PICTURING HIGHLANDERS A half-century of photography in Northern Thailand ย" อ น ย ล ช น ช า ติ พั น ธุ. ภาพถ%ายกึ่งศตวรรษวิถีชีวิตบนพื้นที่สูงในภาคเหนือ ย"อนยลชนชาติพันธุ. PICTURING HIGHLANDERS A half-century of photography in Northern Thailand ย" อ น ย ล ช น ช า ติ พั น ธุ. ภาพถ%ายกึ่งศตวรรษวิถีชีวิตบนพื้นที่สูงในภาคเหนือ

บรรณาธิการ ประสิทธิ์ ลีปรีชา และ โอลิเวียรG เอฟรารGด Pictures selected and edited by Olivier Evrard and Prasit Leepreecha

1 PICTURING HIGHLANDERS A half-century of photography in Northern Thailand ย"อนยลชนชาติพันธุ. ภาพถ%ายกึ่งศตวรรษวิถีชีวิตบนพื้นที่สูงในภาคเหนือ þşĩĝĵġĔĮăėğğĐĮĖĴĄğĝþĩăĦŷĖĭĄħĩĦĝĴđĹħŞăćĮĒİ

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Forword 4 คำนำ Introduction 6 นำเรื่อง Acknowledgements 9 กิติกรรมประกาศ Moving and Settling 10 ย7ายถิ่นตั้งฐาน Hunting and Fishing 26 หาปลาล=าสัตว? Farming 36 เพาะปลูก Praying 52 ไหว7 Crafting 68 บรรจงประดิษฐ? Playing 88 เล=น Trading 102 ค7าขาย Connecting 112 เชื่อมโยง Fighting 122 สู7รบ Converting 128 รับความเชื่อใหม= Schooling 136 เข7าเรียน Claming, Staging 142 ทวงสิทธิและนำเสนอตัวตน Photo Credits 152 รายการภาพถ=าย

3 Foreword

Center for Ethnicity and Development (CESD) was established 3!92?5ß*Ċ5!*-!:<&9! @čàD#đ!3!92?5(:&!:<&9! @čG!(: D3!?5 5#+8D 0H * in the early 1990s within the Social Research Institute, Chiang =L"9! > F*!9 ):!@1*/< *: !9 /<9* )<9!!:+=E-8DĊ:3!Ċ: =L3!ĉ/*:!&9!: =L >M!H# Mai University, when highland development activity in North- Q::!"! =L&?M! =L2AG!ĉ/ +>L0/++1 =L$ĉ:!): 0A!*č0> 1::<&9! @čE-8 :+&9!: ern Thailand was at its peak. Since the beginning, the center has )3:/< *:-9*D=*G3)ĉ HĊ+9")5"(:&2ĉ/!G3ĉ: 2:"9!/<9*:/D : =L*@<" ": =L tried to engage in academic research on state’s civilizing project and its impacts on ethnic communities. As an academic research 2Q: 9-G!#ābedeE-8HĊ+9"(:&5= 2ĉ/!3!>L: !9 ):!@1*/< *:5:/@F2": ĉ:! =LD * center, we questioned the dominant development paradigm in Q::!/<9*G!@)!:<&9! @č>LHĊ)5"G3ĊE ĉ0A!*č0> 1::<&9! @č7D&?L5GĊ#+8F*!čG! :+ the highland of Northern Thailand and tried to understand how Ċ! /Ċ: :/<: :+ the ethnic minorities were marginalized and excluded from de-  :+&9!:"!&?M! =L2AG!ĉ/ +>L0/++1 =L$ĉ:!):HĊ ĉ5G3ĊD < Ċ5)A-E-8 /:)+AĊ velopment. During the last fifty years, highland development =LD =L*/ Ċ5 9" :+&9!:D#đ!Q:!/!): !5 : !9M!*9)=(:&ĉ:*5= Q:!/!3!>L =L"9! > seems to mean domestication rather empowerment for the highlanders. H/ĊF*!9 &9!:!9 ):!@1*/< *:!9 /<9*)<9!!:+=E-8!9 DL"9! > ß+5*D Ċ:à 5$AĊ =LHĊD 1:2:):+GĊG! :+0> 1: Ċ! /Ċ:D =L*/ 9" :+&9!:+/) 9M*9 ment workers, anthropologists, researchers, missionaries and D#đ!3-9 :!G! :++/25"#+8D) @ ĉ: 5D5 2:+D3-ĉ:!=M 0A!*č0> 1::<&9! @č7 >)=F + :++/"+/)+A#(:&E-8 they are the “footprints” of those who travelled on the path of D5 2:+ĉ: J =LD =L*/ Ċ5 9" :+&9!:"!&?M! =L2AG!ĉ/3Ċ:2<"#ā$ĉ:!): +/) 9M)= highland development one way or another. They are traces of development which can be examined, assessed and analyzed /:) < =L89 9D-?5 E-8&<)&č+A#ĉ:*D3-ĉ:!=M":2ĉ/!D&?L5D$*E&+ĉ by students of development. Most of these materials were dili-  /:) <9 -ĉ:/!=M25 -Ċ5 9" /:)2!G 50A!*č0> 1::<&9! @č7 =LĊ5 :+ gently collected by the Tribal Research Institute which, unfor- &9!::!Ċ:!:<&9! @č/< 90!čŮľőśŝʼnŔĭŜŐŖŗŏŚʼnŘŐšů 9M!=MD&+:8D3K!/ĉ:2?L5(:&#+8D( tunately, was dissolved in 2003. Realizing this invaluable asset, ĉ:JD#đ!2/<=:<&9! @čG!#ď@"9! +/) 9M*9GĊ"9! > /:)D#đ!):G!5=5= Ċ/* accessible for researchers and students. The CESD collection has later received additional materials and photos from several sen- 3!92?5(:&D-ĉ)E+ 50A!*č7 D+?L5D2Ċ! 2= E-8=/< =L=&<)&čD)?L5Ċ!#ā beef !=MD#đ! ior anthropologists and missionaries working in the highland :+!Q:D2!5(:& /:)+AĊE-8(A)<#ď: 5 !&?M! =L2AE""+ĉ/)2)9* F*)=/9@#+82 č communities who wanted to share their collection to others. We D&?L5E2> /:)3-: 3-:*E-8 /:):) 5/<==/< 5 !"!&?M! =L2A 2Q:3+9" are deeply gratitude to them. 4 !e idea to put together photo books came from our interest in 3!92?5*Ċ5!*-!:<&9! @čD-ĉ)!=MĊ5 :+!Q:D2!5(:& :+D#-=L*!E#- 5@)!&?M! =L developing visual ethnography at CESD. We realize that photographs 2A =LD < >M!G!ĉ/D/-:#+8): +>L0/++1 =L$ĉ:!): :+D#-=L*!E#- =L!Q:H#2Aĉ /:) and "lms are an e#ective means to represent social reality. !ey can 9!2)9* /:)D#đ!H * :+#-A &?D<&:<*č :++5 5*2< 1: munities. :<&9! @č7 $) 5 5" @ 9M25 ĉ:! =L Q:G3Ċ(:&ĉ:*G!5= =L+/"+/)H/Ċ!=M)==/< >M!): On the Picturing Highlanders is possible because of the genu- ine e#orts by Dr. Olivier Evrard and Dr. Prasit Leepreecha who spent 2:):+"5 D-ĉ:D+?L5+:/ĉ:JHĊ5*ĉ:!ĉ:2!GE-8 5 5" @ıŖśŜőŜŝŜōŗŎĺōśōʼnŚŋŐ hours and hours to choose, classify, compare and describe hundreds of ʼnŖŌĬōŞōŔŗŘŕōŖŜŮĮŚʼnŖŋōůE-8F + :+ĭĽųĻĭĩļıĬĭ =LG3Ċ :+2!9"2!@!G! :+ images so as to trace the track of "$y years of development in the high- =&<)&č3!92?5(:&D-ĉ)!=M land of Northern !ailand. On behalf of CESD, I want to express our  gratitude to their contribution which has brought the photos in our +Ŵ*9!č/++ !8(A< archive to live. My special thanks go to IRD and EU-SEATIDE project for its generous support in publishing this photo book. 39/3!Ċ:0A!*č0> 1::<&9! @čE-8 :+&9!:

Chayan Vaddhanaphuti, Ph.D. Director, CESD

5 Introduction

This book is not an academic study of the ethnic minorities living in ß*Ċ5!*-!:<&9! @čĢ(:&ĉ:* >L0/++1/<==/<"!&?M! =L2AG!(: D3!?5àD-ĉ)!=M) 1:D</<: :+E-8)M!G!/<==/< 5 -@ĉ):<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2A1G!ĉ/3Ċ: 0/++1 =L$ĉ:!):3: D&=*)@ĉ3):* available at the Centre for Ethnic Studies and Development (CESD) of Chiang Mai University. This collection is unique in Thailand by its =L8!Q:D2!5(:&: -9(:&ĉ:* 50A!*č0> 1::<&9! @čE-8 :+&9!: 8 size (more than 60,000 images), its geographic and ethnographic fo- 29 )0:2+č)3:/< *:-9*D=*G3)ĉ>L)= /:)FDĉ!Ċ/*@D!Ċ! ::<&9! @č/++!: cus (highland populations of the Northern regions) and its time span ŮĭŜŐŖŗŏŚʼnŘŐšůE-8&?M! =L :(A)<0:2+čĊ/*+8*8D/-:59!*:/!:!ĉ5D!?L5G! :+D K" (the images cover the period between early 1950s and present). It owes its existence to the historical context of the development of anthropol- 282)+/"+/)E-8 !: 5 -9>L282)(:&ĉ:*H/Ċ /ĉ:3 3)?L!(:& -9(:&9 -ĉ:/ ogy in Northern Thailand as well as to the personal dedication of the D#đ!$-: "+<" :#+8/9<0:2+č 5 :+&9!:Ċ:! :+0> 1:D<):!@1*/< *:G!(: researchers of the CESD and the financial and technical support they received from various institutions. D3!?5#+8D 0H *E-8 :+5@ <0! 5D3-ĉ:!9 /<9*E3ĉ0A!*č0> 1::<&9! @č7+/)> /:) The study of highland populations developed more slowly in D5?M5D'ăē5 9M :Ċ:!D !< E-8 :+DVietnam for instance,  :+0> 1:D =L*/ 9" -@ĉ)#+8: +"!&?M! =L2AG!#+8D 0H *D+M!Ċ: /ĉ: missionaries, administrators and ethnographers (more or less in this G!#+8D 0+5" Ċ: =L5*Aĉ(:*GĊ :+# +5 5DĊ:5::!< ) >LD3-ĉ:)<9!!:+= $AĊ order) conducted in-depth monographs as soon as the end of the 19th # +5E-8!9 /<: :+Ċ:!:<&9! @č/++!:HĊ$-<:! :+0> 1:D<-> G!&?M! =L(: century and throughout the first half of the 20th century. Even if some of them suffer from strong ideological biases due to the religious or D3!?5 5#+8D 0&)ĉ:E-8&?M! =L2AG!(: -: 5#+8D 0D/=*!:)):9MEĉĉ/#-:* political motivations of their author, these studies still constitute today 0/++1 =L U] E-8)="9! >  (:&/: (:&ĉ:*Q:!/!)3:0:->L*9H)ĉD *HĊ+9" :+ milestones for social anthropology in Southeast Asia. They came with huge amount of notes, drawings and photographic archives, most of =&<)&č5*AĉD#đ!Q:!/!): G! 8D=*/ 9!(: D3!?5 52*:) -9"D#đ! =L+AĊ9 D&=*: Q:"5 D-ĉ: 5!9 /<: :+)<9!!:+=!9 DLD+ -@ĉ)#+8: + =L)=/9! ++)E ĉ:: !H * =LD#đ! -@ĉ)G3ĉ>L&A(:1:+8 A- ethnic groups such as Khmu, Mlabri, Palaung, Kayanetc !ere is no o%cial census of these HŮH *(: -: !-:/G!5=2:! !D)?5-?M5H G3ĉ7-7ů -@ĉ):<&9! @č"! =L2A#+8 5"Ċ/* ethnic groups at the national level. !e most recent and precise data are given in a report conducted in 2002 by a joint team of the Department of Social Development and Welfare and 8D3+=L*-9/85ĉ: ĉ:-=A-:3Aĉ)ĊD)=L*!E-8 -@ĉ)*ĉ5*JDĉ! )@)-:"+=#83-ĉ5 8*9!7-7": Unicef in 20 northern provinces. According to this report, highland ethnic groups amounted -@ĉ)9 -ĉ:/5:#+8 5"Ċ/* -@ĉ)*ĉ5*3-:* -@ĉ)F*#+8: + 5 -@ĉ)9 -ĉ:/ +8:*5*AĉG!#+8D 0 nearly one million of people at that time. !ey made up only 1,6 % of the total population of D&?L5!"Ċ:!Ċ/*: 9/D- 5 +)#+8:2D +:83č =L2Q:+/ +9M-ĉ:2@D)?L5#ā&Ŵ0ŴbedeG!b`93/9 !ailand but this proportion is much higher in some of the Northern provinces (up to 50% in Mae Hong Son for instance), see Ministry of Social Development and Human Security and &"/ĉ:)=#+8: + 9M3)#+8): a -Ċ:! ! 3+?5D&=*+Ċ5*-8 aŴf 5#+8: +#+8D 0H * ŮA UNICEF, 2002, Highland communities within 20 provinces of !ailand +:*-8D5=*D&

