B.(1994), Fang (1995). -

lian as aterm disappeared largely from documents, official

tong reemerged in public tong 2

-

- socialist. These transgressions can besexua xing - xing - lian, tong to mandatory heterosexual to mandatorymarriage heterosexual and - lian

was quietlyremoved fromChinese - zhi, discourses. and land China. Rofel’s (1999) China.Rofel’s(1999) land la - la 3

. The term

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The leaders The leaders tong l, cultural or

- xing ity andity

- he CEU eTD Collection perspective perspective “multiplicityof the poweras offorce to relations” analyze the identity lesbian terms, ambiguity China. such in ofsituations asforlesbians This Foucthesis takes a ofin lesbians Chinatoday. investigation oftheterms us deal tell agreat a can why used are areused they this in way. ambiguity Consideringthe ofthea situation, thorough andidentities, social movements these terms. byasking around howtheseidentityterms this does It women’sindividual livesareneglected. everyday literaturesmostly based onelite in thepublic sphere, andthe ofterms use and groups inactivists, of illustration identity howtotake terms powerto expose relations. Howe away as and linked to identities social movements. (2003) oftracing Sang’s termsidentity b used are attention meaningsto thesubtle ofthese Chineseidentityterms, how importantbecause which is 2004, buttheyinvestigate donot into theterm Inshort, pays scholars itself. noneofthese enough and (2009) Kam at looked (2013) weakensstudy analyzing in lesbian contemporary and identities activisms Engebretsen inChina. p Detailed discussions aboutDetailed the theoretical frameworkbe will inthe andto a and particularities achieve understandingmore comprehensive of multiplicities. the av movement 1990). that focusoncomplexity theory life(Scott, ofeveryday All ofthesearehelpful to cross (DeleuassemblageDeleuzian the as such sexuality,identities, and activism This inChina.linkstheperspective also tools other analytical erception oferception female samechangedfrom relations topublicanxiety. sex insignificant However her oid simplified of lesbiansinChina, complexity, structures contingency toexpose the analyzing The primary sources participant data are observation of lesbianorganization national Post This thesis,bytracing - cultural translation 1995), (Liu, globalization chaotic (Appadurai, social 1996), and - structuralism and theabsolutist determinist challenging tendency isusefulanalyzing in the oth reflects andconstitutesaset them, ofpower relations around further tong

- xing la - lian - la

and their and their strategies with , tong ze & Guattari, 1987), performativitity (Butler, 1993, 1997),1993, performativitity(Butler, 1987), Guattari, & ze - zhi

3 and bout thepower relations, identities, andactivism

la - la , aims thepower rela toreveal marriage andrelationshipsafter

first chapter. tong - xing - auldian (1979) lian

proves a great ver her workis her ver Tong tions, tions, - yu CEU eTD Collection of terms discussion the under respectively: diverse and andcontingent identities of subjectivities lesbiansinChina. epistemology, Confucianism, introductionofsexualidentitydiscourses the more andthe deep, ofthe losesidentities sight particular Simplyand unpredictability. assumingthese identity terms equivalent western are to sexual multiplicities. will I argue that it to is important work withthe complexity, ambiguity, particularity contradictory meanings, andreflecting constituting power the relations and changingconstantly overtime. amultiplicityofinterpenetrating Eachis and sometimes hour. Theanalysis drawsalso onmy withactivistown experiences gro andsocial activists the participants. Theinterviewsfrom are anhour half to fourhours,mostly one around 12conducted Rofel, 2000; Sang,2003; 2007),digitalarchives media(Hong and KongLGBTarchives) reports. I publicationsinternal from groups.Ialso use scholarlydiscussions lesbian terms onidentity (Chou, she and local groupsinBeijing andXi'an After addressing the After addressingthe theoretic show I will ofidentityhow themeanings terms ; interviews ofthe withparticipants activities;

recorded semi - structured interviewsstructured informal andnumerous conversations with al frameworkal chapter 1,each in subsequent one chapter addresses ities anddifferences: theities cosmological interpenetrating Tong - tong zhi - Center, xing 4 written materialswritten such as internet flyers, and

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tong - lian - Nu xing , tong - tong - lian - zhi - zhi , , and tong Center

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la , and identities alsoidentities as . and la ups. Relax - la

-- are Tong - xue - CEU eTD Collection 1.1.1 Discursive power,1.1.1 Discursive multiplicity andassemblage power transculturaldiscursive oflanguageand interactions. practices discursive related this translation to thesis, especially the performative powerofthenaming. the partI turn In third to example another of Butler’s partusing performativitylanguage to illustrate practices howthepowerofdiscursive differentlinks focusing theoreticalby tools onparticularities and differences.ThenI turn connectionsand its toDeleuzian assemblages multiplicities” “interpenetrating as as a that thread Theidentity. discusses firstpart Foucau identity and language Power, 1.1 force relations.” thethreadthrough ofaFouca local; the the globalizationmovements ofand social “infrapolitics” sexuality; as activism today. inmainlandIt hasfoursections China Chapter 1Theoretical framework transformation “achain system” andforming or a or“dis discursive “multiplicity powerisknowledge.This the offorce relations” intheceaseless come from butfromcenters authoritative omnipresent discursivepractices the producing forms conceptual framework anew ofpower“power asa power; itproduces itbut reinforces undermines also and exposes it (p. 101).” ForFoucault this encounters,global sexualities andsocial movements together theperspective of also thread poweris that followinglinks the discussions identities, oflanguages, dete Foucault Foucault reveals anindefinitecyclebetween poweranddiscourse: “discoursetransmits and Foucault’s (1979)model power asthe“multiplicity ofdiscursive force dissolves relations” the with I begin theoriesthe helptorevealthat interrelationsthe between power,language and ide lesbian analyzing in thesis this in used theories the reviews chapter This rministic epistemology differences andprevents obscures unpredictable which an future. This

uldian power perspectivepower that the considers as “multiplicity of lt’s discursive power aslt’s discursive“multiplicity power the offorce relations”

5

process, process, connectedbothwhich is to the --

language, powerandidentity;theglobal junctions and contradictions (p. 92).” It andcontradictionsjunctions (p.92).”It is - knowledge” s

.

ystem. doesnot Power ntity terms, identities, terms, ntity -- which are linked to the CEU eTD Collection 1.1.2 Performativity in 1.1.2 Performativity naming in together this chapter. indetailandtheidentity that language, thread holds gl perspective is expanded by Butler’sperformativity the that discusses relation languageand between differences, contingencies with andparticularities different slightly ofchoices concepts.This Bothpractices. FoucaultandDeleuze aretalking aboutthe same that shift focus o perspective multiplicity stresses as comesDeleuze it numerical centersbut from omnipresent not discursive 2003).”(Currier, Foucault’s ofreferences,centers while latter the multiplicitiesare characterized by“differences inkind but multiplicities initself: numerical theformerare anderasing differences to“differences from” multiplicities.are According Deleuzemultiplicities to aredistinct fr forThe converging point assemblagesFoucauldian power with themultiplicity. is The assemblages unities not are formations. Theassemblages Deleuzian are “functional conglomerations of elements elements”;the assemblage whichispresentedbyDeleuze (1987) concept, Guattari asunderstanding and the discretenumerical focus centers butrather onthe flow, linkage andconnections. andconstitutes everything.everywhere power Thisformation comingfrom rejects as ofpower demeaning wayof public bythe may using the subje insult formed This only bylanguage. process concerns not the terms, also but the a waysofusing: language that argues the reason that wefeel injuredby language, is beings”that weare“linguistic “formed in and anddiscourses identity Oneexample subjectivity. of power this ofnaming.is the Butler (1997) bywhichpractice producetheeffects discourse na that it The emergence ofidentityterms on Butler’sBuilding Foucault, (1993)concept of performativity,“thereiterate andcitational The discursive poweras “multiplthe (p. 1 - u neste,fre n lw;teasmlgsaeeeet flre sebae; but intensities, forces andflows; the assemblages are elements oflarger assemblages; )” 2).”

discursive poweras“multiplicity the offorce relations” isthe

-- names icity offorce echoes relations” withthe Deleuzian -- is a processofcertain is a subjects and identities being 6

obalization, sexuality, andsocial movements mes further 2),” provideslinksbetween (p. ct, whileway anassertive byof it using om oneandthe multiple” “the

n CEU eTD Collection (p. 10).” Reiteration (p. 10).” is neverperfect producesor complete, it differences, thenormand reveals as thatreiteration gapsand are fissures opened upastheconstitutive instabilities in such c naturalization for andpossibility resistanceexists in the reiteration. to thediscourse produce phenomen bringsintobeingwhatwhich asubject she/henames, that as reiterative power rather of but, citationality. (1993) AsButler performativity suggests “notasthe should beunderstood by act different and complex context. 3discussesof theresignificationChapter process identityChinese sexual 101).” samevocabulary, usingthe bywhichitwasmedically disq categories own behalf,todemand its legitimacy that be ‘naturality’ acknowledged, and the oftenin same (Butler, 1 riskthe ofinauguratinga inspeechwhocomes subject use to to language counter the offensive call some may tobe it.“If activists be addressed affirm is to interpellated, then offensive runs the call helping a a helping lesbian organization, myselffound inthe living of process translations. During my fieldwork in Beijing, Iwasalso from organizing China,participated and in lesbian Beijing Gender Studies education inEurope, I asreinvention1.1.3 Translation differencesalso, andtransgressions, multiplicitythe ofmeanings andidentities. for crucial socialmovements.subjectivities T an illusion. Besides naming,Besides anothercrosspoint of languageandpower istranslation. As aChinese Moreover the are not effects ofthenamingonee in process

over time.(Butler,over 1997, p. 100) conventional between relation woundmig wordand ofpublicmisappropriationacts constitutesbasis the ofanironichopefulness thatthe 997, This similar p.2).” is to “reversediscourse”: the “homosexuality begins to speak in its Hence reiterative Hence reiterative articulations oflesbian identity terms construct identities and The possibilityofdecontexualizingand recontexualizing such terms through radical