6 them still unpublished. By comparison, the northern regions of the :<&9! @č/++!:E-8(:&ĉ:* -@ĉ):<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2AF*D&:85*ĉ:* 1:@)!"!&?M! =L2A 5#+8D 0H *G!+89"-> 5*Aĉ!Ċ5*): professional anthropologists conducted in-depth and long-term field  /:)D#-=L*!E#-D < >M!9D!G!ĉ/3-9: 2 +:)F- +9M =LVD!?L5Ċ/* study among highland populations at that time. The Journal of Siam Society was founded in 1904 and published several early ethnographic &?M! =L2A2ĉ/!G3ĉ 5D5D=*8/9!55 D=*GĊ+/)>)-*A!!:! -:*D#đ!HĊ*: D!?L5: /:) 9E*Ċ(:*G!#+8D 03+?5+83/ĉ:#+8D 0G!ĉ/2 +:)D*K! (especially on the Lawa, during the 1920s and 1930s) but on the whole, E-8 :+#+8 :05<2+(:&: DĊ:5::!< ):)):Ċ/* :+#Ā#+8D 0(:*GĊ :+# +5 highland villages of this region remained largely understudied com- pared to other areas of Southeast Asia. 5&++ 5))M!F*+LG!"+<" !=MD5 =L!9 ):!@1*/< *:E-8$AĊD=L*/:Ċ:! :+&9!: development programmes to solve what was then labelled the “Hill :/8/9! HĊ+ĉ/):! 9"!9 /<: :+E-8 Ċ:+: :+H *E-8HĊ+/"+/) Ċ5)A- : Tribe problem”. These programmes involvedsocio-economic survey, merging or resettlement of ethnic villages, constructions of public :<&9! @č/++!:59!)= ĉ:>L+/)>(:&ĉ:*Q:!/!)3:0:-H/ĊĊ/* infrastructures (roads, water-pipe system, schools, health centres), ag-  $-:! :+0> 1:2ĉ/!G3ĉ!=MHĊ+9" :+D K"+9 1:H/Ċ =L2:"9!/<9*:/D : >LEĉ ricultural innovations and campaigns for opium eradication. This is D<) ?50A!*č/<9*:/D : =L9M5*AĉG!)3:/< *:-9*D=*G3)ĉEĉ5*Aĉ(:*GĊ +8 +/)3:H * the context in which Western anthropologists, as well as development experts, worked alongside with Thai scholars and civil servants, in- 9MEĉ#ā&Ŵ0ŴVYT\2:"9!/<9*:/D :#Ā9/-G!#ā&Ŵ0ŴVYXYE-8 -9 Ċ5)A- troducing new techniques and gathering valuable ethnographic data, 9M3)>L+/)>'Ā-č)(:&*!+čUZ)Ŵ)ŴQ:!/!\U)Ċ/!(:&ĉ:* :/Q:WTT including numerous photographs. Most of the written and visual archives from this period were (:&E-8(:&ĉ:*2=E-82H-č): /ĉ:VŲTTT(:&HĊ+9" :+*Ċ:*H#D K"+9 1:G! kept in the premises of the Tribal Research Institute (TRI), which was &<&< (9č:/D :ĉ5):G!#ā&Ŵ0ŴVYX\!9 /<9*: 0A!*č0> 1::<&9! @č7HĊQ:D! -9(:&2ĉ/!"@ - 5 and more than 2,000 colour photographs and slides. In 2005, the CESD researchers started to digitize this collection in the framework of a col- !9 ):!@1*/< *:E-8)<9!!:+= =LD * Q::!G!#+8D 0H *E-8(:&ĉ:*G!+83/ĉ: :+ laborative project with an anthropologist of the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) in France. Together, we collected new images from the same period by accessing the private archives of sev- eral anthropologists and missionaries who had worked in Thailand and added those to the existing collection. Meanwhile, our on-going

7 researches among the highlanders of Thailand and Laos allowed us Q:D! 1::<&9! @č7 9MG!#+8D 0H *E-8-:/b  F*G!#ā &Ŵ0Ŵ to further enrich these visual archives with more recent (and digital) pictures2. In 2013, we received funding from the Institut Français to or- VYYZ0A!*č0> 1::<&9! @č7HĊ+9" :+2!9"2!@!: ŜŐōıŖśŜőŜŝŜĮŚʼnŖ®ʼnőśG! :+9 ganize a photograph exhibition on the highlanders of Thailand. This !< ++0 :+(:&ĉ:* -@ĉ):<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2AG!#+8D 0H *>L+/)> :+9&<)&č3!92?5 book comes as a complement, so to speak, of this event. D-ĉ)!=MĊ/* The current context of anthropological research among the highlanders differs markedly from the previous decades but it is not  "+<" 5 :+0> 1:Ċ:!):!@1*/< *: 9"!:<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2AG!#ď@"9!!9M!)= always easy to qualify precisely those changes. Certainly, national in- /:)E ĉ:: G! 0/++1 ĉ5!3!Ċ:!9M!D#đ!5*ĉ:* E-8 ĉ5G3ĊD <#+:  :+č3-: 3-:*Dĉ! :+5&*& 5 ent phenomena: labour migrations, commercial agriculture, religious conversions, literacy, tourism etc. They are often equated with forms E+:! :+D 1+D<&:<*č :+D#-=L*!0:2!: :++AĊ3!92?5 :+ ĉ5D =L*/>L)9 A of assimilation of the highland societies into the lowlands social and = /:)3):*D =*"D ĉ: 9" :+ -?!29 )&?M! =L2AD Ċ:2Aĉ&?M! =L :D0+1 <E-829 ) 5 ! economic space, and therefore with cultural impoverishment. Our ex- &?M!+:"59!?5D#đ! :+"9L! 5!/9! ++)9MD<)5*ĉ:H+ K:) /:)D#-=L*!E#-9 -ĉ:/ perience however shows that they can also contribute to the perpetu- ation of a highland distinctiveness (and marginality), if only because K5:)=2ĉ/!5Q:!/*G3Ċ@)!"!&?M! =L2A*9 D5 -9 1č9/! 5!ĉ5H#HĊDĉ! 9!3: ethnic organizations and local NGOs, rather than government bodies, 5 č + 5 -@ĉ):<&9! @č3+?5 -@ĉ) ! Ċ5HĊ2Q:3+9"29 )G!/ /Ċ:+/)>2):< G!@)!:<&9! @čE-88D#đ! Ċ:/E+ =L changes. We also conceived our work as a first step toward a more scholarly informed publication devoted specifically to a visual and re- 8!Q:H#2Aĉ$-:!D</<: :+ =L*Ċ5!)5#+8/9<0:2+č:!):!@1/< *:G!&?M! =L2A 5 flexive history of anthropology in the highlands of Thailand. #+8D 0H *ĉ5H# Olivier Evrard and Prasit Leepreecha #+82<

2 !ough this book relates speci"cally to the highlanders of !ailand, we have also included a b few pictures from Laos when they "lled a gap in our !ai collection and when we felt that they E)Ċ3!92?5D-ĉ)!=M8D!Ċ! :+!Q:D2!5 -@ĉ):<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2AG!#+8D 0H *D#đ!3-9 EĉD+: KHĊE + were also relevant for the understanding of ethnicity in the !ai highlands. We are aware that (:&ĉ:*":2ĉ/!: #+8D 0-:/D5:H/ĊĊ/* 9M!=MD&?L5D<)DK) /:)2)"A+č 5D!?M53: 9"D)?L5D3K!/ĉ:)= the interethnic context is very di#erent in Laos and would deserve a separate volume. /:)29)&9! č 9":<&9! @č29)&9! čG!#+8D 0H *>LD+:8+83!9 5*AĉD2)5/ĉ:"+<" 5 /:)29)&9! č +83/ĉ::<&9! @čG!-:/8E ĉ:5*ĉ:): 9" += 5#+8D 0H *

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS กิตติกรรมประกาศ

While collecting the visual archives and preparing this book, we benefited from the financial sup- g£Šp¢|Ë£’h¢o‘§”«Œ·ˆhiǯ|¸Š¢g£Š‘h¢‘h¨hp£g’Œ£g’Œ£‰‘~£¢h port of various institutions and projects. From 2006 to 2007, we received funding from CMU in ¬Œ¡­lŠog£Š¯|¸¬g·ˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰«ri‰o®’ˆ·¬Œ¡„²£‰j¸”ˆ©Œ¬Œ¡g£Š‘§Æ”‘£Š the framework of a project entitled “Living Library”. The IRD also gave us financial support dur- j”o‘~£¢h)2$ ˜›šŸ ˜››– ‡£‰®}¸­lŠog£Š_,IVING ,I ing that period, through its Department of Information and Communication (DIC). From 2010 to BRARY`p£gˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰Ž”r¥o}¢h si¬”¹}«}¥ÇŒ˜››™ ˜››š ‡£‰®}¸ 2011, we were granted financial and technical support from the University of Washington, Seattle, under a project entitled “Digital Archives of Research in Thailand” (DART). In 2013, the Institut ­lŠog£Š_$IGITAL!RCHIVESOF2ESEARCHIN4HAILAND`$!24 p£g Français allocated us a budget for creating a photographic exhibition on the highlanders of Thai- )NSTITUT &RANCAIS ˜››œ ®h­lŠog£Šp¢|h¥ŠŠg£Š‡£ ~·£‰gŒ¨·ˆ land which included a catalogue for the general public. The process of selecting only a very small r£}¥ ¢h€¨»h §ÇhiƑ©oj”o‚Š¡«¯‰¬Œ¡p£g©h‰»¦g£r£}¥ ¢h€¨»¬Œ¡g£Š number of pictures for the exhibition was difficult and frustrating and so we decided to prepare ¢zh£g¢©h‰»‡©ˆ¥‡£l|¸£h‘¢olˆ£‘}Š»¬Œ¡g£Š ¢zh£”‰·£o‰¢Æo‰§hl{¡ a book, instead of a short catalogue, to accompany the exhibition. This was made possible by ad- ‘¢olˆ£‘}Š»ˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰«ri‰o®’ˆ·¬Œ¡‘~£¢h)2$˜››œ ®hg£Š ditional financial support from CESD, from IRD Editions as well as from the Regional Center p¢| ¥ˆ »’h¢o‘§”«Œ·ˆhiÇ for Social Sciences and Sustainable Development (RCSD, a research centre of CMU), under the framework of its participation in a European-funded research project on national and regional  ƒ©¸«ji‰hj”j”l¨{¥Œ‚bh«p¸£j”o‡£ ~·£‰¬Œ¡lŠ”lŠ¢Ž¯|¸¬g·l¨{ integration in Southeast Asia (Seatide). lŒ£Š»ll¢hh¥Æo¬•ˆ Œ©«si‰h¬•o‘» ‚c«}”Š»•¥h}¢h r£Š»Œ‘»«”†l£‰‘» ¬p¹l‘» Many individuals were also involved at one stage or another in this project. First, and most «Œ”ˆŽh •¢h‘»¬ˆhh»|”Š»† Ž¥«ri‰Šlr£”h¢h}» ¯”­ˆpihŽ¥Œ«ŒiƉˆ‘» Ž¥€©Š obviously, we are indebted to the authors of these images, and to their relatives, who gave us access ¢Ž¬|o ¢g|¥Ê‘¥€¥ÊˆiŠ¢ ‰gŽ¸£o¬Œ¡‘ˆ¥Š¥€h‘£ŠŽ¢zh£ Œ |¢oŠ£‰g£Š to their private archives, most especially and in alphabetical order: Clark Cunningham, Lucien Hanks, Peter Hinton, Charles F. Keyes, Jacques Lemoine, Hans Manndorff, Wichian Khacha-Anan, ‡£ ¬Œ¡«p¸£j”o‡£ ®h¸£‰’h¢o‘§”«Œ·ˆhiǬŒ¡j”j”l¨{”£p£Š‰»jŽ¢uriŽ¢h Imogene Williams and Witoon Buadaeng. A complete list of authors and of their photographs is ¢Ž¬|o ƒ©¸ˆi‘·ŽhŠ·Žˆ®hg£Š‘Š¸£olŒ¢o‡£ j”o©h‰»¦g£r£}¥ ¢h€¨»¬Œ¡g£Š included at the end of the book. ¢zh£®hr·Žo‚c ˜›šž ˜››˜j”l¨{l¨{~£ŽŠ†©«†e¾”oƒ©¸®’¸lŽ£ˆ Our colleague, Kwanchewan Buadaeng directly participated in the creation of the CESD ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»‡£ p£glŒ¢o‡£ j”o ¥ ¥€‡¢{y»r£Ž«j£g¢l¨{”«ŒÅgs£h«|”Š» visual archives between 2005 and 2009 and she obtained the initial grant we received from CMU Š© »p£gˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰«Ži‰hh£®h‚Š¡«””‘«}Ši‰ iÆr·Ž‰}¥|}·”g¢l¨{ under the “Living Library” project in 2006. •¢h‘»¬ˆhh»|”Š»†«p¸£j”o‡£ ŠŽˆ¢Ço«p¸£’h¸£iƏ©h‰»¦g£r£}¥ ¢h€¨»¬Œ¡ Thavon Fufueang gave us access to the collection of visual archives at the Tribal Museum. Several CESD staff helped to collect, clean and digitize the photographs: Jukkam Matuthaphun, g£Š ¢zh£iƈi‘·ŽhŠ·Žˆ®hg£ŠŠŽŠŽˆ Ë£lŽ£ˆ‘¡”£| ¬Œ¡‘¬gh‡£ Jakkrapong Aopradit, Ugrid Chomyim, Siriwit Patitham, Phongphong Soikhamhuang and Am- ¢Ço’ˆ| ¯|¸¬g·p¢gŠlË£ ˆ£}¨£ ©h  p¢gŠ ol» ””‚Š¡|¥x»  ”¨g‹{» ema Saeju. Alexander Trupp, from the University of Vienna in Austria, helped us to contact Hans p”ˆ‰¥Çˆ ‘¥Š¥Ž¥ru»‚¼}}¥€ŠŠˆ ƒ·”o o»‘Š¸”‰lË£«•i”o¬Œ¡”¡ˆiˆ¡¬s·p© Manndorff and to acquire high-resolution scans of his photographs.  ƒ©¸«ji‰hj”j”l¨{ƒ©¸®’¸j¸”ˆ©Œp£ggŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»s¦Æo¯|¸¬g·p¢gŠ¬}p¡ Lahu, Mien, Akha, Lisu and Karen informants give us additional details about some of the pictures and helped us complete the captions: Jakhadte Jayo, Earnjoy Saelee, Manoon Thainuraks, ‰” «”¥Çhp¸”‰¬s·Œi ˆh©u¯‰h¨Š¢g» Ž¥Ž¢zh»}£ˆiƬŒ¡¯Ž‰¥Æo”o§”ƒ©¸ Wiwat Tami and Waiying Thongbue. We are indebted to Louis Gabaude for his comments on the ®’¸j¸”ˆ©Œ‘Ë£’Š¢lË£”€¥£‰‡£ ~·£‰iÆ«giƉŽj¸”og¢ ¥€i£o£‘h£l§”’Œ¨‰‘» pictures related to religious conversions, as well as to Yves Goudineau and Vanina Bouté for their g£­|» ”i†‘»g©|¥«h£¬Œ¡Ž£hih£¢Ž«}¬Œ¡ƒ©¸®’¸lË£‚Š¦g£}·”gŠ¡Žhg£Š comments on earlier versions of these texts. The director of CESD, Chayan Vaddhanaphuti, kindly p¢|Ë£’h¢o‘§”«Œ·ˆhiÇ¢Ço’ˆ|l§””£p£Š‰»r‰¢h}»ŽŠŠ€h¡‡©}¥g¢j”j”l¨{ offered advice during the preparation of this book and provided a foreword. ˆ£Ši ­h«”Œ†£«Ži‰Š» ­€ˆ¢‘ˆ¢Ž«Ši‰Š» ¬Œ¡ˆ£Ši Œ¥‘s£Ši p£g We would like to thank Marie-Noëlle Favier, Thomas Mourier and Marie-Lise Sabrié, from ‘~£¢h)2$‘Ë£’Š¢g£Š‘h¢‘h¨h£og£Š«o¥h¬Œ¡«lh¥l «”ˆ¥Œi ‚c­Šs» IRD, for the financial and technical support we received from IRD. Amélie Piroux, from IRD Representative Office in Bangkok, had a decisive role in the creation of the exhibition and the p£g‘Ë£h¢go£h)2$gŠ¨o«  ƒ©¸r·Ž‰«’Œ§”®hg£Š}¥|}·”j”o‚Š¡ˆ£{ publishing of this book: she helped us to obtain a grant from the Institut Français; she participated « ¥Æˆ«}¥ˆp£gTHE )NSTITUT &RANıAIS¬Œ¡‰¢oˆi£‘Ë£l¢u®hg£Š in the selection of the pictures and in the translation of their French-language captions; and she ‘Š¸£o‘ŠŠl»h¥ŠŠg£Š‡£ ~·£‰¬Œ¡’h¢o‘§”«Œ·ˆhiÇ«‚½h”‰·£o‰¥Æo took care of logistic and organizational issues. 9 Moving and Settling ย"ายถิ่นตั้งฐาน

In public discourse, the ethnic minorities of Thailand are E)Ċ": !5:D Ċ:G/ĉ: -@ĉ):<&9! @čG!#+8D 0H *D#đ!$AĊ5&*&D Ċ:):G3)ĉ 9M3) often considered as relatively recent immigrants to the E Ċ+<E-Ċ/#+8/9< :+F* *Ċ:*E-89ML3-9 50/++1 =LU] =L$ĉ:!):": -@ĉ)9Dĉ!:/ 8D3+=L* such as the Karen, are much older in the area but some of their members have migrated recently from Burma and K9M+ +: 5*AĉG!&?M! =L!=MD!L =LD&M! =L2A3-9 :+ ĉ59M uplands after the creation of the first Tai kingdoms. 5::9 +ĉ:J 5!:

Another common assumption is that these populations are highly mobile and less rooted than the lowlanders. Ironi- /:)D Ċ:G$<5= #+8 :+3!>L K ?5 :+)5/ĉ:!:<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2A)9 D -?L5!*Ċ:* cally however, the mobility of settlements has been histori- H)ĉ#ď 3-9 :! =LG*:/!:!D3)?5!:/&?M!+:"3: Ċ5D K+< -9"#+: /ĉ: cally higher in the lowlands than in the uplands. During G!5=)= :+F* *Ċ:* =L5*Aĉ5:09*G!D &?M!+:"2A /ĉ:"!&?M! =L2A): 3: G!ĉ/ recent decades, many highland villages have resettled or merged in the plains to comply with State regulations on H)ĉ =L 0/++13-9!=MD5 =L3)Aĉ"Ċ:!"!(AD :;!/!): A F* *Ċ:*3+?5*@"+/) 9! forest areas or to get closer to infrastructure. Migrations :)!F*":* :+5!@+9 1č#Ą:H)Ċ3+?5D&?L5G3ĊD Ċ:>2: :+A#F( 5+9HĊ): >M! from neighbouring countries also occurred, often in emer- gency situations such as in the cases of Hmong, Mien, :+D -?L5!*Ċ:*#+8: + -@ĉ)G3ĉ: #+8D 0D&?L5!"Ċ:!)9 D#đ! :+-=M(9*2 +:) Khmu, Shan and Karen refugees. Nowadays, mobility of the 9Dĉ!G! += 5:/)ĊD)=L*! )@H G3ĉ3+?5 8D3+=L*F* @ /9!!=M highlanders usually takes place at an individual level, with :+D -?L5!*Ċ:* 5!:<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2A-2Aĉ&?M!+:")9 D < >M!D#đ!+:*"@ - many villagers moving temporarily to the lowland for education or labour. >LF* *Ċ:*-H# ;:!3+?50> 1:ĉ5D#đ! :+9L/ +:/

10 Ban Tun, Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai province (1996) Sunset ‰£ˆ«‰Åh ¸£h}¨h”¬ˆ·¬p·ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™Ÿ 01

11 Ban Dongluang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) Ban Mae Poon, Chiang Mai province (1974) ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——  02 ¸£h¬ˆ·‚©h” Š¸£Žp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›— 03 A field hut in the swidden. Upland villages are often created on When an upland village experiences or nearby an old field either by new immigrants or by a group demographic growth, fields tend to from an existing village. become further away from the houses. gŠ¡·”ˆ®h¯Š·’ˆ©·¸£h®’ˆ·ˆ¢g}¢Ço”‰©·®h¯Š·s£g’Š§”®gŒ¸«li‰o «ˆ§Æ”‚Š¡r£gŠ®hr¨ˆrh« ¥Æˆj¦Çh ­|‰ƒ©¸‰¸£‰~¥Æh®’ˆ·’Š§”lh®h’ˆ©·¸£hiÆj‰¢j‰£‰””gˆ£ §ÇhiƯŠ·gÅ«Š¥Æˆj‰£‰””g’·£o’ˆ©·¸£hˆ£gj¦Çh

12 The Thai state encouraged the uplands’ small villages to move and merge in order to create bigger settlements and make the implementation of development policies easier. Villages usually moved in the cold season, just after the harvest and before the start of the new agricultural cycle. Resettlement of upland villages also occurred in Laos for the same reasons but more recently and on a bigger scale.

Ban Phraya Phay, Mae Fa Luang, Chiang Rai province (1964) ¸£h u£¯ Š”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›—  05

Ban Phraya Phay, Mae Fa Luang, Chiang Rai province (1964) ¸£h u£¯ Š”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›—  04 Š¢x£Œ¯‰‘·o«‘Š¥ˆ®’¸’ˆ©·¸£h«ŒÅg±h §ÇhiƑ©o ‰¸£‰ˆ£ŠŽˆg¢h«‚½hh¥lˆ‘o«lŠ£¡’»r£Ž«j£ « §Æ”®’¸o·£‰}·”g£Š|¤«h¥h­lŠog£Š ¢zh£ ‘·Žh®h‚Š¡«Œ£Žg£Šp¢|‘ŠŠ §Çhiƒˆ©·¸£h®’ˆ· ®hŠ¡|¢®’u·gŽ·£ˆ£g« ¥Æo«g¥|j¦Çh«ˆ§Æ”¯ˆ·h£hˆ£hiÇ

13 Preparing thatch grass for the roof requires a lot of labour. Household members prepare the thatch grass sections. On the day the house is actually built, relatives and neighbours all join together to finish the work in one single day. g£Š«}Ši‰ˆ¬Œ¡‘£h}¢’u¸£l£« §Æ”ˆ¨o’Œ¢ol£ }¸”o®r¸¬Šoo£h¢ÇolŠ¢Ž«Š§”h«ˆ§Æ”’Œ¢ol£ Š¸”ˆ¬Œ¸Ž « §Æ”h¸£hu£}¥ˆ¥}Šp¡ˆ£r·Ž‰g¢h‘Š¸£o¸£h®’¸«‘ŠÅp¯|¸®hŽ¢h«|i‰Ž Ban Kang Ho, Pua district, Nan province (1965) 06 Ban Lum, Mae taeng district, Chiang Mai province (1966) 07 ¸£hl¸£o•·””‚¼Žph·£h˜›–ž ¸£hŒ¨·ˆ”¬ˆ·¬}op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›–Ÿ  08

14 Ban Dongluang, Mae Hong Son province (1968) Ban Pa Kam, Bo Kluea district, Nan province (2008) ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——  09 ¸£h‚²£g¤”·”«gŒ§”ph·£h˜››—  10

Today, some highland households still keep thatched roofs because they are less expensive than roof-tiles or corrugated iron sheets and it keeps the house cooler during the dry season. In some cases, it also complements the form and the size of the house in traditional architecture. Traditional houses are entirely constructed from natural materials. Here, the base of the roof ‚¼pp¨¢h¸£h®hr¨ˆrhh §ÇhiƑ©op¤hŽh¯ˆ·h¸”‰‰¢olo®r¸ structure is lashed into position with strong strips ’Œ¢ol£’u¸£l£’Š§”®}”o}¦o«h§Æ”op£g‚Š¡’‰¢|«o¥hgŽ·£ of rattan. ’Œ¢ol£gŠ¡«§Ç”o’Š§”‘¢og¡‘i¬Œ¡‰¢o¤®’¸¸£h«‰ÅhgŽ·£|¸Ž‰ ¸£h|¢Ço«|¥ˆ®hr¨ˆrhr£}¥ ¢h€¨»‘Š¸£op£gŽ¢‘|¨€ŠŠˆr£}¥¢Ço’ˆ| ¯ˆ¸l£h’Œ¢ol£®h‡£ hiÇ~©gƒ©g¯Ž¸|¸Ž‰}”giƤp£g¯ƒ·”·”h ”‰·£o¬jÅo¬Šo 15 Ban Mokkoud, Nalae district, Luang Namtha province, Laos (1995) ¸£h’ˆ”gg©|«ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£Œ£Ž˜›™ž  11 Detail of the roof of a field hut. In some regions, during the ’Œ¢ol£gŠ¡·”ˆ®h¯Š·iƑŠ¸£o”‰·£o ¥~i ¥~¢hgŠ¡·”ˆ«„³£¯Š· rainy season, villagers can spend most of their time in their ˆ¢ggŽ¸£ojŽ£o ”‘¤’Š¢¢ÇolŠ”lŠ¢ŽiƔ£p®r¸«ŽŒ£‘·Žh®’u· field huts, rather than in the village. They therefore build huts with care and ensure they are big enough for the whole family. ®h¯Š·ˆ£ggŽ·£®h’ˆ©·¸£h®hr·Žo‹|©« £¡‚Œ©g

16 6IANG0HU+HADISTRICT ,UANG.AMTHAPROVINCE ,AOS «ˆ§”o«Ži‰o‡©l£¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ž 13

Various ethnic groups traditionally set up a gate at the entrance to their village. Among the Akha, this custom takes place once each year and the villagers also prepare two statues representing a couple to place nearby the gate. ’Œ£‰r¨ˆrhr£}¥ ¢h€¨»p¡‘Š¸£o‚Š¡}©£o«j¸£’ˆ©·¸£h¯Ž¸r£Ž”·£j·£ˆi‚Š¡« {i ‘Š¸£o‚Š¡}©’ˆ©·¸£h¨g‚ciƂŠ¡}©hiLjiŠ©‚‘Œ¢gl©·’u¥or£‰”‰©·|¸Ž‰ Ban Saenchai, Mae Fah Luang district, Chiang Rai province (1964) ¸£h¬‘h®p”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›– 12