Tong

a that regulatesthat it andconstrains (p.2).”a Boththepower of - yu , withtranslat

his reiteration produces stability andnaturality,his reiteration but 7

ing internationalLGBT news.In such ht become and tenuous evenbroken vent, butinitsreiteration and “It is alsobyvirtue of this ualified (Foucault, 1979,p. tong - zhi

but in aquite onstructions

woman CEU eTD Collection Gaudio (2009) illustrates linguistic howthis question of translation is also method a valid inan have words,other whatpowerrelations established andmaintained hypothetical the equivalence. equivalencegetestablishedhypothetical andmaintained between l concrete Liusuggestsasking questions such does as “how interpretation andmediationxv). (p. thecoins term practice” “translingual toemphasize asasiteofcross translation inanother other discourses language; in words, knowledge isreinvented thantransferred. rather fromdiscourses onelanguag aiming revealit.Thus translation to process the is notatransfer intranslating rather of knowledge, objective bythevery natural, truth produced waitingforrevelation,butknowledgediscourses is imbuedthoroughly of with relations power (Foucault, 1979,p.60).”I power classica the identitynews, knowledgeofsexual andorientation, follows gender andmorerecently, awareness.It la betweenidentity equivalents terms: common foractivists thereareunwritten lesbian rules practices inChina, for translational the regional. isnotpurethe It coincidental thatlesbian in activism mainland today, happened China sexuality Globalizationof 1.2 beindividuals as will illustrated in 2 chapters are The(p.184).” anthropological ofinvestigation sexual identity terms ofhumanfeatures andsocial interaction, language performed bypowerful and powerless alike anthropological project. Gaudio (2009) a

with lesbian, T (199 Liu example For respect. this in Foucault with converge theories translation cultural Cross aimThese translations orcorrect truth tointroduce knowledge: international LGBTmovement

being performed Chineselanguagebymainland the lesbian in activists, groups China and ranslation culturalranslation across barriers clearly entails interactions the between glob - knowledge system, is “truth not bynature free l Enlightenment logicthat willsubjects beliberated According toFoucault’s bytruth.

tong - zhi

w ith LGBT,ith e into e into another language,meanings produced new are bythe new tong lian xing

nu - rgues rgues that translations andcategorizations are “inherent tong - - zhi

4.

8 and sometimes

with homosexual or gay,with homosexualor

-- nor servile error

la - la tong n other words, there is no n otherwords,there is

with LBT. -- - but that its productionbut that its is xing anguages? (p.16)” In nu - - lian - tong cultural

al, al, localand the , tong - xing - - zhi lian , la

or - la

la , - 5) CEU eTD Collection “multiplicity offorce globalization. relations”in His idea world that the today “rhizomic is and withindefinite complexitytheory and unpredictablefuture,which istherepresentation of metaphors from sciences with modelsaculturalchaos (Appadurai,periphery 1996,p.32).”Heproposes theory borrowed complex, order thatcannot disjunctive longerbeunderstood any existing overlapping, with centre problematic.American centre that,“the Heargues newglobal economycultural beseen hasto globalizationtraditional globalmodel of smoothly flowsandhomogenizing from aEuropean clinteractions is in ofglobalization ofsexuality 1.2.1 The problem (Altman,countries Rofel, 1997; 1999;Sang,2003; interactions relates to sexualitybyanthropological of writings sexualdiver described by (1996),will Appadurai I moveon discussions andlocal particular global onto and local relat identities framework lesbian and for activism adetour inmainland theories China, to global onthe Chinesewhich the activists lesbian assume of.To bepart themselvesupananalytical to set “correctthat knowledge”the is translated when interactions among differentlocations thenever are more intense before. It is worth noting challenge.(p.419)” Accordingchallenge.(p.419)” toAltman, queertheorists remained onlyhave not Atla Altman declares that, (1997) “none of the contributors tothis bookparticular upthis take o “gay” understand the of spread globalLGBT the movement categories such andidentity as“lesbian” and even schizophrenic” als The problem for anthropologists studyingThe problem for sexuality in nonwestern culture anthropologists atpresent is how to for (1996)proposal new a Appadurai’s globalandlocal framework forunderstanding r “LGBT.” Warner claims Michael Introduction inhis to and localizing tendencies of ourtheoretical languages.(Warner, 1993,xxii) ... politics. Anglo In the middle ...istheproblemIn the ground ofinternational ions is necessary. Afterions isnecessary. discussing globalization disjunctive asa processand chaotic ose agreement Foucauldianperspective ofpower.Appaduraifind witha the o links to Deleuzian to o links assembalges 1996, p.29). (Appadurai, -- - fractal, polythetic, and In chaos. American queertheoristswill be to haveto globaliz more alert the

from animagined LGBT/ global

9

Boellstorff

short, Appadurai issuggesting acultural , 2003; Jackson, 2000). , 2003;Jackson, Fear of aFear of QueerPlanet: -- or translocal otherwise tong zhi tong zhi sity sity in nonwestern

movement

ntic

- centric, centric, -- sexual ing as a -- - CEU eTD Collection useful analytical toolsuseful analytical mainland to analyze lesbiansin China. subsections fromthree perspectives troubles different theglobalizationof sexua construction of“West”analysis regional andcritical (Johnson, 2009;Johnsonal. et 2000). These 2003), “dubbing”p and discussions of “cultural citizenship” formsand other regulation inChina (Rofel, 2007;Sang, of more complexed structure asAppadurai has suggested. Itis divided subsections:into three identitywestern politics to newand something create unpredictable.” weakens his claim these non development toward the model”(Altman,western 1 of family inAsia,tothepastof value West. hedistances the himself Although from “alinear andliberation togive aninclination in.He blurring comparesthe and of sex/gender significance ofavoidance Euro for argues Asian, Altman a globalmoderngayidentity.Altmanisstranded between a conscious encounter wi and“gay”(Altman,“lesbian” p.419). 1997, thealso non universal notabove universal as culture loca or mark from She ofpower draws relations (p.93).” also conception ofthe or (2004) global Tsing’s of culture to reconfigure discourse as “ongoingdiscursive practiceswithsedimented histories that and unchanging (Rofel,2007, p.91).”Rofel andth onFoucault draws (1979) and universalof the as“self culture with Altman’s gay citizenship”1.2.2 “Cultural andbroaderregulations in China Rofel (2007) in her ofcosmopolitanRofel inher gayanalysis men (2007) the mainlandChina in 1990s in takes issue Below Idiscuss howstudies onsexuality avoids re hasAltmanHowever neither inridding himself succeeded ofAtlantic the - Western worldapparentlylacks interest in queer theory,continuing use to terms the th gay men,th gay commercialgayscenes groupsand gayactivist incosmopolises across -

American globalization model.globalization Sheargues main that the problem conceptfor Altmanhis is roliferation of identities (Boellstroff, 2000,2001),andthe 2003;Jackson, - - Western gaygroups ofuniversaldiscourse “will adaptideas and centric West arguments trajectory the provides that fo - evident,” “self lity but asthelity but which been global “has produced discursively in

10

-

997, p. 426), this gesturebetrayshim997, p.426),this and referential,” “timeless, bounded, homogeneous, ductive globalization structure andmove a to

- e performative power e performative centrism. Inhis lity and provides lity andprovides r Asian gay CEU eTD Collection nuances in study of the local, but disagrees instudyofthelocal,but withnuances argumenther citizenship” that,“Cultural more than consideration ofregulations China. in Rofel’s Sangagreesattentiont with of“overconfident.” Sang(2003)callsforconsideration abroaderandhistorically deeper identity normalization” “cultural nationalism” as andnon on anapolitical insisting process is both“activemodes men, that gay empowers ofaffinity” Chinese and“techniques of but something that isbeingworked out by basedmodern western gay itis asAltman identity homogenous gayness,not a suggests, universal cosmopolitan ina gaymenofshapingconstant state other.Evenif seems each are they a todesire desire in post political strugglesofclassidentityin China the Mao’s to realmcultural asconnected to practices of by Chinesecosmopolitan gaymen. “cultural citizenship” could articulateshaping together, otherinthedomestication each ofgayness complex wherethe transcultural perspective practice ofbeinggayandthefor longing Chinese gay global identity andtraditionalculture mutual as exclusive Altman antagonists as andt does, contextsvarious (Rofel, reconfigurations2007, p.93).”These Rofelperceivingallow toreject psychological personality(p.458).” Rofel softens toneher in thisrevised version. 4 centuryrathertwentieth than in 1990s.the askShe also fordeepanalysis ofglobal historical encounters, beginsfor it least at in the early omission bytakingintoaccountlesbian identities, writings creative andautobiographic narratives. ones,and class remaincategoriesofanalysis necessary (p.11).” remedies Sangoffers for,”is “uncalled andthat“gender techniques ofnormalization, other including medical, legal, post subjectivityortheories“legal ofpsychological personality, establishes proper andimproper in sex