Among the Khmu, the village gate12 is generally a temporary one, built for special occasions such as harvests, village rituals or epidemics. ‘¤’Š¢r£Žjˆ¨‚Š¡}©’ˆ©·¸£h«‚½h‚Š¡}© r¢ÆŽlŠ£ŽiƑŠ¸£o®h­”g£‘ ¥««r·h ®h‹|©«gŁ«giƉŽ«ˆ§Æ”‚Š¡g” ¥€igŠŠˆ ’ˆ©·¸£h’Š§”«ˆ§Æ”ˆi­ŠlŠ¡£|

17 A Dara-ang woman walks with her horse loaded with rice. Horses are still in use today, especially for short distance trips to the market. ’u¥o|£Š¡”¢Çog¢ˆ¸£}·£oiÆ®r¸jhj¸£Ž‘£Š r¨ˆrhh §ÇhiƑ©o’Œ£‰¬’·o‰¢o®r¸ˆ¸£}·£o jhj”o¯‚}Œ£|®gŒ¸±”‰©·~¦o¨gŽ¢hhiÇ

Ban Mae La Mao, Mae Sot distrct, Tak province (1964) ¸£h¬ˆ·Œ¡«ˆ£”¬ˆ·‘”|p}£g˜›– 14

Some ethnic groups, such as the Hmong, the Lisu, the Akha and the Dara-ang raise small horses to use for transporting goods. This was also the case with caravan traders from Yunnan before modern roads and cars altered mobility patterns. £ogŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»«r·hr£Žˆ¸oŒis©”£j·£’Š§”|£Š¡”¢Ço «l‰®r¸ˆ¸£}·£o}¢Ž«ŒÅg®hg£Šjh‘·oƒŒƒŒ¥}¬Œ¡‘¥hl¸£ g·”hiÆ~hh¬Œ¡Š~‰h}»p¡¤®’¸Š©‚¬g£Š‘¢upŠ«‚ŒiƉh¯‚

Ban Nawlae, Fang district, Chiang Mai province (2009) ¸£hh”¬Œ”„£op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››˜ 15 18 Ban Dongluang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1988) ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›™— 16 Karen used elephants rather than horses for transportation, r£Žg¡«’ŠiƉoh¥‰ˆ®r¸r¸£o«r·h«|i‰Žg¢lh¯‰ §ÇhŠ£ as did lowland Thais. During the boom of the teak ®hr·Žoiƀ¨Šg¥p¤¯ˆ¸Š¨·o«Š§”o Žg«j£«‚½hiƊ©¸p¢g economy, Karen became well-known mahouts. Today, ®hx£h¡lŽ£ur¸£oiÆ«riƉŽr£u’£g®h‚¼pp¨¢h elephants have become mostly tourist attractions. r¸£o‘·Žh®’u·~©g«Œiljo¯Ž¸}¸”hŠ¢h¢g·”o«iƉŽ

19 A Chinese trader from Yunnan walks with his horses loaded with goods for barter and trade. These traders played a role of cultural and commercial intermediaries between highlanders and lowlanders who relied on them to get access to various kinds of products. ·”l¸£pih‰©hh£hg¢ˆ¸£}·£o‘¥hl¸£j”o«j£ ·”l¸£«’Œ·£hiÇ«‚½hlhgŒ£o¢Ço£o|¸£hg£Šl¸£ ¬Œ¡Ž¢zh€ŠŠˆŠ¡’Ž·£or¨ˆrhh §ÇhiƑ©og¢ §ÇhŠ£

5NKNOWN "AN,ONGLAN ,UANG0RABANGPROVINCE ,AOS 18 ¯ˆ·‚Š£gv‘~£hiƬŒ¡‚ciÆ~·£‰‡£ 17 ¸£hŒ”oŒ¢h«ˆ§”o¬Œ¡¬jŽo’ŒŽo Š¡£o‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›››

Highland farmers now use pickup trucks to sell their products in lowlands markets. The construction of modern roads made the fluvial trade nearly disappear and facilitated the development of a cash-crop economy in highland villages. ‚¼pp¨¢h«g}ŠgŠh §ÇhiƑ©o®r¸Š~gŠ¡¡ jhj”o¯‚j£‰®h}Œ£| §ÇhŠ£ g£Š‘Š¸£o~hh« §Æ””¤hŽ‰lŽ£ˆ‘¡|Žg ®hg£Šjh‘·o §r«Šxg¥p¤®’¸g£Š‘¢upŠ £ohǤŒ|lŽ£ˆ‘¤l¢uŒo

20 Ban Vat, Nalae district, Luang Namtha province, Laos (1996) Nam Tha river, Laos (1996) ¸£hŽ¢|«ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ž 19 «ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£Œ£Ž˜›™Ÿ 20 Villagers return from a nearby r£Ž¸£h«|¥h£ogŒ¢p£g}Œ£| Until very recently, pŽph‚¼pp¨¢h market. In the narrow valleys ®h’¨«j£‡£l«’h§”¬ˆ·hǤ«l‰«‚½h regular taxi boats «Š§”Š¢p¸£o‰¢o«‚½h of the northern areas, rivers «‘¸h£og£Š«|¥h£o¬Œ¡g£Šl¸£ used to connect the £’h¡«r§Æ”ˆ’ŒŽo used to be more important city of Luang than roads for transportation iƈilŽ£ˆ‘¤l¢uˆ£ggŽ·£~hh Namtha in Northern hǤ£®h‡£l«’h§” and trade, at least during the ”‰·£oh¸”‰gÅ®hr·Žo‹|©„h Laos with the j”oŒ£Žg¢¬ˆ·hǤ­jo rainy season. Mekong. The trip g£Š«|¥h£o£ohǤ took two full days ®r¸«ŽŒ£‘”oŽ¢h}·” downriver, and three days upriver. |¸Ž‰”ig‘£ˆŽ¢hhg

21 10

Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1967) ”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—– 21 Crossing the river using push poles. Engines were not widely used for small distances before the 1970s. Transport by ox cart was common during the dry season when water was too low for boats.

2212 Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1967) ”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—– 22 g·”hiÆ~hh¬Œ¡«Š§”‰h}»p¡«j¸£ˆ£r£Ž¸£hj¸£ˆ¬ˆ·hǤ­|‰®r¸ £‰lǤ~·” «gŽi‰h«‚½hiÆh¥‰ˆ®hr·Žo‹|©¬Œ¸o«ˆ§Æ”hǤ¬’¸o«g¥hgŽ·£«Š§”p¡Ž¥Æo¯|¸ 2312 A Hmong refugee and her son in Nam Yao refugee camp in Thailand after fleeing from Laos during the communist takeover. Many refugees walked for days before reaching Thailand, enduring starvation and sickness. ’u¥oƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰r£Žˆ¸og¢Œ©gr£‰®hl·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰hǤ‰£Žƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰«’Œ·£hiÇ«|¥h£oˆ£ ‚Š¡«¯‰’Œ¢op£giÆ ŠŠll”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}»Œ£Ž¯|¸Š¢r¢‰rh¡«‚½hƒ©¸‚glŠ”o‚Š¡« ’Œ£‰lh”|”‰£g¬Œ¡«pŁ‚²Ž‰®hŠ¡’Ž·£og£Š«|¥h£oiÆg¥h«ŽŒ£‰£Žh£h

Nam Yao refugee camp, Pua district, Nan province (1975) l·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰hǤ‰£Ž”‚¼Žph·£h˜›—ž 23

Nam Yao refugee camp, Nan province. (1975) l·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰hǤ‰£Ž”‚¼Žph·£h˜›—ž 24

An old and sick Mien man is carried by some of his relatives to cross the Thai-Lao border and reach a refugee camp on the Thai side. Tens of thousands of ethnic refugees migrated to Thailand from Laos between 1975 and 1977. u£}¥ iÆh¸”or·Ž‰g¢h’£ˆƒ©¸‚²Ž‰rŠ£r£Ž«ˆiƉhj¸£ˆ r£‰¬|h¯‰ Œ£Žˆ£‰¢ol·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰®h„¼¾o¯‰ ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰rh«ƒ·£’Œ£‰’ˆ§Æh” ‰ p£gŒ£Ž «j¸£‚Š¡«¯‰®hr·Žo‚c ˜›—ž ˜›˜– 24 A Hmong refugee and her son in Nam Yao refugee camp in Hmong and Mien refugees arrived in Pua Thailand after fleeing from Laos during the communist takeover. city and are given temporary shelter under Many refugees walked for days before reaching Thailand, the district office. Most of them were finally enduring starvation and sickness. resettled in Western countries. The other ones ’u¥oƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰r£Žˆ¸og¢Œ©gr£‰®hl·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰hǤ‰£Žƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰«’Œ·£hiÇ«|¥h£oˆ£ stayed in Thailand and joined relatives in ‚Š¡«¯‰’Œ¢op£giÆ ŠŠll”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}»Œ£Ž¯|¸Š¢r¢‰rh¡«‚½hƒ©¸‚glŠ”o‚Š¡« existing villages. ’Œ£‰lh”|”‰£g¬Œ¡«pŁ‚²Ž‰®hŠ¡’Ž·£og£Š«|¥h£oiÆg¥h«ŽŒ£‰£Žh£h ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰ˆ¸o¬Œ¡«ˆiƉhiÆ« ¥Æo«|¥h£oˆ£~¦op¢o’Ž¢|h·£h ¯|¸Š¢g£Šp¢|®’¸ ¢gŠ””‰©·®}¸~¨hiƎ·£g£Š”¤«‡”‚¼Ž ‚¼pp¨¢hlh‘·Žh®’u·¯‚}¢Ço~¥Æhx£h®’ˆ·®h‚Š¡«iƑ£ˆ¬Œ¸Ž ‘·ŽhiÆ«’Œ§””£¢‰”‰©·g¢u£}¥ iÆh¸”o®h‚Š¡«¯‰

4HA3ONG9ANGDISTRICT 4AKPROVINCE ”·£‘”o‰£op}£g˜›šŸ 26 Nam Yao refugee camp, Pua district, Nan province (1975) l·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰hǤ‰£Ž”‚¼Žph·£h˜›—ž 23

Nam Yao refugee camp, Nan province. (1975) l·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰hǤ‰£Ž”‚¼Žph·£h˜›—ž 24

0UADISTRICTOFŵCE 0UA .ANPROVINCE iƎ·£g£Š””¤«‡”‚¼Žph·£h˜›—ž 25

Due to the conflict between the Burmese military regime and ethnic minorities, many refugee camps An old and sick Mien man is carried have been set up along the Thai-Myanmar border. by some of his relatives to cross the Thailand currently hosts around 84,900 registered Thai-Lao border and reach a refugee refugees and an estimated 62,000 unregistered camp on the Thai side. Tens of asylum-seekers from Myanmar in nine different thousands of ethnic refugees camps along the border. (UNHCR, 2013) migrated to Thailand from Laos between 1975 and 1977. l·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰hr£‰¬|h ˆ·£«‚½hƒŒp£glŽ£ˆj¢|¬‰¸oŠ¡’Ž·£o u£}¥ iÆh¸”or·Ž‰g¢h’£ˆƒ©¸‚²Ž‰rŠ£r£Ž«ˆiƉhj¸£ˆ Š¢x£Œ’£Š ˆ·£g¢gŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»‚¼pp¨¢h‚Š¡«¯‰ r£‰¬|h¯‰ Œ£Žˆ£‰¢ol·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰®h„¼¾o¯‰ ˆil·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰rh«ƒ·£p£g ˆ·£Ÿ¬’·o¬Œ¡ˆiƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰iÆp|¡«i‰h ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰rh«ƒ·£’Œ£‰’ˆ§Æh” ‰ p£gŒ£Ž g¢Š¢x”‰©·žš Ÿ––lhg¢”ig‚Š¡ˆ£{œ˜ ––– «j¸£‚Š¡«¯‰®hr·Žo‚c ˜›—ž ˜›˜– lhiƯˆ·¯|¸p|¡«i‰h5.(#2 ˜››œ  25 Hunting and Fishing หาปลาล%าสัตว*

Hunting and trapping are essential parts of traditional upland :+-ĉ:E-89 29/čD#đ!2ĉ/!3!>L 5/<==/<"!&?M! =L2A):Eĉ9MD<)#Ą:H)Ċ"!(AD :!9M! farming systems. The hills host a great variety of animal species and most of the creatures find their subsistence in the clearings, )=29/č#Ą:;!/!): >L2ĉ/!3!>LHĊ):5:09*3: D#đ! < ++)2; 9 =L$AĊ:*8Ċ5D+=*!+AĊ9MEĉDK  cycle when several households combine their labor force. These D++8D"=*" 529 ) linked to a lifestyle; hunting, fishing and trapping are also highly symbolic activities. They involve a series of representations E-8 /:)29)&9! č 9"F- :) ++): :+E"ĉ(:+83!Ċ: =L+83/ĉ:3<:*F*:*8D#đ!$AĊ3:D!?M529/č the supernatural world. G! 8 =L3<3:&?$9 ):D#đ!5:3:+29/č#Ą:)L5*Aĉ+ĉ/)F- 9")!@1*č9!9M! :+-ĉ:3+?59 29/č in the sense that they are nearly exclusively male activities, while women collect edible plants. Second, wild animals are not >D =L*/&9! 9" 9" /:)29)&9! čD<E- D#-=L*! 9"ŨDĊ: =LŨD3-ĉ:!=MĊ/*!5 : !=M considered only as prey but also as signs of supernatural entities, or principles, which share the world with human beings. Hunting *9)= Ċ53Ċ:) :+-ĉ:29/č":!<Dĉ!Ċ:E+3+?5 +8 <>L?5/ĉ:D#đ!29/č or trapping an animal is therefore engaging in a relationship of )= /:)D =L*/&9! 9"ŨDĊ: =LŨ5*ĉ:G -Ċ<D#đ!&