The previous published version (Rofel, 1999) strongly stated“cultural citizenship, ratherthan, legal subjectivity or Rofel’s emphasizeon“cultural citizenship” hasbeencriticized as bySang(2003) “ Rofel proposes (2007) - socialist 95).” China(p. (p. 94). - Mao, post

- socialist China. other In desire words, the to be

cultural citizenship”cultural toreferofbelonging tothe transfer ofthesite from 4

Sang claims that Rofel’s omissionSang claimsRofel’s forms that ofother governmentally of

Chinese gaymen transcultural in practicesChina. This

11

proper Chineseand o the complexitieso the and - confrontational gay of Rofel’s of Rofel’s o a CEU eTD Collection the thosein the West,the they universal” “the orare engaging practices? 2004)inlocal (Tsing, gay identity tool Aremodel asa forfightingbackoppressions? id the thenormative subjects sexual Eastusingglobalization in as anopportunity, western the appropriate and demanding r modelidentity in West,the emphasizes which an identitybasedonsexualorientation, coming out gay 1.2.3 “DubbingCulture” womenindividual China1990s mainland the not in after are throughlydiscussed. such narrativesdiscourses aspersonal andeveryday practices activists,of groups lesbian and termsidentity besides inthepublic heranalysis discourses sphere, in thetransformation second sexualis weakened. Other theillustrates p nuance translations andof sexologicalwritings western Japan inthemid earlyand century twentieth oftheconstruction 7). analysis 1990s (p. Sang’s of as centurythat intimacytwentieth abnormality femalewas sensitized between andthe attributed to it framework to analyze globalizationframework analyze “du to process, controversy televisions of dubbingwestern into Indonesian language, Boellstorff develops a (2003) dubbed into Chapter2willidentities. expandthis “dubbing” metaphor how inexplaining is “homosexual” force the global intrude local community oravoluntary universal local toapplythe agency way a example. suggests oftheori It nu In analyzing comes howIndonesians to Several recent address studies thesequestions. “Dubbing culture” byBoellstorff (2003)isone RofelThe problem thatAltman, andSangde Sang (2003)identifiestwo China: first transformationmainland the early one wasduring the in - like identities and like identities the ofmovement. globalization LGBT that a Isit moderngay western - tong - xing t ong - lian; ights, traveled byintensifiedto the East globalization? the Is it marginalized non - xing the one second is the “resurgence off - tong lian ower identity relations behind terms. Sang’sfocus Howeverbecause on

- in China. xing - lian zing globalizing assuming process without a violent either

are not not are adequately her in discussed book,also lesbi al al how with is we explain the of spread lesbianand and bbing culture.” Although similarities the between 12

tong gay “ - xing subject positions”alongside the emale literature” in homoerotic the - lian lian through areading of intellectual entities in theentities in Eastmirroring

other formsother of

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15

cial movement model such as avily repressed the under nings fornings “cultural - already CEU eTD Collection similar form West inthe donothappen China in but today, everyday lives. It isnot to movement saythat social organizations movements andsocial in the formobilization complexities couldaccount such nothappened the in political butin arena 1990s.gay movementemerged the after not apolitical everydaythe or liferealm.discourses, complaintsDissident meansalso government’s the reluctanceexecute to largescalepurges. Resistances societal move to on regulation opposition state the up”policy. with “ReformOntheonehand, has andOpen tightened its “econo as“seriousit mistakes” by Mao( was theat central place P.R.Chinain early (Schram,However, CCP leaders later 1971). repudiates incontinually own come their cause, bac “movements.” derivedfrom thattheproletariats It to“interrupt (1952), needs Marx themselves ( communist revolution aimed imperialism, overthrow to feudalism an “infrapolitics” model to such a start such provides a model. foraccounts everyday the forms Scott’s (1990) transcripts” and “hidden ofresistance. ton openexpressions than as assemblies, processions, anddemonstrations. isIt situation inthis that becomesmore subtleand dissident polymorphous,the discourses multiplied on taking forms other repression andtolerance represents a toapplicable China(Brook&Frolic However inChina today, the 1997). contradictory both TheTiananmenevent adiscussion ofresistance. triggered thewhetheracivilsociety model is Constitution ofP.R.C None of socialmovement traditional the includingtheofcivilsocietyand theory idea This emphasis on“stability” replaces “movements” “development,” with Coldthe replaces War g - threatening overall rule. tothe It such a is in complex that andambiguoussituation lesbianand - xing mic development” stability(Schoenhals, 1999).” and“social - lian assemblies, processions on anddemonstrations, otherhand, the afocuson“stability”

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Foucauldian powermodel: regulation ofthe life everyday

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- xing xing xing rences ( rences tong - to meanto is sex aneologisminvented in earliertwentieth the lian yin e moral codes and is achievede moral andis in the codes teaching andof learning in Chinesemodern bothclassic and Chin vernacular xing

. and

xing - yang bie

tong can be integrated something into despised byit, ) interacted withacosmologicalview of to meana only is recentinvention, sex bythe . process, Inthe 27 can makecan of combination a

Confucianism“human as nature.”

xing xing r and sex disjunctures r and creates xing

as a characteras a only had a something youtalk about.” (sex)

is becoming tong ion, I now moveion, I now - xing gical differences

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that is that is . CEU eTD Collection complementing each other,complementing each boundaries. whichblursthe In genderperspective, premodern Chines ying “th Furth(1988) argues yin roles”“social “natural or aworldattributes,” but in both,” “encompassing the cosmosmicro and and natureareconsidered whole in asa unity the bringcosmos. harmony ideal is to The tothe centurywasthetwentieth cosmologicalview thateverything is didnature not According exist. toDikotter(1995) predominant Chinese the epistemology the before assuchin not perceived premodern Chinesesociety. Rather thedistinctionbetweenculture and so precise. anddichotomyBecause the culture nature male asrepresenting andfemale dichotomy is p.23).” sourcethe of male “Femininity power(p.22). imperative needduty is anddoesn’t differencesbiological it,prevails justify thus social nature as fulfillfor womentheir socialdutyasdaughters, wivesand Sang to mothers. arguesthatthe (2003) differences biologicalsexes,ratherin itisConfucianbetween inscribed the prescriptive soc the androgynousthe ideal of (Furth,1999,p.52).” health excessive yang, in premodern (960 body, butfrom teachingandsocialroles as prescriptive usingcoexisting of neverhadacharacterspecificallylanguage differences. genderorsex Therereferring to wasthe My interviews illustrates that My interviews view illustratesthat cosmological has impact ofgenderstill an onlesbian that differences (1999)argues Furth gender in Chin Sang (2003)seethis as male dominating culture female claim nature,however,this may notbe and and the treatmentthe was forto balance health bring andharmony the into individual body. Both the

yang yang yan dichotomy describe fixedor to isnot unchangeable femininity andmasculinity. g (p.2).” It is also not Itisnot (p.2).” also astrictdichotomy since in male bodyand - - cosmoses such asthesociety, cosmoses such family, bodyandself. 1644) medicine Chinese body the sexesareconstitutedby of either both yin/yang yin/yang ere wasnothing fixedandimmutable of aboutmale andfemaleaspects as and familial roles.Theseand familial genderdistinctions comes from not biological yin

in female were“potential vulnerabilities, departures body from

was fully understood as an skillwas fullyunderstoodas (Sang,2003,acquired 28

a should not eithera should understood be in the

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have shown acosmological epistemology that premodern in existed andcontinues to China nificant fictions.Descriptions orimproper female aspornographic of such relations same sex xing narrow, this andnarrow, somethingbroadness brightnessbelongto bright.(Why is doyouthink this both beautyappreciate the of theinto men.like anappetite for Theyhave help womenbut seduce andcouldn’t to normal women Yong: I found out I amYong: Ifoundout Sheng: The Ts (masculine lesbian) in - ke - xue la - la )” )” in earlytwentieth the century constructs the relations. relations. While Ps(feminine aremos lesbian) xing. xing. nder andsexualitytoday.nder yin yin - wives friendshipsisterhoodor as and are in insignificant space. this Both Dikotter(1995) Sang(2003) and noticed anexplosion discourse li and ) and not heard, should seen, talked be oractedabout, The out. tong yang yang - xing tong

- to articulate genderexpressions. re re as theobject. Thediscussions ofsexinpremodern gang - lian - xing reover, reover, even theseyounglesbiansand activistsare 29 la (the hard(the

because I because like always something and broad -

- lian la

are someone excessive havean who ?) Becausegirls?) yang emonic for discourse officials. Sex ) and ) and

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yang tly bisexual tly women, will who yin ’ minds generally are - .

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yang CEU eTD Collection voice in in voice the debate,earlier denouncingofsex feudalbadhabits andenforcingmarital heterosexual todiscourses. According Dikotter (1995)the totalitarian governments disseminated the dominant However deploymentinChina not Mao’s ofsexuality is a complete de intercourse. knowledgecorrect order.patriarchal Theaim of liberation sex feudal“bad this wastoeliminat habits neologism Japanesetranslation ofused in sexology,was ado wasintroducedtoculture epistemology cosmological replace 1995). (Dikotter, revivalfeudalism, nation to the trying withscience Thedichotomy anddemocracy. and ofnature made vehemently intellectuals Confucianism attack cosmologicalepi andthe and of Chinesenation perishing the race.Thelate Qingempire’s impotenceresisting in imperialism Xing same system writing discou western translated on 12 ( 11 10 9 not sex is something It about. talk isillustrated to bythe oldcosmological viewshouldthe socially controlled, sex be andthe that Confucian codethat moral ofdiscourses sex ofthe sexscience.Moreover, the CCP derives from governmentalso powerofthePRCgovernment.is by the It institutionalization of previous proliferation cities,urban onthe butwasenforced wholeregion ofmainland anddifferent levelsofsocial status sexuality.Thereproductive discour

tong

Menji Restoration (1868 Polygamy, feetbinding, prostitution, homosexuality, etc. Theterm homosexual ( Japanese writing system isacombination Chinese characters(Kanji) withtwo syllabaries. This incitement tospeak endwas broughttosudden the ofP.R. at establish Chinain1949. The background fo xing xing - zhi (sex) ) are) examples. (sex) analogous proliferation as the to Foucault(1979) investigatesWest. inthe Japan Since

is oneof these adaptionsintranslating sexologies. western xing

- bie bie

of isthebiological sexwhich differences anddrives to heterosexual reproductive (sex (sex differences) isreplacing Confucian for codesasthe moral justification

10 tong r intellectual zeal r intellectual of sexis of colonialanxiety science translatingwestern the - , many Chineseterms discoursesmediated were ofwestern through Japan. 1912)in Japan andMay Fourth (1915

rses a fewearlier a decades rses - xing -

lian ), sex( se ofsexscience wasonly among bourgeoisincoastal new the xing ), ), romantic love( 30

pted. Thebiologicalpted. sex differences the under

9

than Chinathan andthe languages sharedpartofa - 1921) NewCultural movement inChina.

lian erasure oftheterm - ai ), sexual), perverts(

tachment fromrepublican tong bian stemology as

Xing, - - tai xing

12 ) and) comrades ” with ,” the character - lian lian

from the 11

CEU eTD Collection something talk have youdonot andyet totalkabout. attitudes These regardless if it’s by CCP Theschizophrenic sexil attitude toward isalso liberation. andyet 2.2.3 Sexis something have totalkabout you donot talk but rhizomic andschizophrenic (Dele anhybridizes hybridized already 2003, space (Sang, p.11).” makesWhich not it simply hybridized, ofexpression biological differences. oftheThe wholeprocess transformation ofsexis “further socialist bringback past to andwives femininitymothers asboth inConfuc harmony, same asthe inthe China. language masculinization denounces Mao’s the It of women in xing “sexual liberation” emerged, the socialist denouncing pasthuman as repression against nature ( and science Confucian morality toachieve this. imperialism andremnants offeudalism, other handitisusingthe onthe language o discoursesexual inMao’s Chinadenouncedthem ofthebourgeois Western ascorruption sex behavi as opposite of butgrouped heterosexual, togetherwithpremarital, prostitution, extramarital and any spherepublic butoccasionally punished the of under label hooliganism. desires both formaterial sex. and 13 attributed be partly to the general attitude sexassomething about notbediscussed should openly. government, sexual liberationists, lesbians or the deeply general publicis “schizophrenic.”

This isthenot same humannature ( Section 2.1haveshownthat Section Xing After “Reform 1980s 1990s, the in after up”policy andespecially anewwaveof andOpen ) 13 . However this. However “liberation” attempts tobringbackboth science Confuciansexual and (sex) (sex) is anassemblage ideas, ofcosmological Confucian sex and morals, science, sex Everyone, relatives and friends relativesand Everyone, congratulate youanditisamandatoryon yourmarriage, didn’tgeneration know, something disgraceful.Sex( buthave baby, know didn’t wherebabycome from?...Sex( the re ors that are not reproductive, conformingetiquette or social to ( ally close, know.but howclose,Ididn’t like Itis knewpeople I should marriedget and Sheng: I heardofSheng: I

tong

xin xing - g xing ), inConfucian canons, it isbased onnature andculture div (sex) uze & Guatarri 1987; Guatarri 1996). uze & Appadurai, - lian lian

is avoided inthenames. omission This of but know didn’t means. peoplewhat it Iknowitistwo

31

lustrated bylesbians today. Sexis xing ) is ) is not something youtal

Tong xing li ian teachingian andnatural ). Ontheonehand ) issomething our -

xing - f bothsex lian xing ide of human was notset (sex) could(sex)

k about. ren

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A erotic fictionin pre On the contrary, sexliberationis On thecontrary, Although Shengspecifiesthis isthe situationof “my early late80sand generation”(in the

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known, respected, or known, respected, talked about. Itis something mandatory hidden behind a path

La

xing

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- la

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altogether. (sex xing

32 (sex) andfemale(sex) orgasm

) fiction, Laofiction, hesitated always toutterthe

tong -

in most narratives. ofher wen - female andmale - -

xing hua ). InChinawehavegenerally low - lian lian or heterosexual in relations as - male behaviors. sexual xing

coincides withmale the coincides

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The Golden

la - la

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the characters the , represented best by the phrase, representedbestthe by “homosexual love ( - and ai, to - or homophobic localunderstandings ofgenderandsexuality assome argues scholars ai ai ng ) become pathologization the both in (as

(love): “Love between homosexuals is the real love” isthe real “Love betweenhomosexuals (love): - xing

is always related toromantic love. ieth ieth century China the naturalization ofheterosexuality is combined witha lian lian - le meaningsle related to lian and - ai

(Sang, differences 2003).Thisdiscussesthe between section ai are roughly as translated love. Chinese Inclassic before twentieth

Xing xing 33

(sex) (sex) is also next connected to our element love is formed through discourses. In is formed In discourses. answering through why

econd this does notecond thisdoes explainthese Chinese

lian lian )

tong and highly valuedloveand highly ( ) and valorization ) and (as in xing - xing

to and howto and thecontradictions, - - lian 115).” Reframings115).” Dr. of e cosmological ) is thereallove(ai).” ) is tong - xing

tong

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ng: I havemarried. get ng: I to Myparents can’tput through... sufferedenough.I them heir sexualidentity toparents, and “cooperate some consider xes replacedfamilial thenewduty as marriage. Free norm for

about comparable the social

34

- economical ofafake status husband.

en the sexes. In en the In sexes. the early ion ofromantic love; Meng young today. generation lian - ai

in modernJapanese

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CEU eTD Collection “entomologized bygivingthem(Foucault, 1979, baptismal names p.43)”: sadomasochism, himand sexologists after havesucceed inusing forms and down oftranslation, narrowed term toapathological ( assexual perverts PsychologyofSex the were narrowedauthoritative(1944) downtoasingle voice.Pan’s translation ofEllis’s conservative nationalistthe various government,the conceptions of andvaluations tosomethingfrom analogous eroticism romantic to andbehavior love. astranslation same than rather love same sex desire andintercourse, sex shift same relations sex fromof andvaluations conceptions a contrast to abnormal early homosexuallove, the centurytranslations twentieth represents variety a Although dominant(Sang, 2003). the wastonormalize concern heterosexualromantic lovein suchasfriendship thefeelings between friendship/lovebetwee sexes, fromraised localofdemarcating the concerns the boundaries ofromantic love( 2.3.2 Pathologizationlove ofabnormal invariousunpredictedduty results results. isnottheyIt preferring are either oneofcombination two,butthe of the love romantic andfamily tai lian 15 Ironically itlove. wasMao’s PRC government eliminated that polygamybut romantic lovewasal arranged polygamy; piety usedtobeonlyfilial wascelebrated as crystallization reproduction, the of humanbetween earlytwe In beings. ofperversion( a sense becomes on the withpedophilia, fetishism, is thesesexologists It reiterate etc. practices, discursive

(perversion). There isa popularpun: love istheupper part ofperver Ai 1930sIn the late because of The e ( 恋 (love) on the other hand(love) ontheother tainted isnot byperversion. It is elevated as the most valued affection ) is upper part of mergence of

ly recognized termly recognized andthecharacter now, bian tong bian became andhistranslationof influential highly (

变 - - xing tai ) combined) withthe lower part of )

15

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, ntieth century truelovebetween the sexes replaced family

tong western sexologywestern whichdiverse. isalso Nevertheless, the

-

xing - ai - l

ian 35 combinedwith the lower part of ,

tong

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lian ( to ofpervertsdocument ( alist 态 - lian , soto ), to a certainto a extent, is associated with - ai

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g tong mind hiseducationwhat is background, but whatishisjob, ... not much love. forworlds ...[whenshestarted tolook husband]it a more is feeling warm while andsweet, withmen is like it animals different from two as...) allday.(Isthatwhyyoudefine yourself her No,that is what Idefine ( love To love is notTo loveis a privilege Sheng: I feelSheng: I beingwith more comfortable,women the is communication ismore deep, Lao: Until Ifelt somet - xing n China are more anddiverse.n Chinaare subtle Thereason privilege foractivistto love ( - ai lian lian ) is the exactly language used discourseindefining heterosexual inhegemonic activism thepolitical realm.Thisamain outside is predicament forlesbian

hing that hing that isbeyondfriendship, littlepossessive, a bewith whatto . The hos ai ) as means) as to justify tong - t fromthestudent society startedthelecture with xing - ex love over heterosexual over love. ex love 37 ai lian

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part and part valorized of lian lian - - tai lian lian ), andusedby tolegitimizelesbians valorize andeven and is notsimply but sexual identity a assemblages “interpenetrating as ai ) is both) is usedbyhegemonicdiscoursepathologize to of

tong - xing 38

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See Sang, 2003, p.272. I have argued I have that the hasThe previous chapter showntheinteractionbetween Hong La land andformedland animagined collective identity.The third describes section how lesbian - la la - la is the collective identity for activism lesbian after2000s. the la La activists still activists use means or people “to “topull” recruit”by“pulling in,”and the character - la zi

It iscommonin Taiwanto addthe suffix - la of protagonist the in aTaiwaneseautobiog lesbian la

-

zi movement bothfrom the isdifferent as ahomophone novel oflesbian. Howeverit inthe is anickname “recruit erging movementerging on acollectiveidentity bases 27 T . here issources no indicating why

la

nu - zi at - nu tong as an autobiographicas an subjectivity and La

- tong - - zi zhi milarfunction. is studentactive in members. society newfor recruiting The - zhi in the 1990s failed duetoinsidein disagreement 1990sfailed the radical onthe and cooperatewithTaiwan la la

- la rict public Itseems the sphere. that contradictory - la 52 zi groups across China. The first section across ingroups China.Thefirst reviews

subjectivity spread through theinternet to as showing affection orintimacy. Whereinmost parts of la nu - zi la - tong nu wouldevolve to - - la tong - of newmovement the andthe zhi becomes anew -

movement, disseminate the of zhi Kong raphic in1997,and fiction

nu movement in 1990sand inthe nu la la - La - - tong

- la, tong and mainland. Thischapter la - la la , my suggestion is the habits of rather than rather -

- first appeared first asthe - zhi la zhi and LBT. movement as

movement. zi nu is a commonis a

- tong - zhi la - er” - la .