26 Fishing with a casting net in shallow water. ”|¬’®hhǤ}§Çh Ban Lawi, Lamam district, Sekong province, Laos (1994) ¸£hŒ¡Ži«ˆ§”oŒ¡ˆ£ˆ¬jŽo«sg”o‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ 27

27 Ban Lawi, Lamam, Sekong province, Laos (1994) Fishing in shallow water. g£Š’£‚Œ£®hhǤ}§Çh ¸£hŒ¡Ži«ˆ§”oŒ¡ˆ£ˆ¬jŽo«sg”o‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ 28

28 Ban Vat, Nalae district, Luang Namtha province, Laos (1995) Ban Nasaythong, Udomxay, Laos (1994) 30 ¸£hŽ¢|«ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ž 29 ¸£hh£Š£‰£‰”o«ˆ§”o¯s¬jŽo”¨|ˆ¯s‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ Fishing in shallow water: g£Š’£‚Œ£®hhǤ}§Çh Coming back from fishing. three men drive fish r£‰¢Ço‘£ˆ®r¸¯ˆ¸¯Œ·‚Œ£ gŒ¢p£g’£‚Œ£ upstream with their sticks while a fourth one throws ¯‚}¸hhǤ« §Æ”®’¸”iglh a casting net. iƊ””‰©·”|¬’

29 Ban Huey Lueang, Mueang District, Tak province (1965) ¸£h’¸Ž‰«’Œ§”o”«ˆ§”op}£g˜›–ž 32

Ban Huey Nam Khek, Nakhon Thai, Phitsanulok Province (1957) ¸£h’¸Ž‰hǤ«jÅg”hlŠ¯‰p ¥{¨­Œg˜›–– 31 A Hmong man prepares his crossbow for hunting birds. In those days, hunting and gathering was the main source of food for family consumption. r£‰r£Žˆ¸og¤Œ¢o«}Ši‰ˆ’h¸£¯ˆ¸¯Ž¸Œ·£hg®h”|i} g£Š’£j”o‚²£¬Œ¡Œ·£‘¢}Ž»«‚½hŽ¥~ig£Š’£«Œiljori  iƑ¤l¢uh”g«’h§”p£gg£Š«g}Š

Children proudly exhibit a kalaw (Rufous «|Åg±”Ž|hg«o§”giÆ Š£hj”o Žg«j£p¢¯|¸ Hornbill) killed by one of the village ”‰·£o‡©ˆ¥®p‚¼pp¨¢hhg«o§”g«‚½h‘¢}Ž»‚²£ hunters. Today, kalaw are protected by law l¨¸ˆlŠ”o}£ˆgv’ˆ£‰¬Œ¡~§”Ž·£«‚½h‘¢}Ž»iÆ and considered as indicators of forests with high biodiversity. ·oriÇlŽ£ˆ’Œ£g’Œ£‰£oriŽ‡£ j”o‚²£

30 Ban Huey Lueang, Mueang District, Tak province (1961) ¸£h’¸Ž‰«’Œ§”o”«ˆ§”op}£g˜›–š 33 Two hunters bring a dead leopard back to the village. The feline Š£hr£Žˆ¸oh¤Š·£o«‘§”|£ŽgŒ¢’ˆ©·¸£h«‘§”|£Ž~§”«‚½h‘¢}Ž»iÆ Š£h used to be hunted because it was considered dangerous to humans p¤«‚½h}¸”oŒ·£«h§Æ”op£g«‚½h”¢h}Š£‰}·”¢Çolh¬Œ¡‘¢}Ž»«Œiljoj”or¨ˆrh and livestock. With the creation of the first national parks in the 1960s, law prohibited hunting such big animals. g£Š‚Š¡g£ Š‘oŽh¬Œ¡l¨¸ˆlŠ”o‘¢}Ž»‚²£h¢¬}·‚c ˜›–™ ¤®’¸g£ŠŒ·£‘¢}Ž»«r·hhiÇ«‚½h«Š§Æ”oƒ¥|gv’ˆ£‰

31 Ban Mae Lamao, Mae Sot District, Tak Province (1963) 34 Ban Mokkoud, Nalae district, Luang Namtha province, Laos (1995) 35 ¸£h¬ˆ·Œ¡«ˆ£”¬ˆ·‘”|p}£g˜›–œ ¸£h’ˆ”gg©|«ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ž

01 A hunter returns from the h£‰ Š£hƒ©¸hiÇ« ¥ÆogŒ¢ˆ£p£g‚²£01 A small dead-fall trap set up g¢|¢g‘¢}Ž»iƊ¢ÇŽ¯Š· forest to the village. He «j£‘¡ £‰‚ehŒ©gs”os¦Æo«‚½h”£Ž¨€ in the fence of a swidden field. carries a modern gun that ¬®’ˆ·iÆs§Ç”ˆ£p£g®h«ˆ§”o he bought in the lowlands.

32 "AN,ONGMUN .ALAEDISTRICT ,UANG.AMTHAPROVINCE ,AOS «ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜››š 36 36. A bird tried to take the bait and is caught by the snare trap. 37. A pack of bird traps ready to be used. 38. Setting a bird trap. hg~©g«’‰§Æ”Œ·”«j¸£g¢|¢g g¢|¢ghg Š¸”ˆ®r¸o£h }¥|}¢Çog¢|¢ghg

Ban Saen Charuen, Chiang rai province (2008) "AN,ONGMUN ,UANG.AMTHAPROV ,AOS ¸£h¬‘h«pŠ¥u”¬ˆ·‘ŠŽ‰p«ri‰oŠ£‰˜››— 37 ¸£hŒ”oˆ¢h¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜››š 38 33 Ban Chomsy, Nalae district, Luang Namtha Province, Laos (1995) ¸£hp”ˆ‘i«ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ž  39 40

Two hunters travel along an abandoned swidden. They carry their locally-made rifles since it is not unusual to see deer or wild boar foraging in the swidden after the harvest. h£‰ Š£h¢Ço‘”o«|¥h¬g‚eh¬g¹‚j¦Çh¯Š·s£g «‚½h«Š§Æ”o‚g}¥iÆ Žg«j£”£p¯|¸ «g¸o’Š§”’ˆ©‚²£ iÆg¤Œ¢o’£g¥h®h¯Š·’Œ¢o«gŁ«giƉŽ

34 Ban Nong Jed Nui, Kanlayaniwathana district, Chiang Mai Province (1970) ¸£h’h”o«pÅ|’h·Ž‰”g¢Œ‰£h¥Ž¢zh£p«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›—™ 41

A Karen hunter shows to the photographer the deer Š£hr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo”Ž|«g¸oiÆ«j£« ¥Æo‰¥oˆ£¯|¸p£g‚²£®gŒ¸’ˆ©·¸£h he just killed with his rifle in a forest

35 FARMING เพาะปลูก

The highlanders have traditionally practised various forms of !:<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2AEĉ9MD<)-Ċ/!GĊ+8"" :+D 1+3)@!D/=*!+A#E""ĉ:J forest rotational farming, all of them involving burning the fields 3: F*3-9 :+E-Ċ/ K ?5 :+:E-8D$: ĉ5!D&:8#-A D)?L5D K"D =L*/E-Ċ/ before seeding, and leaving the fields fallow for long periods of time afterwards. In addition to rice, various crops have long been > L*9 ;!:G!&?M! =L+<)3Ċ/*E-8 !&?M!+:"":2ĉ/! forests is a common occurrence among the lowlanders. KGĊ/< = :+:E-8D$:H+ĉ2/!3+?5E)ĊEĉ#Ą: ĉ5!D&:8#-A Ċ/*Dĉ! 9! Upland rotational farming is often seen as a direct cause of deforestation. Demographic pressure as well as land shortage due H+ĉ3)@!D/=*!)9 A )5/ĉ:D#đ!2:D3@ =L ;G3Ċ#Ą:D2?L5)F +) :+D&L2ĉ$-ĉ5 demographic and climatic conditions, traditional rotational :+ ?!2(:& 5LH)ĉGĊ2:+D )=E-8+9 1: /:)3-: 3-:* agro-farming companies: biodiversity is higher and the use of D<!

36 Ban Dong Luang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) 42 The threshed rice still has sticks j¸£ŽiÆhŽ|¬Œ¸Ž‰¢oˆi«ŠŽo«’Œ§””‰©· ¸£h|o’ŒŽo ”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— and bits of stalk in it.

37 ƒ§h¯Š·¬’¸o ”‘¤’Š¢g£Š«ƒ£«}Ši‰ˆ’h¸£|¥h ¯Š· Š¸”ˆ‘¤’Š¢g£ŠŒo«ˆŒÅ| ¢h€¨» gŒ¸£j¸£Ž¬o‰”|j¦Çhp£gƒ§h|¥h ¯’Œ·«j£«ji‰Ž‡£‰®}¸«ˆn„hlŠ¦Çˆ }¸hj¸£Ž””gŠŽo¬Œ¡p¡‘¨g«’Œ§”o®hŠ£Ž «|§”h}¨Œ£lˆŠ”l”‰g£Š«gŁ«giƉŽiÆp¡ˆ£~¦o

43 44 Ban Dong Luang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) 45 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 47 46 43. The swidden are dry and ready to be burned 44. The swidden are ready to be sown with seed. 45. Out in the swiddens, green shoots of rice burst through the surface of the soil. 46. Under low wet clouds, the hillsides are clothed in green. 47. In October the rice plants bear grain that graduall

38 Ban Dong Luang, Mae Sariang district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) 48 49 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 50 A villager throws water on her thatch as salt is Back in the village, people dampen their Hunters keep watch for animals fleeing from the tossed to guage wind direction. As the swiddens roofs as a precaution against flying sparks. flames. catch fire, it is customary to make small r£Ž¸£hg¡«’ŠiƉog¤Œ¢o¤®’¸’Œ¢ol£¸£h«‚c‰gr§Çh r£Ž¸£h”ig‘·Žh’h¦Æo‰§h‰£ˆ«„³£Š¡Ž¢o‘¢}Ž»iƔ£p offerings, with a muttered prayer, of tobacco, areca nut and cotton seeds wrapped in leaves, « §Æ”¯ˆ·®’¸}¥|‘¡«gÅ|¯†p£gg£Š«ƒ£¯Š· ’hi¯†””gˆ£«j¸£’ˆ©·¸£h throwing them towards the flames to influence the course they take. ’u¥oƒ©¸hiǑ£|hǤj¦Çh’Œ¢ol£¬Œ¡’Ž·£h«gŒ§”« §Æ”lŽl¨ˆ ¥£oŒˆr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉoˆi‚Š¡« {iiÆp¡­‰h’·”‰£‘© ’ˆ£g¬Œ¡«ˆŒÅ|„³£‰«j¸£g”o¯†« §Æ”«s·h¯’Ž¸ƒ©¸l¨¸ˆlŠ”o 39 Ban Phouled, Viengphukha district, Luang Namtha province, Laos (2012) Ban Dong Luang, Mae Hong Son province (1968) ¸£h‡©«ŒÅ|«ˆ§”o«Ži‰o‡©l£¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›››  51 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 52 Burning swiddens is still a very common ¬ˆ¸g£Š¤h£p¡¯|¸Š¢lŽ£ˆh¥‰ˆˆ£gj¦Çhg£Š¤¯Š· Under ideal conditions fires burn rapidly, practice throughout Southeast Asia, even ¬~£o¬Œ¡«ƒ£gʼn¢o«‚½hŽ¥~ig£Š«g}Šj”or¨ˆrh reducing virtually all debris to ash within as lowland wet-rice agriculture is ¢ÆŽ«”«ri‰}¡Ž¢h””g«qi‰o®}¸ph~¦o¨gŽ¢hhiÇ an hour. becoming more widespread. ®h‘‡£ iÆ«’ˆ£¡‘ˆ¯†p¡Œ¨g¯’ˆ¸”‰·£oŠŽ|«ŠÅŽ «ƒ£¨g‘¥Æo«‚½h«~¸£~·£h¯|¸‡£‰®hr¢ÆŽ­ˆo«|i‰Ž

40 Ban Dong Luang, Mae Hong Son province (1968) 53 Baw Kluea district, Nan province (2007) ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— ”·”«gŒ§”ph·£h˜››– 54 Digging is usually men’s work, owing to the sustained strength it demands. g£Šj¨|’Œ¨ˆ’‰”|j¸£Žs¦Æo«‚½ho£h®r¸¬Šo ˆ¢g«‚½h’h¸£iÆj”oƒ©¸r£‰

Ban Dong Luang, Mae Hong Son province (1968) ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 55 Holes are filled up with paddy The girls follow the holes all over seeds and left open. Rain runoff the swidden and fill them with seeds. will quickly close them up. ƒ©¸’u¥op¡«|¥h}£ˆ« §Æ”’‰”|j¸£ŽŒo’Œ¨ˆ ’Œ¨ˆiƒ‰”|j¸£Ž¬Œ¸Ž Š”®’¸„h«Œoˆ£r·Ž‰‚b|‚£g’Œ¨ˆ 41 Ban Dong Luang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) 56 Their morning’s work over, the gŒ¨·ˆr£‰’h¨·ˆr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉoh¢Æo ¢g ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——  young men enjoy some rice whisky. p¥‘£­’Œ¢o’ˆ|o£hr·Žo«r¸£

42 Ban Dong Luang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——  57 58

People weed carefully round their r£Ž¸£hp¤g¢|Ž¢r §rŠ”}¸hj¸£Ž rice plants and vegetables. ¬Œ¡ §rƒ¢gj”o«j£”‰·£oŠ¡ˆ¢|Š¡Ž¢o

The weeded rice is straight and waist-high. ¯Š·j¸£Ž}”hhiǑ©o«g§”~¦oŠ¡|¢«”Ž

43 Viengphukha, Luang Namtha prov., Laos (2011) Ban Ta Krong, Bokeo province, Laos (2008) «ˆ§”o«Ži‰o‡©l£¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜››š  59 ¸£h}£gŠo¬jŽo·”¬g¸Ž‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜››—  60

Ban Konkud, Nalae district, Luang Namtha province, Laos (2008) «ˆ§”ol”hg¨|¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜››—  61

59. Under low wet clouds, all the hillsides are clothed in green. In traditional rotational farming systems, fields are cultivated for only one year and then left fallow for reforestation. 60-61. Field huts are used as second houses during the monsoon and as temporary granaries during the harvest. ¯’Œ·«j£«ji‰Žr”¨·ˆ®}¸«ˆn„hg£Š¤¯Š·’ˆ¨h«Ži‰h¬|¢Ço«|¥ˆl§”g£Š« £¡‚Œ©g ®h §Çhiƒh¦Æo« i‰o‚c«|i‰Ž¬Œ¸Žp¦o¥Ço¯Š·s£g¯Ž¸®’¸}¸h¯ˆ¸«}¥­}«‚½h‚²£”iglŠ¢Ço  gŠ¡·”ˆ«„³£¯Š·«‚½h«‘ˆ§”h¸£hiƑ”oj”or£Ž¸£h ®hr·Žo‹|©g£Š« £¡‚Œ©g¬Œ¡‰¢o®r¸«‚½h‰¨¸or¢ÆŽlŠ£Ž®h‰£ˆ«gŁ«giƉŽ

44 Ban Daklueng, Nalae district, Luang Namtha province (2012) Ban Dong Luang, Mae Hong Son province (1968) Ban Dong Luang, Mae Hong Son province (1968) ¸£h|¢g’ŒŽo¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›››  62 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 63 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 64

The morning mist clears before the harvest starts. The young boys most commonly did the Some populations thresh the paddy simply ’ˆ”g‰£ˆ«r¸£l·”‰p£o’£‰g·”hr£Ž¸£hp¡Œoˆ§”«gŁ«giƉŽ reaping, and a young girl followed each by spreading it on a mat and separating one. They enjoyed working together. These grains from stalks by working the grains two are well decorated with sunglasses and between the feet. marigolds. £ogŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»«r·hr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo|¢o®h‡£  „²£‰r£‰«‚½hƒ©¸«giƉŽj¸£Ž„²£‰’u¥op¡«|¥h}£ˆ« §Æ” hŽ|j¸£Ž|¸Ž‰g£Š«’‰i‰ Š¢ŠŽoj¸£Žˆ£ˆ¢|¬Œ¡}£gh}”j¸£Ž’h¨·ˆ‘£Ž ¤o£h|¸Ž‰g¢h”‰·£o‘h¨g‘h£h

45 Ban Dong Luang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 65 The girl ties the sheaf up with a piece of straw before laying it, ’u¥o‘£Žr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo­‚Ž»ƒ©g†²”hj¸£Ž¯Ž¸g·”hp¡Ž£oŒoh suspended above the ground, by the remaining stubble. Great care is }”j¸£Ž”‰·£oh¨~h”ˆ« §Æ”¯ˆ·®’¸}¸”o‘©u«‘i‰«ˆŒÅ|j¸£Ž¯‚ taken to avoid loss of grain by violent movement of the stalks.

46 Ngen district, Sayaburi province, Laos (2004) Ban Dong Luang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) «ˆ§”o«o¥h¬jŽo¯s‰¡¨Ši‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›š 66 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 67

The morning mist clears before the harvest starts. ’ˆ”g‰£ˆ«r¸£l·”‰p£o’£‰g·”hg£Š«gŁ«giƉŽ

66. Complementary techniques: irrigated paddy field (foreground); inundated paddy field (middle); permanent swidden (burning); and fallow rotational swidden in the background. 67. The terrace farmer’s year begins in June when he begins preparing his fields for the new planting. The ground has to be broken into clods, either by ploughing or hoeing. The timing of terrace cultivation is not so critical as with swidden farming: there is no burn to coordinate with the monsoon, and rice can be left growing after the rains have ceased. 68. Mix of terraced fields and swiddens. Š©‚¬g£Š‚Œ©gj¸£ŽiƒŒ£g’Œ£‰|¸£h’h¸£l§”h£rŒ‚Š¡£h~¢|¯‚l§”h£’Ž·£h Š¥«Ž{iƯ†g¤Œ¢oŒ¨g¯’ˆ¸”‰©·l§” §ÇhiƯŠ·’ˆ¨h«Ži‰hiÆr£Ž¸£h«ƒ£ «}Ši‰ˆ¯Ž¸¬Œ¡|¸£h’Œ¢ol§”¯Š·s£g«g·£iƂŒ·”‰¥Ço¯Ž¸®’¸}¸h¯ˆ¸«}¥­} r£Ž¸£h«Š¥Æˆ¯~h£®hŠ£Ž«|§”hˆ¥~¨h£‰h‚w¥¥hg£Š¤h£j¢Çh¢h¯|h¢Çh ¯ˆ·«lŠ·olŠ¢|«’ˆ§”hg¢¯Š·’ˆ¨h«Ži‰h«h§Æ”op£g¯ˆ·p¤«‚½h}¸”o«Š·o«ƒ£«}Ši‰ˆ|¥hg·”h„hˆ£ h£j¢Çh¢h¯|¬Œ¡¯Š·h«h¥h«j£ Ban Pa Lao, Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai province (1997) ¸£h‚²£«Œ£”¬ˆ·¬p·ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š– 68 Nalae, Luang Namtha province (2012) h£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›››  01 47 Ban Pa Lao, Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai province (1997) Terraced rice fields h£j¢Çh¢h¯| ¸£h‚²£«Œ£”¬ˆ·¬p·ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š– 69

48 "AN0AKLANG 0UADISTRICT .ANPROVINCE 71 ¸£h‚²£gŒ£o”‚¼Žph·£h˜››› 70

Swiddens previously planted with paddy are nowadays used for various kinds of crops. Here, villagers harvest ginger and put the roots into plastic bags to load them onto the middleman’s pick-up. The ginger will be pickled and most of it exported to Japan. ‚¼pp¨¢hr£Ž¸£h‚Œ©g §rƒŒ’Œ£grh¥|®h¯Š· ’u¥o®h‡£ g¤Œ¢o«gŁj¥oŒo~¨o Œ£‘}¥g « §Æ”p¡jhj¦ÇhŠ~gŠ¡¡j”o ·”l¸£lhgŒ£o j¥o«’Œ·£hiÇp¡~©gh¤¯‚|”o¬Œ¡‘·o””g¯‚‚Š¡«uiƂ¨²h

49 Ban Pakluey, Chomthong district, Chiang Mai province (1984) ¸£h‚²£gŒ¸Ž‰”p”ˆ”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›˜ 72 While promoting new cash crops, the Thai government Š¢x£Œ¯‰|¤«h¥h­lŠog£Š}£ˆh­‰£‰jp¢|g£Š‚Œ©g„b¾h enforced its opium eradication policy. Villagers were ­|‰r¢grŽh®’¸r£Ž¸£hh¤«ˆŒÅ| ¢h€¨»¬Œ¡ƒŒƒŒ¥}j”o}h encouraged to gather their opium products and seeds and to burn them in public ceremonies. ˆ£«ƒ£ŠŽˆg¢hiÆgŒ£oŒ£h’ˆ©·¸£h

50 73. An Akha lady harvesting the coffee trees. Coffee was introduced to area by the Thai-German Highland Development Programme in ’u¥o”£j·£g¤Œ¢o«gŁƒŒg£¬†­lŠog£Š ¢zh£ §ÇhiƑ©o¯‰ «‰”Šˆ¢h the 1980s. However, it became a major source of income for the villagers only in early 2000s, following the growing popularity of ¬h¡h¤g£¬†®’¸¬g·r¨ˆrh¬~hiÇ}¢Ço¬}·g·”h‚c ˜›™–’£gg£¬†gÅ« ¥Æo coffee drinking among urban Thais and the improving connections ¤Š£‰¯|¸|i®hr·Žo‘¥‚ciƃ·£hˆ£hiÇ«ˆ§Æ”ƒ©¸lh®h«ˆ§”oh¥‰ˆ|§Æˆg£¬†g¢hˆ£gj¦Çh to world markets. ¬Œ¡g£Š«‚b|}Œ£|‘·o””g¯‚}·£o‚Š¡« 74. With the development of cash-crop agriculture, pesticides and fertilizers are intensively used in the highlands, thereby generating «ˆ§Æ”g£Š‚Œ©g §r«Šxg¥p¯|¸Š¢lŽ£ˆh¥‰ˆ¬ Š·’Œ£‰j¦Çhr¨ˆrhh §ÇhiƑ©o soil pollution and health hazards. gÅ«Š¥Æˆ®r¸‰£n·£¬ˆŒo¬Œ¡‚¨µ‰«lˆis¦Æog·”®’¸«g¥|ˆŒ ¥¬Œ¡«‚½h‡¢‰}·”‘¨j‡£ Ban Doichang, Chiang Rai province (2008) Pai district, Mae Hong Son province (2011) ¸£h|”‰r¸£o”¬ˆ·‘ŠŽ‰p«ri‰oŠ£‰˜››—  73 ”‚£‰p¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜››š  74

51 PRAYING ไหว$

The religions of the highlanders of Northern Thailand are often 0:2!: 5!:<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2A)9 A D+=* /ĉ:D#đ!Ũ :+?5$=Ũ>LAD3)?5!8 labelled as “animist” and contrasted with those of the Buddhist 5*Aĉ+ Ċ:) 9"0:2!:&@ 5 !H *&?M!+:"5*ĉ:H+ K:) :+;E! E* : lowlands. Such a clear-cut distinction proves far too simplistic however, if only because many highlanders have for long adopted Dĉ!!=M5:$ 9! The highlanders and the lowlanders share similar beliefs in souls D =L*/ 9"</<:+/)> /:)D?L5G!Ũ$=Ũ3+?5D &DĊ:ĉ:J>L)9 Ċ5 – and their rebirth, and in various kinds of spirits (of places, of "A:Dĉ!H3/ĊĊ/*29/čE-8D#ĀD$*!$ĉ:! :+ ;!:*%ď!3+?5D Ċ: + ancestors), which are usually propitiated though animal sacrifice and can be revealed in trances, dreams or prophecies. Although :+#<"9

Theravada Buddhism is considered the latest manifestation of a 0:2!:&@ !< :*D+/: D#đ!3!>LG!5< <&-/9! ++)5L+/)> long-term Indian cultural influence that has pervaded Southeast 0:2!:6?5HĊ/ĉ:)

52 "AN,ETONGKU 5MPHANGDISTRICT 4AKPROVINCE ¸£h«Œ}”ol¨””¨¸ˆƒ£op}£g˜›šŸ 75 Bu Ata ritual among the Talaku Karen. Villagers load a ¥€igŠŠˆj”or£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo}¡Œ¡g·©¸£h«Œ}”ol¨ bamboo raft full of fruits and let it flow downriver to offer r£Ž¸£h‚Œ·”‰¬ ¯ˆ¸¯ƒ··ŠŠ¨gƒŒ¯ˆ¸®’¸Œ”‰¯‚}£ˆ¬ˆ·hǤ new products for Goddess of Water « §Æ”©r£«p¸£¬ˆ·lol£

53 -AE3ARIENGDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE ”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—–  76

¥€i¯’Ž¸«p¸£¬’·o¥¢Ço‘iÆ ®hg£Š‘Š¸£o”£l£Š­Šo”®‰£‘©®’ˆ· Ritual related to new building work at a tobacco drying station: offerings to the Spirits of the Four Directions.