CEU eTD Collection and maniacallypries into hidden are the world.abnormal activists both Lesbian lesbian attracting abnormality, into lesbians expel mediaboth The value. familyConfucian and science sexual western capitalized societyhighly withmatured massmedia wh to more directly related lesbian feminist movementandqueeracademia from US the with mainlandechoes the and lesbians whatmakes sympathetic resonances the community.within lesbian Thisautobiographic subjectivity iswhat notstrength is personaThe autobiographic Tai 4.1 la la of formalize the andthe groups construct equivalence between resource mobilization model(McCarthyhas &Zald,1997).Although there atendency been to “infrapolitics”(Scott, 1990) than the form in traditional ofpolitics publicsph ismoreIt looselyorganized anddiversein of interpretations 29 theory. For more detaileddiscussion oflesbian feministmovement inTaiwan,see Chao (2001)and Sang (2003). 28 crocodile’s journal (e reductionismhomophobia andthe politic. QuiMaojin’s ofidentity autobiographic fiction feminist argues movement, (2003) that individual lesbian Sang alternatives: self lectures, massmediafor wide

- See Chao, 2000 f Thelesbian feministmovement queer and theory are incorporated into Taiwan as and their and their practiceseveryday that heterosexualitychallenges asaninstitutional oppression. la la’s Sang (2003) argues that Sang (2003)argues autobiographic fictionQiu’s fascinating, “is n activismAlthough lesbian the borrowed term inTaiwan The - la autobiographic strength, thegrowing ofwomen number themselves whonow identify as nu movement notturning lies in infrapolitic wan: The - tong

only in only in representational politicsorbut the rebellious in emotional depth andits - zhi or anthropological study of lesbian representations withsimilar results. movement inTaiwan astrong has connection toUSlesbian feminist movement. r publicity while beingr publicity risk sensationalized, lowcost anddeveloping nu - yu shou -

tong - publications, and the publications, andthe withinternet lesbian (Sang,2003).Alongside the La

- - ji) - zhi zi , theone as thepredecessor of movement and the persona the and movement la - zi

comesfrom, example. isan s but toformal intheinfrapolitics politics, itself: in 53

la - la ich reinforcesich hegemonic of discourses la a collective a collective identity i - la tong la la emerged movement, this with butits - - - la la representations are als - zhi , which morerepresents ofa and LBT, I argue and LBT, Iargue future that the

from Hong Kong activists, it is from itis Kongactivists, Hong La nu - ot somuchher for tong - zi 29

ere describedby ere

- zhi zhi n mainland. movement and 28 o challenging . Taiwan is a . Taiwanis

The

ku

- er la - CEU eTD Collection have is also have is inSheng’sevident story. “irreplaceable” place(Sang, 2003 theywomen, evenif return tothe that heterosexual world this “perfect love” will always an reserve zi themselvesand secretly control and abo many lesbians felt.Similarly,mainland also mainland in fearthe lesbians of label control constantly and2003, p.267)she herselffor punish desire. her It is thesame that anguish her. fear, secretdesire, by her confusion indictment society andfierce againstthe dehumanized that has (p. persona 260 to attributed factthat the sounds it like defiance, as for theintensityofher anguish.” “While popularitythe of Indonesia. (similar lesbian) to does not simply indicate its western origin. See 30 massfrom conservative the media, and onehand,andfromfeminist onthe radical lesbian activist collective.than “ autobiographic narratives internet, onthe manyThus

’s narrative’s Lez novelemphasizebetweenMoreover, Qiu’s love women“perfect the as love”felt by these Qiu’s narrative Qiu’s fictionin the as La is another popularly usedterm lesbian for community in Taiwan. Although it is presentedin western forms - zi

lot pains. hardtostub lot Likepinching glowing out a Iknowto this. it alot ifIsaidanything, wouldaffect bothofus....Thereare struggles,a respectable model like this.I knowmy ... wrong,feelings not are ...but future there is no me, abadfeeling ofme. having inChina it or is Because impossible. I have psychological needIhave. After longing that Ifeel forwomenand desire thedeep cannotsatisfy ...Men Unfortunately, parents. my first happened and love second relations secretly identifies lesbians, with however, “anxious harmony in tobe wi la Sheng: I amSheng: I anormal women.a likeromantic anticipated love I onebetween my the felt mySheng: I guilty. I restrained possibility Iam the afraid feelings. ofherrejecting

in mainland. - la - 261).” 261).” This f The crocodile’s journal in mainland wouldidentifystrongly with

iction iction depicts

, p.270

La

- lez zi ut the feelings.Thenarrative ofSheng aversionut the is of , is a , isa lesbian

- belongs belongs in to an la 30 271). This perfect loveandthe emotional thatlove depth La , it is, it largely duetothe charisma extraordinary Qiu’s of - la - zi swept became wholeChina the acollective identity. ’s personal ’s asa journey studentuniversity tutored 54

- representation thatis more individualistic Boellstorff(2003) for - between space, one that is distinguishe La

cigarette, I myself,cigarette, told NO. - zi. Later whentheyreadmany la - zi gay

may partly least beat to bewith women. and lesbi tong th society” (Sang,th society”

never seennever a subjectivities in - xing

- lian La -

d

CEU eTD Collection internet. As internet. mentioned 2, inchapter the Internet: 4.2 onlineblogs, communities, and makes This elusive. connections us the leads to our section next thriving onthe of publicspherepublishedthe as literatures over internet communiti mushrooming of proli Notwithstandingstrait. Sang arguesforthedifferencesbetween (2003) radical PRC andTaiwan,the websites andpersonal1990s, wherelesbian blogs proliferating anddisseminating Taiwan acrossthe Similarlesbian autobiographiclesbian. representat media ofself evidence as an stories what make term the La communitiesTaiwan lesbian isnot asmuchfor itshomop discourses, other on the Asmentioned beginning,(Sang, 2003,p.271).” inthe communication. Theinternet penetrating have rates from increased early 1997(duringthe 0.04%in has spread rapidlytobecomemethod new the ofcommuni 4.2.1 Acollective identity formed narratives oninternetby autobiographic was 1997, it andhad not generalized not become the 1990s’ space forprovided lesbians internet.The main developed, the communication methods forthe a as partly result ofofficial thepublictime,restricting Duringthis sphere. ane - During the years that During the A tremendous imag autobiographic fictionAlthough Qiu’s withhersuicide novel along the wasusedbymassafter zi feration of ’s

nu personality. This fear, personalconfessional private, storyaboutlove, confusion, anguish is d emotions. - tong - la zhi la la - - la - la movement weremailAlthoughtheinternet already in andtelephone. existed la la websites, blogs onthe websites, andcommunities internet in mainland, later andthe

- a tremendous imagined community a tremendous groups differences may showsthe bethat radical. not Sang’semphasizing on ined ined zi nu - so powerful, in that it with thatit so powerful,in resonates evenmillions thousands ofwomen’s hating, self - la tong - la la - community and the newcollective identity zhi - la

movement from publicview, disappeared theinternetinChina - movement inChina. destruction destruction tendencies that represents themorbid masculine nu - tong - zhi 55

ives found alternative space on the foundalternativespace onthe ives internet in late

movement the in 1990s fadedfrom sight public

mainmethod fororganization.

hone to asexual to for identity“lesbian”, as hone cation, andthemaincation, onefor es and anthropologicales and studies

la - w semipublic arenaw semipublic la la

- formed onthe zi la

’s ’s in popularity - la la websites, websites, - la CEU eTD Collection stories, acollectivestories, identity started to form internet, very onthe throughthese personal narratives. felt senseinterviewees the of these belonging whentheyread stories. attractedmanywhich then followers forumand changed into and websites A ofinreal life.speak Three major websites from lesbian operating 2004, 1999to etc poems podcasts, masculine, feminine andandrogynous lesbians) Tai communities class represents oftenan upper community. Thesewebsites to existing refer the netizensinChinais 0.1%initialthe less than Thus online ofthepopulation. lesbian la nu 32 mainland Taiwanand Hong Kong. See Lai, 2007 for lesbians inHong Kong. 31 4.2.2 Imagined anon community in solidarity (Taylor 1992,p.& Whittier, 105).” “shared ofthe definition that from agroup derives members’ experiences, commoninterests, gossips, Unlike

- - See the descriptions earlyof lesbiancommunity Yu in la - la The similar emotionsfeelings, andstories makes many correspondingthese to lesbians filledwith lesbian andblogswere blogs,Early autobiographical websites web fictions, creative wan lesbian onlinecommunity knowledge as for such tong S - ee Xian dao groups) 2013). (CIIC, T tong - la zhi sense ofbelonging.sense are callingthemselvesare didn’t ...Istill relieved. know whetherIwas andinternet, saw tong am. of I only knowwhatkind person Isearched books andmagazines foreverythingabout , Hua - - la feng Ran: I didn’tRan: I knowwhat to Lao: Anamorphousforce me drove the read Now forums to I thi andfictions. - movement) 2005 to8%in establishment (the xing - is a termis a most of interviewees the found is internet. onthe It acollective as identity xing - - kai nian - lian - - lian - de . In early . Inearly chat rooms women these feelings shared their whichthey felt afraid to jian’s (2006) online articule for analysislesbian of websites inmainland China.