54 -AE#HAEMDISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROVINCE 77 "AN$ONG -AE,A.OIDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE ”¬ˆ·¬p·ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™Ÿ  ¸£h|o”¬ˆ·Œ£h¸”‰p¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜››™ 78

Erection of the community pole at the centre of the village. The ritual is very important Carved community post at the centre among Lawa settlements. It intends to strengthen the social links inside the village and of Ban Dong village. to ask for protection to the tutelary spirits. ‰”|«‘£‘¡g¢ÇoiƬg¡‘Œ¢g|¸Ž‰ŒŽ|Œ£‰‘Ž‰o£ˆ ¥€i}¢Ço«‘£‘¡g¢Ço’Š§”«‘£’Œ¢g’ˆ©·¸£h{®pgŒ£or¨ˆrhŒ¢Ž¡ {®pgŒ£or¨ˆrhŒ¢Ž¡¸£h|o h”gp£gp¡«‚½hg£Šj”lŽ£ˆl¨¸ˆlŠ”op£g« ‰|£¬Œ¡«p¸£iƬŒ¸Ž ‰¢o«‚½hg£Š«‘Š¥ˆ‘¢ˆ ¢h€»®hr¨ˆrh®’¸¬jÅo¬gŠ·o

55 "AN$ONGLUANG -AE3ARIENGDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•··”o‘”h˜›—— 79 80

79. In the first half of July, when the rice is half grown, various spirits who have been asked to leave the swidden during clearing are feasted and asked to help the rice grow. A chicken is offered to all the spirits of the field, requesting their help in protecting the rice crop from insects and pests. 80. The village priest offers chicken and whisky to the Lord of the Land and Water who is said to live on a hill nearby the village and is a powerful spirit famous in Karen folklore. }¸h«|§”hgŠgv£lˆ«ˆ§Æ”j¸£ŽiƂŒ©g¯Ž¸«Š¥Æˆ}¢ÇoŒ¤}¸hr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉop¡‚Š¡g” ¥€¥gŠŠˆ « §Æ”j”®’¸«’Œ·£«p¸£¬Œ¡« ‰|£iÆ«l‰’Œig£o®’¸g¢g£Š~£o¯Š·¯|¸gŒ¢ˆ£l¨¸ˆlŠ”o|©¬Œ j¸£Ž®’¸«}¥­}o”go£ˆ‚Š£p£g¢}Š© §rƒ©¸h¤£olŽ£ˆ«r§Æ”j”or¨ˆrh¤g£Š«s·h¯g·¬Œ¡«’Œ¸£ ®’¸«p¸£iÆiÆ«r§Æ”Ž·£«‚½hƒ©¸|©¬Œ®h §ÇhiÆ

56 -AE4AENGDISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROVINCE .EAR7AT8IENG4UENG ,UANG.AMTHAPROVINCE ,AOS ”¬ˆ·¬}op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™› 81 ®gŒ¸Ž¢|‘¥o«}§”o¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜››— 82

The chicken bones are used for predicting luck among the household members. This is a common practice among various populations, especially at the New Year period. ’Œ£‰gŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»®r¸gŠ¡|©g¯g·«‘iƉo£‰­rlr¡}£ g£Š¤h£‰«r·hhiLj¢ggŠ¡¤®hr·Žo‚c®’ˆ·

Offering to the spirits sometimes involves the making of a small clay figurine. g£Š¯’Ž¸«p¸£¬Œ¡« ‰|£”£p®r¸ }¨¹g}£Š©‚‚¼¿h|¥h«ƒ£Š·Žˆ|¸Ž‰

5712 Ban Maw Wakhi, Mae Wang district, Chiang Mai province (2009) ¸£hˆ”Ž£li”¬ˆ·Ž£op«ri‰o®’ˆ· 83 Traditional wrist tying for family members in a Karen household. The entire sequence is also called su khwan or recalling the soul. ¥€iƒ©gj¸”ˆ§”j”or£Žg¡«’ŠiƉol§”g£Š«Ši‰gjŽ¢uj”o‘ˆ£r¥g®hlŠ”lŠ¢Ž

Sueb Chata rituals renew, or prolong the life of the village, prevent troubles and enhance the social cohesiveness of the community. Fruit is offered to local deities and monks bless the attendants to the ritual. ¥€i‘§r¡}£’ˆ©·¸£hg¡«’ŠiƉo ‚Š¡g”¯‚|¸Ž‰g£Š«s·h¯’Ž¸« ‰|£ |¸Ž‰ƒŒ¯ˆ¸¬Œ¡g£Š®’¸ Šp£g Š¡‘on» Ban Huey San, Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai province (2012) ¸£h’¸Ž‰‘¸£h”¬ˆ·¬p·ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››› 84

58 Ban Maw Wakhi, Mae Wang district, Chiang Mai province (2009) Ban Lahoob, Mae Hong Son province (2010) ¸£hˆ”Ž£li”¬ˆ·Ž£op«ri‰o®’ˆ· 83 ¸£hŒ¡”©”¬ˆ·Œ£h¸”‰p¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜››™ 85 Traditional wrist tying for family members in a Karen household. Lawa villagers conduct a ritual for the tutelary spirit of their settlement. The entire sequence is also called su khwan or recalling the soul. Each clan sacrifices a buffalo. Various parts of the body of the buffalo are tied ¥€iƒ©gj¸”ˆ§”j”or£Žg¡«’ŠiƉol§”g£Š«Ši‰gjŽ¢uj”o‘ˆ£r¥g®hlŠ”lŠ¢Ž together and suspended from the ritual post near each clan house. r£ŽŒ¢Ž¡Š¸”‰r¥Çh«h§Ç”lŽ£‰‘¤’Š¢«s·h¯’Ž¸«p¸£iƯŽ¸‰¢o«‘£ ¥€i’h¸£¸£h

Sueb Chata rituals renew, or prolong the life of the village, prevent troubles and enhance the social cohesiveness of the community. Fruit is offered to A buffalo is offered to the local deities and monks bless tutelary spirits during a the attendants to the ritual. three-day ritual for the salt ¥€i‘§r¡}£’ˆ©·¸£hg¡«’ŠiƉo wells of the village. ‚Š¡g”¯‚|¸Ž‰g£Š«s·h¯’Ž¸« ‰|£ g£Š«s·hlŽ£‰®h ¥€igŠŠˆ |¸Ž‰ƒŒ¯ˆ¸¬Œ¡g£Š®’¸ Šp£g Š¡‘on» ‘¤’Š¢·”«gŒ§”j”o’ˆ©·¸£h Ban Huey San, Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai province (2012) Ban Bo Kluea, Bo Kluea district, Nan province (2006) ¸£h’¸Ž‰‘¸£h”¬ˆ·¬p·ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››› 84 ¸£h·”«gŒ§””·”«gŒ§”ph·£h˜›šŸ 86 59 Mae Fa Luang district, Chiang Rai province (1994) 88 ”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›™ 87 89

Buffalo sacrifice for the funeral of an Akha elder. The ritual performer kills the g£Š®r¸lŽ£‰«s·h¯’Ž¸®ho£h j”oƒ©¸«z·£r£Ž”£j·£ƒ©¸h¤ ¥€igŠŠˆ®r¸’”g¬olŽ£‰ animal with a spears. As soon as the injured buffalo falls, villagers hurry around ®’¸Œ¸ˆŒo¬Œ¸Žr£Ž¸£hgÅp¡«j¸£¯‚Š¨ˆŒ¸”ˆr·Ž‰®’¸lŽ£‰priŽ¥}«ŠÅŽj¦Çhp£gh¢Çh him. Women throw water into its nostrils to quicken death and stop the animal’s Žg«j£p¡lŒ¨ˆ’¢Žj”o‘¢}Ž»iƑŒ¡}h®’¸¬g·g£Š«s·h¯’Ž¸hiÇ|¸Ž‰j¸£Ž«‚Œ§”g groans while men press a log on its rear in order to prevent the buffalo from rising up again. « §Æ”®’¸«‚½h”£’£Š®hr£}¥’h¸£¬Œ¡« §Æ”j”®’¸r·Ž‰l¨¸ˆlŠ”o|©¬ŒƒŒƒŒ¥} Once the buffaloes are dead, the villagers cover them with paddy grains to ®’¸o”go£ˆ|¸Ž‰ provide the buffalo with food in its next life and propitiate for a good harvest.

60 Ban Lahoob, Ma La Noi district, Mae Hong Son province (2010) ¸£hŒ¡”©”¬ˆ·Œ£h¸”‰p¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜››™  90 Sharing out the meat is also an important moment in many of the rituals that involve animal sacrifice. Here, a Lawa villager shares out the meat of a buffalo and a cow that were sacrificed during the ritual for the community pole of the village. ‘¤’Š¢ ¥€igŠŠˆiƈig£Šn·£‘¢}Ž»« §Æ”«s·h¯’Ž¸r·Žo«ŽŒ£‘¤l¢u l§”g£Š¬·o‚¼h«h§Ç”‘¢}Ž»®’¸¬g·‘ˆ£r¥g®hr¨ˆrhr£ŽŒ¢Ž¡®h‡£ g¤Œ¢o¬·o«h§Ç”Ž¢Ž ¬Œ¡lŽ£‰iÆ®r¸®h ¥€i}¢Ço«‘£’ˆ©·¸£h®’¸¨glŠ¢Ž«Š§”h®h’ˆ©·¸£h

A famous ritual involving buffalo sacrifice takes place each year at Wat Doi Kham near Chiang Mai late May or early June. The ceremony is conducted by lowland Thai for the tutelary spirits of Chiang Mai, Phu Sae and Ya Sae“. ¥€i«s·hlŽ£‰«Œiljoƒi‚©²¬‘¡‰·£¬‘¡ƒ©¸|©¬ŒŠ¢g£«ˆ§”o«ri‰o®’ˆ· p¢|«‚½h‚Š¡p¤¨g«|§”h ‹‡£lˆ’Š§”}¸hˆ¥~¨h£‰hiƎ¢||”‰l¤ « §Æ”‚³”og¢h‘¥Æo«ŒŽŠ¸£‰«j¸£’ˆ©·¸£h Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (late 1990s) ”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·Š£Žr·Žo‚c˜›š– 91 61 Ban Pa Lao, Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai province (1997) Ban Dong Luang, Mae Sarieng, Mae Hong Son province (1981) ¸£h‚²£«Œ£”¬ˆ·¬p·ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š– 92 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›˜š 93

Objects put on the altar during a ritual conducted in the swidden for the soul of rice: silver rings, old coins, beads, shells, chicken meat and chilies. «lŠ§Æ”o©r£®h ¥€i«s·hƒij¸£Ž‚Š¡g”¯‚|¸Ž‰¬’Žh«o¥h «’Ši‰u«g·£Œ©g‚¼|«‚Œ§”g’”‰«h§Ç”¯g·¬Œ¡ Š¥g

A protective bamboo star is hung on the entrance door of a Karen village, among other bamboo symbols. }£«’ŒŽ«’h§”‚Š¡}©£o«j¸£’ˆ©·¸£hg¡«’ŠiƉo ’¸”‰”‰©··£ˆgŒ£o‘¢uŒ¢g{»iƤp£g¯ƒ·r¥Çh”§Æh

62 Ban Mae Tob Nuea, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) 94 95 ¸£h¬ˆ·}¹”«’h§””¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 96

Karen have for long been in contact with Buddhist lowland populations (Mon, Burmese and Thai) and have adopted many Buddhist values and practices. Here, S’gaw Karen villagers and monks are circumambulating a new stupa. r£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo‘·Žh’h¦ÆoŠ¢«”£lŽ£ˆ«r§Æ”¬Œ¡ Ž¥~i‚w¥¢}¥j”o£‘h£ ¨€ˆ£p£gg£Š}¥|}·” ‘¢ˆ ¢h€»g¢lh¯‰ ˆ·£’Š§”ˆ”u s¦Æo‘·Žh®’u·«‚½h ¨€£‘h¥grh r£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo®h‡£ g¤Œ¢o«|¥h«Ži‰hŠ”«p|i‰» iƑŠ¸£o®’ˆ·}£ˆ¢g¥{£Ž¢v 63 01

Ordination: procession of the “jewel child” ¥€iŽrŒ©g¬g¸Žj”or£Ž¯®’u· Ban Khapuang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) 97 ¸£hl¡‚Žo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— (hae luk kaeo) among Shan villagers.