- which one di

or transexual ( -

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people people theirstories.post Many like mine.of are just those Ifelt

he first websites he first lesbian started 1998 around to1999,at a time when

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31 - ). ...Ibecamemore confused....ThenIfoundthe bi (2008). These knowledge travel with variations between 56 .

tong Tong la - la xing - - la, les la. - -

yu lian lian

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and T or transexual. Since all ofor transexual.Since them

la - P - 32 l - a H . Manyofmy

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, CEU eTD Collection any trace; itrelational,any trace; useris not the is sitting alone in has internet characteristicsall of the a non “nonplaces into andfindengine the information belonging they and need. Lesbian safer communication of internet. the provides It the opportunity for discourses diverse toemerge. expr in massmedia. Thusthe play internet alternative animportantroleas space for lesbians to phantasythephobic whichreinforce abnormality ofmany lesbians themfindanswer cannot their of levelofnation.Howeverbeyond the p as media more important capitalismaneven in plays roleimagined community that organize imagineAppaduraiin life beofonenation. themselves to (1996) buildingargues onthis that mass personal and AsAnderson private. (1983) shown, has media print has 4.2.3 The spreading of internet 4.2.3 The ofinternet spreading belonging. exp the of sense the similarity and reflects avivid honesty behind person Manyof the texts. them describe theyfeltlives more authors lonely. anonymous Althoughthe stay of story underalabel these anymore text.contrary,when Onthe withthe they la surfing mostlyidentity, is sense anonymous.offers the Yetit belongings ofthat relational these couldn’t found Althoughcouldn’t are inplaces. they Thus the internet Thus the exampleis an claim that“supermodernity” is ofthe Auge(1992) turning of The differencebetween the internet andmassmedia is lowerthe threshold anonymity the for Imagination importantis an factor in formation this ofacollective identity onaterm is that ess selfess erience offinding communityinternet asfinding onthe confidence, comfort, hope,and s have more on freefor choices the internet could they thediscourses filter through search search search engine, there then werewebsites. wheninternet Iworke

- Yong: I saw tong Yong: Isaw representation andbuild animagined community. - place,” thefirst never erased is whi - xing d in ... Bejing. I typed tong la - lian middle fromwhenIwasin ... school wentonthe books - la community inthe2000scommunity revious that discussion suggests massmedia is creating a - place: it is notplace: itis be historical,thedatacan erasedwithout

reading storiesalone, others’ arefelt they notalone

57

were with were with family, andrelatives friends real in

le the the le second nevercompleted is (p.77 - front of acomputer;it t is not related - xing

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(love between masculine(love lesbians); around agea certain range after findingafter theonline community hen the first activist offline firstactivist group hen the

town but just in oneyear,town butjust in theinternet cafeswere everywhere. know about,forbid to what ortalk is wetalk thatfromget massmedia, butsomeone on it internet. saw Teenagers the whatparents are, talking about “Heydoyouknowthat ever week. ever finally excited, I these peoplecan meet face toface.In those Iwouldvisit years Ran: After I Ran: After I knew fromwebsite that thereare the When high(2004Meng: Iwasin school tong la La - la that that monopoliesthe internet starts tohave groupslesbian theirforum, in suchas

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on the andinternet, these spread newsinschool.Thelesbianwebsites . Because websites before2004, under the found 25s Shuai La la , Tong were not satisfied only onvirtual communications. - - - Les la T la

hem shutdownafter2005.ofthe Most interviewees

(handsome aparticu around T); movement offline andfacilitates social groups too. websites organized byindividuals areless tong - , yu La 58

established, the internet penetratingestablished, theinternet rate is - -

xing la - 2005) I 2005) I r

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pubs - la - - CEU eTD Collection pressure for lesbianspressure Chinese comes relatives. Inthis friends and case“offstage” from the Scott t hegemonic my to discourses. According don’t heterosexuals generally interviewees understand the from self Taiwanlesbian inscribe negativthe discourses ofcharacters discourses. 4 in2005.started boomingDuring this of public do activitiesthansomeone wh “infrapolitics” that characterize newthe sothatnoone together went When meet lesbians out to other,there is the each a certaintacit agreement: allin weare this most power is the felt. In thiscase internet asa“non describes circles(1990) as families, around friendsexactly are erm. .2.4 As mentionedAs many inchapter 3, activiststodayprefer themselves lesbian to call someone who La exposesperformative the again of Zong’s narrative progress hegemonic discourses. The unlike Moreover,

- La - la profit ornonprofitcareer. This differentiates them theradical from - attitudes attitudes toward The dislike it. ones whoreally Les always theseI wasyoung.People use characters three with meanings negative ... behind it. pejorativethere is no sense the in three characters, it but issomething tome instilled when If someone knows is a moreis a elusive term public for general than la La as self Zong: When someone use Zong: and tong - la

la is an is an identity onelearnsbyherself. - - Tong xing identification andidentification “hiddentranscript” - la tong are whatI are learned on my o - would be exposed. The online andoffline Theonline would beexposed. - lian la xing - - representations analternative through medianoticed not bythe was - xing la la were not associated naturallywere notassociated with negativity, rather hegemonicthe - lian online and off - o do movement.o do devote Manyactivists they emphasize that toa - la, e meanings inthe e meanings combination. lian, lian,

he/she wouldalreadyhave ofhe/she this. anunderstanding gives mefeeling anegative but which interpellated is bythehegemonic homophobic la - la la - la - in conversations, wouldnothavenegativehe/she line line social groupswave anew of movement 2000s. after 59 wn not what others mywhat others instill into mind.wn not

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place” (Ague 1992) is the bestplace” the “offstage.” (Ague1992)is tong tong -

zhi - xing La the place the oppression where the

as “hidden transcripts.” as “hidden ofthe Most - la la - la lian - - la la as a as a recent term andadapted

communities are doesn’t. Now I think ofdoesn’t. NowIthink it, wouldn’t knowwouldn’t about nu - tong la - la - zhi movement

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la - la . CEU eTD Collection based onresourcemobilizationbased under society thecivil structure.investigation Howeveraclose nu 4.3.1 activistorganizationsbetween andinformal groups. betweendistinction formal and politics between informal activists andn politics, “infrapolitics” (Scott,1990) organizethe around collective identity concept is no illustrateand to that traditional social movement modelmobilization like resource and civilsociety lesbiannational activisttraining camp collective identity in China g From Mainland: 4.3 internet. the but groups newthe this movement new the isorganized around collective identity 1990s.Ofthe course 33 movementsuch a ( have ahuge potential in civil society movement return toChina andshe aimwith an tocatalyze ( lesbians especially womenUS, the in experience fromher said she interview, one In it. mainland the tojoin zhi reveals this reductionist model isn’t adequate to explain the nuances. roups, butaccordingroups, tooralhistory the by project

See the oral history project report by - Xun came fr back theprocessI trace ofactivist Xun’splan tostartthe activistgroup first lesbian After the tong activists from whenafunding opportunity Taiwan.Shewasshocked for La - - 33 zhi la . In this section I. Inthis am thenewmovement trace lesbian goingto 2005basedonthe after Salon: activist groupor Salon: activist matured

movement i nu t enough to explain t enoughto explain the movementslesbian movement is 2005.Thisnew a after - tong la Tong - - tong om her phD study in the US in 2004, where she associated with some associated om phDstudyintheUS2004,whereshe her zhi nu la - formed internet, the onthe esta n the 1990s. sightn the planseemsAt first asocial this movement tosuggest - tong movement may in2001,there 1990sdissolved inthe beinformal offline yu

- nu zhi , 2013). She first c , 2013).Shefirst - - conference HongKong in in2004,no zhi

tong Tong movement isstill constantly mentioned by - zhi - yu La

to for detailed interviews.(Tong - la Camp la ooperated with Kan inaninformal groupthe - la la 60 - la movement

,

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) CEU eTD Collection environment ofcommercial differenthold a motivation inorganizing the movement perspective, she organized first consciousness building groups with Kan.HoweverKan informal political groupboundsand collective for the concept bridging connections among experienceddiscontent,pre subjectively andrewardmodel.Newsocialand cost movement propose theories collective identity as key criticizedhas been forpresuming individual rational following a capit the organizations, the andrepealing to public media andauthorities. mobilization Theresource model within to establish movementa social toaggregate various organization resources includingsupportfrom US.From mobilizationin the perspective resources the (McCarthy & Zald,1997),herefforts were andeducation legislation advocacy. objectivethe of the forcalled nationalnetworking inorganizing national meetings annually activist and camptraining Salon group with intentionsgroup with similar toKan. founderother Shanintended tostart acommercial They project. onbuilding agreed a nonprofit Relax (older) While Xun had the objectiveWhile Xunhadthe to build b acommunity firstAt the sight,Xun’splanmodeledmo La

- in 2004 to build build communityin 2004to forthemovement. bases Thenshestarted tong the community, outside collective: sympathy andsupport the networking withother la Cam la People [heterosexuals] People sawuslike this will also say, how “See they decadent are.” both agree. ...Thisbringabad Because the pubnow isafoulatmosphere image others. to hadthat chickenthey bloodtome injected me [got excited]. Tong - la - Ran: At the Ran: Atthe Shan: [How did Ran persuade you to Shan: [Howdid Ranpersuade youto group do anonprofit xue to socialize.These divergent aims present a arealso in local - p yu - . Tong she, This camp many facilitates local

promised to provide us fundings. IrantoShanpromised us right after toprovide returned. I feels It like

while one founderwhile one by Ranwas inspired the - yu la from facing the communityfrom tofacingfacing the heterosexual the public onpublic - la la camp - la space, intended and primarily tobuild a place forquiet mature

they taught usthey taught how

stly after lesbianactivismstly society andcivil movement La action (Taylor & Whittier, 1992). From anewsocial - la 61

la

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CEU eTD Collection 1990s, Xun was more1990s, Xunwas cautious.According toanewspaper interview in2005: Taiwan (Sang, 2003).Thereason could thatwith be downfall of the broughtinstitutional oppression wasn’t uplikegroups inthe US 1992) (Taylor &Whittier in or identity differences from the 4.3.2 matured aims of mentioned class ageand differences the particularly. her ofchanged perception the http://bbs.tianya.cn/post online and points that out there are certain revise suggestions shemade adapted but not by thejournalist. See 34 to related as minority. Interestingly although Xunandmanylesbian activists always to other refer the movement suggeststhestrateginclusion” ofThe title this report

Part ofthe original textthe in report (Zheng, 2005) is di nu In the In the thefirstNow tohow “activistgroup,” Iturn Xunstarted These two there is Especially also ofan intersection agein - Tong tong La la la rather thansmokingrather allday. anddrinking not money. useless. togetallthe is We It want just easy money isnot to make. SoIfeel arenot they anything,nothealthy getting information, gradually expressing expressing gradually their claims... app strategybetter andbroadersolidarity considers isneeded. ... Shealso that amore practical La la - - - - la or la la Reflecting ontheprevious better lessons, Xunconsidersmore idea, consciousness, now havemature Shan: I gotajob andbecomebefore. more than yu - - roach roach is necessary,... understandingthe attitudesreality andgeneral insociety, the la la . nu examples showntheofandnon have blurring activist social groups. Salon : connection between activist group: connection betweenactivist

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, CEU eTD Collection identity categories,identity only present limited dif andacceptance.recognition Theproblem presumeit isthat self preexistence and the the reflects logic ofidentitypolitics about recognition,thatnaming representation and confers politicalthat efficacy canthrough onlyexist naming category each (Boellstorff, arecategories benamed to andforeground(Kulick,2000,p.244)”under a ofenumeration,” “logic of of is part thetrend effort tomake it interchangeable with and groups The“useful.” interview excerpt next from illustrates thedistinction Shanalso betweenactivist manyin Xi’an, knowfrom previous ofwhomthey their informal groups, todosomething social la registeredthey in oforganizing eachcharge it year and platform asa among for all t networking la for base the th the interchangeably, followingmovement the althoughsome for reasons: use activists activist and non thannumerical rather areidentities obscured byit. - - la la I have shownI have a reading through close ofthe withMoreover, the reality oftheseMost new

pubs in before Xi’an groups. activities. many drink, “eat, organization, playandhavefun” wecoulddoa thatorganize as group

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is movement; and manyis movement;and “activist nowgroups” informal were or former online offline la - activist, informal anda groups - la CLA.

in Xi’an as possible.The as in Xi’an twoyears we first la

using list ofacronymsusing list context, inactivist whichfocuseson“whichidentity la - la - For example had RanandShanalready informal their la collective formedidentity narratives on internet byautobiographic is the Ralex

groups hadalreadygotonlinegroups andoffline groupsinformal social before la - la Tong is stillmore complexnotwithstanding nu - xue - tong ferences rather diversity.than real Thereal multiplicities - s he. -

zhi ctivist groups ctivist blurred. are itI call the la For them newgroupisjust the toget all the 65 - la

and LBT. Theterm isitselfproblematic. LBT It

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yu 2007). It also 2007). It - la la and - la social groups in - la evidence of evidence groups. groups. - CLA la la - la ’s ’s la -

la CEU eTD Collection 4.4.1 politics. movementlesbian mainland China inthe lies infrapolitics in ratheritself than real turning itto fo represents, to onstructural take repressions rather thanclaiming and representation inclusion, to tothe buttoreturn powerofpersonal groups forpressure these an represent forsympathytouchingthemostessentialist other andinclusion,without evident movement obscures st also the differences thewithin anormalizedmovementtoward complexity and obscuresthe both individuality of that samethe LBT. as ThenIillustrate the formalization of and Ranin Xi’an LBT, offormalization The 4.4 limitations Kan’s claimthat sexual identity asL,Bor T,whilesome activists consider thelesbian of Moreover, some activists consider ofthelesbian not are withthetermcomfortable chapter 3on cus on age, class differences class rathercus onage, thanpresent differences.coherent voicethatobscurethe The Although th This subsection illustrates diversity the understanding of The future movementof lesbian inCh

La but more diverse. I amactivists oflocalKanbut usetwo groups goingto inBeijing

- little h little directing person.to a specific am ...Well, I 95percent than ...more [ However [you a again. are still la Kan: There is this possibility is t Kan: There this is morecomplex LBT than tong e eterosexual orientation, buteterosexual orientation, not strong. very La la - Relax zhi la - - la - la la already most that showed inChina andevensome lesbians activists lesbian la is “during aspecifictime,”is “during aspecificperson” “toward challenges fixed the Camp are from family the toget married. - Tong la community: - and ructural oppression suchascompulsory heterosexuality butonly xue

tong CLA - she - to show thatto show even understandingtheir of zhi

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la age and differences.age and formalizationclass This of hat after...oneortwoyears,youturnsback tolikemen - ina shouldnotplaceina solelyonthe formalization of or la ], this during time,whenyourfeelingsandspecific sex la nu - la la - la la tong 66 -

narratives narratives complexand the experiencesthey - - la la

la la - movement zhi as interchangeable with more relational and institutional than a fixed la - for its male centri la

la move - la that is not equal to that usingis not the of ment andhowthis may shift

la - la sm andanachronism. la rigidly as lesbians. nu - la la - tong ]. Icouldhavea - la is notquite La - la zhi la - - la la - n B, and LBT, la Salon and the

la la - la

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- - - relationship thenormal as by woman seduced T whoinher isexcessive la la lian equals LBT to you?] No, no No, you?] to LBT equals la la as a continuumas a hetero/homo thanthestrict rather dichotomy in la have beenwithher friend girl for 8years - la la -

kua - la but also challenges the interchangeability of - la. s La la

, T, B, sometimes even G also come to our platform, T,B, Galsocometoour sometimes even we will help also also varioushave their interpretations. Like Shenginthefirst - - and she internalizes the hegemonic internalizes the and she disc Contrarily RanContrarily avery has different in xing la Tong Camp - bie - xue ), exceptfortransgender her her her her identification should be ual womenual boys, canlove while she was taught about LBT, she takes fromshe aboutLBT,shetakes wastaught that - 67 she

tong

is a is a Tong shuang - , no. Most of our activities are aroundareactivities our of Most no. , la xing - la - la La xue - - - group, andthat it also isdoingLBT xing lian la - la - as an umbrellaas an term equal to as she Camp - and other categorizationand other of lian are la ). Bisexual is not isnot ). Bisexual

- and claim still girl her la la after alectureafter bya given terpretation ofterpretation

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- - couples in in couples xing la, - - xing lian but they la la - lian - - la - la,

or lian lian la that yi la - la la - - la. - CEU eTD Collection groups. Bothgroups. ofthem the that claim alsohowever I sensecertainproblems with suchrepresentative sexual oriented identity politics. ambitiontheir changethepublicattitudetoward to suchactivities, campus as toheterosexual education students. I am theseactivistshave tosee glad entertainment year,theyg activities, this Nu collective, theoutside the heterosexual public; Tong thesetwotypesbetween ofgroupsisblurred, it processis stilla offormalizationthese groups. informal tr groups informal groups as drink, social “eat, andhavefun” play Although process groups. the many differences between aboutthe groups, andconscious informalgroups activist describing the 4.4.2 Formalization of equivalenceby assumingthe between thatassexualeven consider identity. Allthesecomplexities of interpretations university,their butthey with partner,only stay their without reaching outt pressure of gay and lesbians felt of felt pressure gayandlesbians comes thepublic butfrom from not compulsor hetero/homo dichotomy by produced compulsory heterosexuality. It is to neglect that mostthe and class less livestheir but drinkingandsmokingbringbadwill image to by obscured a r representsmature clearly enough.This differences inside the ageandclass the meaningfulbut drinking andsmoking.Theyalso inthenot claim theseyounglesbians that pubsare Also the repreAlso the returnFirst let’s the to earlierdiscussion initialmotivation Shan’s of forthe Kanand establish isalsoThere aformalizationtendency o - tong - yu - transit to transit a formal organizationresources seeking including activist s zhi Center - conforming epresentational politics. Moreover, claim the not being that responsibility for taking sentation to heterosexual isassuming fixity ofsexualidentity,reinforcing the the ansform through toactivist groups ; Ran and Shan also tell me; Ran tell years andShanalso first two since their organizing around la - la la - la groups from representation.the la

- la la - radually transforming la pubs as toono f the and LBT. La la 68 -

- la la

la Salon - La groups. Somegroups. activists are really lesbian la

isy, the

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, CEU eTD Collection based onthecollectivebased identity marriedas cooperatemay beblowed safe fromof The prying the the others. why This is as visibility representing gaze othernessandthecurious satisfy ofthehegemonicdiscourses. public makeneed to to themselves visible the majority preset as naturally heterosexual public, make the representation heterosexuals. Their logic alsorest on t orientations, homosexual that ( lian a( chancepassing ban forhomosexuals better heterosexualinnocent women. seems legalizing It before same that femin mensomeChinese gay marryingwomen heterosexual nowclaimed is “marriagebysome as fraud” isthepathheterosexuality majority would that people naturally Forexample take. problem the with correctknowledgethe because theyare but menwith gay (Engebretsen, 2009;Kam,theygeneral because the donotknow or public 2013)not a structural oppression. Many 37 36 andunity of fixity subjectivity andcomplexis more diverse as“hidden transcripts” onthe internet thattranscend the differences connected to class ageand differences inside the la Althoughinternet. some The strength of and differentfrom the

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- la la sexual andsexual identities, - la lies emotional in its depth in autobiographicalthe nu claims before publicknowabout that the la

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activists reframe la - tong zhi la la - la - - la la movement 1990s inthe and - prefer tochoseheterosexualprefer marriage orcooperativemarriage xing 37 movement last fiveyearsis a newsocial inthe movement in mainland Chinaformed internet. onthe It is bothrelated to .

la la - - lian la - 36

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xing as equivalent to LBTas equivalent to and formalize to tends hat hat the - lian lexity ofinterpretations oflexity ) to marry) to hetero la tong - nu la la - - community. Iargue tong xing - - la sex marriage, China maya sex has they life couldhave a secret - - la zhi lian - la movement inTaiwan. or narratives narratives on the sexuals ( tong - zhi yi la la or - - xing - la la la - and the - la

la - CEU eTD Collection complexity of notand should limited be western society model of to and civil polit identity informal andbetween groups infrapoliticsand real politics. The futureof the la - la subjectivity and subjectivity nuances the of infrapolitics. 70

ics, butics, lies inthe la - la movement isnot CEU eTD Collection themselves and also themselves also and inthedifferent understandings of multiplicities of multiplicitiesreflects by usingthemdifferent parties appropriations andobjectives;with various the xing term multiplicities are ofdisjunctive interrelated meanings. ex For themaround areotherwise obscured. that terms theinterpenetrating represents power, sexua investigationfindings ofthis have illustrated the complexity, particularity andcontingencyofthese thehas investigated diverseformations,transformations,meanings andusages ofthem translations sexualof identities western as such “homosexuals,” “LGBT,” or“lesbians” thanRather identityseeing terms,the mult“interpenetrating power the discursive as “multiplicity offorce relations”andtheDeleuzian assemblages as values that the complexity, particularity, andcontingency oflesbianismThe Foucauldian inChina. orof identities part sexual a ofthe gaymovinternational Conclusion to a collective formedto a identity narrativesontheinternet andin some byautobiographical appropriations.forces that shapedthevarious movement, China tensions diverse between mainland tothe andHongKongsociety other movement interrelates all shifting. tothis Thesame with is Confucianism, introduced sexscience discourses, socialist and of history introduction whole term of contingent and Second, the Second, the terms contingentin their formations andtransformations represent and the termsFirst, the represent unities sexualidentities. are singular each thesis This hasshownthat theRejecting simple view andlesbian oflesbian activism theresult ofglobalization inChinaas - lian reflects multiplicities within element each andinthe interactions among them; tong

multiple interpenetrating discursive formed forces element them.andthe Each la

- - l xing a is its strength as narratives formed whicharediverse bypersonal in iplicities” are the help frameworks that infindingit perspective.such a - lian lian are constantly shifting, premodern cosmological epistemology, tong

- xing La - lian - 71 la

lity, regional connections andsocialmovements

has , tong la

also been shifting from persona afictional - ements this thesis argues for thesisargues this ements a perspective la - zhi tong by each individuals.by each and - zhi ample characters three in la with relation its to socialist the - la in literalChina as

LGBT . The this this thesis tong la - tong la - zhi - CEU eTD Collection nu desexualizing with areorganizations/groups, beyondtheunderstanding oftheglobal LGBT activism. activists inthe1990sand ( using offixed onthelogic based sexual Theidentity andinclusion. differentusages of movements ofsocial nuances a livesrather than globalization ineveryday ofLGBT politics identity processshifting withnew disconnections andflows. connections, isadubbing new it that meanings,multiplicities, disjunctures created. are isalso It a constant Taiwan and mainland in Hong diasporic US,Hongbetween in mainland Kongsocieties Kongand in numerical centers. The connections WestandChina and flowsbetweenthe in activists’ integration ofthe term into LBTmovement. For example considering “LGBT,” interconnections. Simply assuming subjectivity, activism historical, inthe cultural, social specificities,and regional contingencies and contingencies. understand Theyare helpful to anonthrough simply of translation homosexual, the LBT. LGBT, or These findingsareonly possible lesbian xing - To sum up, all termsTo sumall complexities,the represent up, particularities andcontinge These termsrelatedalso together in everydayuse. Forexample negative the meanings associated Finally, lesbian activismin Chinah Third, the terms the connections represents andflowsmore c tong tong ) andlove ( tong - zhi

- “lesbians” or “LBT”“lesbians” thatobscure wouldbe amisreading the differences and connections. xing to articulate the cultural citizenship, the usages contradictory and attitudes sex towards in identification. - tong - simplistic or non lian lian lian lian - xing has an impact on or

ai - lian la tong ), the differences), the between la - la -

. Themale centrismof la - are more diverse xing movement bl andthe - deterministic value perspectiveto thedifferences, connections and - tong lian tong ave beunderstoodas to “infrapolitics” that includes the - as homosexuals would themeaningsas homosexuals obscure shifting and xing - zhi -

lian an interrelating an interrelating oflesbianpicture identity, being appropriated byHong to Kongactivists

and complex introductionor than Rathertranslation. 72 ,

tong tong tong rigo activists/non urring of

- - zhi - zhi zhi , and makesmany prefer lesbianto activists inHong Kong, omplex than globalization from la - la

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- nu between between xing - - lian tong - la lian lian , - - la zhi as to CEU eTD Collection the internet the and online communities. as formed autobiographic narratives, by Kong andthemainland. Considering as claiming would citizenship Chinese obscure the different bydifferentusages parties Hong in connections of “sex,” “sameness,” and Considering “love.” la -

la interactions between Taiwan and mainland, connectionsto as LBT “lesbians” itsemotionaldepth or would obscure 73

tong - zhi as LGB T or a cultural politicsT oracultural CEU eTD Collection Chao, Y. A. (2000). GlobalChao, Y.(2000). metaphors A. andlocal strategies in construction ofthe Taiwan's lesbian China Daily.29,cryfoul (August 2012).Scholars putting over ‘NBA’ Chinesedictionary in B. Brook, T.&Frolic, M. (1997). (1997). J. Butler, J. Butler, (1993). J. Butler, (1991). Imitation Insubordination.in andGender Fuss,D.ed. J. Butler, (1990). anthropology. of house the in studies Queer (2007). T. Boellstorff, Boellstorff, Dubbingculture: T.(2003). Indonesiansubjectivities gayandlesbi andethnography in 2012) BBC. (30March, Auge, M.(1992). Appadurai, A. (1996). Anderson, B.(1983). gaze/globalgays. Altman, Global D.(1997). Ai Ai References Connolly, N. (1996, Dec 10).Chinese Gays Out to Fight Prejudice. Gays Fight Connolly, N.(1996,Dec 10).Chinese Outto CLA 2011b) (29Aug, CLA 2011a)2011 LalaCamp (29Aug, Press Release CIIC ( W.S.Chou, Homosexualitycultural politics(2001). andthe of Chinesesocieties. Tongzhi in W.S.Chou, (2000). China Daily.29,cryfoul (August 2012).Scholars putting over ‘NBA’ in Drink, penis,andbreasts:Chao, Y.(2001). stories, Lesbian A. tomboys Taiwanfrom 1960s in the - - bai bai bai Minnesota Press. Minnesota 417 http://www.weibo.com/1645613110/yomdPy0uZ?mod=weibotime ChineseCondolences tothe http://www.aibai.com/pages.php?linkwords=PositonPaper_20111008 mainland homosexuals in China. husbandsof wivesand ofheterosexual issue document the on Newspaper). Ret http://www.tongyulala.org/newsview.php?id=1085 Perspective and Reaching New Stage:20 Promising Stage. New http://www1.cnnic.cn/IDR/ReportDownloads/201302/P020130312536825920279.pdf China. ofHomosexualityJournal Retrieved from 1990s.to the identities. Retrieved from London, England. andLesbian Reader. GayStudies GayTheories, Theories. globalizedan already world. html http://www.bbc.co.uk/zhongwen/trad/chinese_news/2012/03/120330_hk_comrade_cyleung.s Leung as York &London

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