64 Ordination: procession of the “jewel child” r£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo‘¡g”g¢ Ban Pa Mak, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) 98 ¸£h‚²£’ˆ£g”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— (hae luk kaeo) among S’gaw Karen villagers ¥€iŽrŒ©g¬g¸Ž

65 S’gaw Karen villagers and monks on hill with a stupa after completion of an ordination r£Ž¸£hg¡«’ŠiƉo‘¡g”g¢ Š¡‘on» ’Œ¢o«‘ŠÅp ¥€iŽrŒ©g¬g¸ŽŽr«{Š

Wat Phrabat Hueytom, Lamphun province (2010) Ž¢| Š¡£’¸Ž‰}¸ˆ”ŒiÇpŒ¤ ©h˜››™ 100

Ban Pa Mak, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) 99 ¸£h‚²£’ˆ£g”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——

Kruba Wong was a famous monk who rebuilt the Phrabat Hueytom temple and gathered a large number of Karen followers to live near the temple. His body is kept embalmed in the temple, covered with golden leaves. An important ritual takes place each year in May when devotees change the robe covering the embalmed body. lŠ©£Žo»«‚½hƒ©¸ŠŽŠŽˆr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉoƒ©¸Š¢€£®h}¢Ž·£h¬Œ¡ Š¡ ¨€£‘h£ ®’¸ˆ£”£¢‰”‰©·®h §ÇhiƊ”Ž¢| Š¡£’¸Ž‰}¸ˆphgŒ£‰«‚½hr¨ˆrh®’u·¨gŽ¢hhiÇ ‘ŠiŠ¡‘¢oj£Šj”o·£h‰¢o¯|¸Š¢g£Š«gŁŠ¢g£¯Ž¸®hŽ¢| ˆig£Šp¢| ¥€i«‚ŒiƉhƒ¸£piŽŠ’ŒŽo®h«|§”h ‹‡£lˆj”o¨g‚c

66 Ban Khun Haeng, Ngao district, Lampang province (1985) 101 102 ¸£hj¨h¬’o”o£ŽpŒ¤‚£o˜›˜™  103

Offering food and paper money for ancestors in a Mien village. Both Hmong and Mien religious practices are influenced by Taoism but the Mien use Chinese script and coloured drawings representing deities as part of their ceremonies. g£Š«s·h¯’Ž¸ŠŠ ¨Š¨|¸Ž‰”£’£Š¬Œ¡gŠ¡|£«o¥h®h’ˆ©·¸£h«ˆiƉh Ž¥~i‚w¥¢}¥j”or£Ž«ˆiƉh¬Œ¡ˆ¸o}·£o¯|¸Š¢”¥€¥ Œˆ£p£gŒ¢€¥«}º£ r£Ž«ˆiƉhp¡®r¸‡£ «ji‰h‘i¬Œ¡}¢Ž”¢gŠpih®h ¥€igŠŠˆj”o}h

67 Crafting บรรจงประดิษฐ++

Handicrafts are well known markers of ethnic identity in 0<-#839 ++)D#đ!D +?L5"ĉ"5 >59-9 1č ::<&9! @č+A#E""3!>L Southeast Asia. They include most famously weaving and 39 ++) 5 -@ĉ):<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2AHĊE ĉ :+ 5E-8#ď $Ċ: :+9 2:! embroidery, but also basketwork, woodcarving and jewellery making. Though they are not crafts strictly speaking, tattoos and :+E 82-9 H)Ċ :+ ;D +?L5#+89"E-8+/)> :+29 +5*D =*!2="!+ĉ: :* body paintings can also be added to this list, as elements of finery >L)= 9M5 č#+8 5"Ċ:! :+GĊD !< Eĉ)@) : /:)D?L5E-82@! +=*0:2+č combining technical, ritual and aesthetic dimensions. None of 0<-#839 ++) @ #+8D( ;+5*AĉG! @ G!/9! ++) 5 @ -@ĉ):<&9! @č these activities is exclusively practised nor entirely ignored by 3: /:)D=L*/:D&:8E-8+A#E"" =LE ĉ:D#đ!$-):: :+D-?5 2++D !<  any of the highland ethnic groups. Rather, specializations and distinctive patterns appeared in the course of time as a result of 5< <&- :/9! ++)D +?5 ĉ:* :D0+1 <E-8+2!<*) : /:):) 5 technical choices, cultural influences, economic networks and Eĉ-8 -@ĉ)! aesthetic preferences.

Photography, along with tourism, was instrumental in making :+ĉ:*(:& =L Ċ:/D Ċ:):&+Ċ5) 9" :+ ĉ5D =L*/ ;G3Ċ0<-#839 ++) 5 these ethnic crafts widely known among the general public, first -@ĉ):<&9! @čD#đ! =L+AĊ9 52: :+!): >M! /:):)59!D#đ!D5 -9 1č!=M in Thailand and more recently in Laos and in Vietnam. The ĉ5G3ĊD < 90!8/ĉ:/9! ++) -@ĉ):<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2A3):*>D&=*39 ++) visual exoticism it conveys facilitated the perception of highland 3-: -/-:*2=29!3+?5+A#E"" :+Eĉ :*59!D#đ!D5 -9 1č 5Eĉ-8:<&9! @č cultures as a colourful mosaic, with specific costumes and designs attributed to each ethnic group; hence the success of the “ethnic >L!;H#2Aĉ /:)2;D+K 5ŨE :-K5 :<&9! @čŨD&?L5/9@#+82 č : :+ Ċ: catalogues” promoted for political and commercial purposes. E-8 :+D)?5 90!89 -ĉ:/)= /:)D2=L* =L8 ĉ5G3ĊD < :+EĉE KD +?L5Eĉ :* Such a perspective risks freezing the ethnic costume into an 5 -@ĉ):<&9! @čG3ĊD#đ!Ċ!E"" =LFD=L*/: "+<" :#+8/9<0:2+čE-829 ) archetype, isolating it from its broader social and historical context. It especially tends to downplay individual variations 5= 9M*95:""9 /:)3-: 3-:* 5"@ -:)+2!<*)5< <&- 5D&?L5!"Ċ:! introduced by local tastes, neighbours’ influence or fashion. 3+?5E'ĉ9L!HĊ

68 unknown (1989) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gv‘~£hiÆ~·£‰‡£ ˜›™˜ 104 Two Pwo Karen men exhibits their tattooed thighs. Among some ethnic g£Š‘¢g~§”Ž·£p¡¤®’¸’h¢o«’hi‰Ž¬Œ¡«‚½hg£Šl¨¸ˆlŠ”o groups, the men also used to tattoo their bellies and their calves. Tattoos p£glŽ£ˆ«pŁ‚²Ž‰­rlŠ¸£‰’Š§”g£Š~©g‚Œ·”‰ were believed to protect from injuries, sickness, bad luck or black magic. ˆh}»|¤«j¸£

69 Ban Konkud, Nalae district, Luang Namtha province, Laos (1995) Ban Dongluang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) ¸£hl”hg¨|«ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ž 105 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——  106

An unmarried Khmu girl wears a white turban pinned with small cowry shells found in the river and assembled with coloured cotton strings. ’u¥o‘£Ž­‘|r£Žjˆ¨iŠ¡|¸Ž‰ƒ¸£‘ij£Ž‚Š¡|¢«‚Œ§”g’”‰p£g¬ˆ·hǤ iƊ¸”‰«j¸£|¸Ž‰g¢h|¸Ž‰¯’ˆ‘i‘|

For weddings and funerals the older Karen girls wear their best dresses, pin their hair up in a mushroom shape and add frangipani flowers. ‘¤’Š¢o£h‚Š¡« {i‘¤l¢u’u¥o‘£Žr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo­‚Ž»ƒ©¸hiÇ «gŒ¸£ƒˆ«‚½hŠo’ˆŽg|¸Ž‰g¥È«o¥h‚Š¡|¢|”gŒ¢Æhˆ ¬Œ¡‘Žˆ®‘·r¨| Š¸”ˆ«lŠ§Æ”o‚Š¡|¢iÆo|o£ˆiƑ¨|j”o«€”

70 Ban Letongkhu, Umphang district, Tak province (2002) Two young Karen girls with ’u¥o‘£Žr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo}g¬}·o 107 ¸£h«Œ}”ol¨””¨¸ˆƒ£op}£g˜›š› facial decoration and wild ®’h¸£”‰·£oo|o£ˆ¬Œ¡‚Š¡|¢ƒˆ yellow orchids in their hair. |¸Ž‰gŒ¸Ž‰¯ˆ¸‘i«’Œ§”o 71 Facial decoration among Karen villagers, Burmese style, with g¡«’ŠiƉo}¡Œ¡g©·¬}·o’h¸£|¸Ž‰¬‚³o£h£l£ thanaka and white powder. ‘i«’Œ§”o¬Œ¡¬‚³o‘ij£Ž«‚½hŒŽ|Œ£‰ Ban Letongkhu, Umphang district, Tak province (2002) ¸£h«Œ}”ol¨””¨¸ˆƒ£op}£g˜›š› 108

Ban Letongkhu, Tak province (2002) ¸£h«Œ}”ol¨””¨¸ˆƒ£op}£g˜›š› 109

72 Ban Kammong Tha, Sangkhlaburi district, Kanchanaburi province (1981) Ban Lahoob, Mae La Noi district, Mae Hong Son province (1992) 110 ¸£hg”oˆ·”o¡”‘¢ojŒ¡¨Šipg£uph¨Ši˜›˜š ¸£hŒ¡”©”¬ˆ·Œ£h¸”‰p¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›™› 111

The ritual performer of a Talaku Karen village displays his tattoos. ƒ©¸h¤ ¥€igŠŠˆr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo }¡Œ¡g©·g¢Š”‰‘¢gj”o«j£

Tattoos traditionally often included representations of animals and magical diagrams. Œ£‰‘¢g|¢Ço«|¥ˆˆ¢g«‚½hŠ©‚‘¢}Ž»’Š§”‰¢h}»

73 Unknown (1989) Pratu Pa, Ngao district, Lampang province (2011) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gv‘~£hiÆ~·£‰‡£ ˜›™˜ 112 ‚Š¡}©ƒ£”o£ŽpŒ¤‚£o˜››š 113

These symbols varied with Œ£‰‘¢g}·£og¢h¯‚®h¬}·Œ¡ Young tattooed men take part r£‰’h¨·ˆ«ƒ‰Š”‰‘¢giƬƒ·h’Œ¢o different tattooists as well gŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»¬Œ¡‰¢o in a ritual for the tutelary ®h ¥€igŠŠˆ‘¢gg£Š¡« «Ž|£ as the ethnic identity or the j¦Çh”‰©·g¢r·£o‘¢gŠŽˆ~¦o spirits of Pratu Pa. iƂŠ¡}©ƒ£ personal tastes of the tattooed person. lŽ£ˆr”j”o}¢Žƒ©¸‘¢g«”o

74 Unknown (1989) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gv‘~£hiÆ~·£‰‡£ ˜›™˜ 114 115

The tattooist works on the leg of a Karen man. He uses an iron needle and natural ink made from a variety of dried herbs mixed with resin. Most importantly he also recites magic formulas (khata) during his work. r·£o‘¢g®r¸«jň«’ŒÅg¬Œ¡’ˆ¦g‘i€ŠŠˆr£}¥‘¢gŠ”‰Œoh·”hj£j”or£‰r£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo ­|‰·”ol£~£¯‚|¸Ž‰«ˆ§Æ”«‘ŠÅp¬Œ¸ŽŠ”‰‘¢gp¡lŒ¨ˆ}Œ”|·”hj£~¦o‘¡­ g £ogŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»h¥‰ˆ‘¢g’h¸£¸”o’Š§”h·”o

75 Ban Konkoud, Nalae district, Luang Namtha province, Laos (2006) Ban Konlang, Luang Namtha province, Laos (2006) ¸£hl”hg¨|«ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›šŸ 116 ¸£hl”hŒ·£o¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›šŸ 117

116. Basketry is an important male activity among many highland groups. Khmu and Lamet, as well as other Mon-Khmer speaking populations, are famous for the quality of their basketwork. 117-118. the shape of the basket on picture no. 118 is typical of Khmu Rok subgroup, while the basket on picture no. 117 is made by their close neighbours, the Khmu Lue o£hp¢g‘£h«‚½hg¥pgŠŠˆ‘¤l¢uj”oƒ©¸r£‰’Œ£‰gŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»r£Žjˆ¨¬Œ¡Œ¡«ˆÅ| ŠŽˆ~¦ogŒ¨·ˆ‚Š¡r£gŠiÆ ©|‡££}Š¡g©Œˆ”u «jˆŠ”§Æh±ˆir§Æ”«‘i‰o®h„cˆ§”p¢g‘£hˆ£g  Š©‚Šoo£h‘£h”£p·o”g~¦ogŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»’Š§”gŒ¨·ˆ‰·”‰j”or£}¥ ¢h€¨»’h¦Æo }¢Ž”‰·£o«r·h}¡gŠ¸£‘£h‡£ s¸£‰hiÇ«‚½hj”or£Žjˆ¨Š”g¬Œ¡®|¸£hjŽ£«‚½hj”or£Žjˆ¨Œ§Ç” Ban Sakaen, Luang Namtha province, Laos (2006) ¸£h‘¡«gÅh¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›šŸ 118 76 Ban Pa Hia,Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai province (1997) ¸£h‚²£«’i‰¡”¬ˆ·¬p·ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š– 119 120 119-120. The Karen girl sits on the floor with their legs extended under the loom and their back supported by a wide leather strap. Portable looms are quite common among highlanders. 121. This Karen girl is weaving red cloth for the sarong of a married woman  ’u¥og¡«’ŠiƉo‘g”Ž»h¢Æo«’‰i‰|j£ ”ƒ¸£h §Çh¬~’h¢oj”ogiÆlŒ¸”oŠ¢hǤ’h¢g ¯Ž¸iÆ«”ŽgŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»h §ÇhiƑ©oˆ¢g”ƒ¸£ |¸Ž‰giÆlŒ¸”o«”ŽiÆ g £‰¸£‰iƯ|¸‘¡|Žg ’u¥or£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo­‚Ž»”s¥Æh‘i¬|o¯Ž¸®r¸ ’Œ¢o¬}·oo£h

Ban Dongluang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 121 7712 Ban Kang Ho, Pua district, Nan province (1964) Ban Mae Khi, Mae Rim district, Chiang Mai province (1995) ¸£hl¸£o•·””‚¼Žph·£h˜›–  122 ¸£h¬ˆ·j¥”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™ž 123

Doing needle work is g£Š‚¼gƒ¸£«‚½hg¥pgŠŠˆ«j¸£‘¢olˆ The Hmong girl is doing ’u¥o‘£Žr£Žˆ¸o‚¼gƒ¸£ often a social activity. j”oƒ©¸’u¥oˆ¸o embroidery to decorate ‘¤’Š¢}g¬}·ogŠ¡­‚Šo her hemp skirt. ®‰g¢uroj”o«€”

78 Hmong traditionally use hemp r£Žˆ¸oh¥‰ˆ®r¸®‰g¢uro”ƒ¸£ instead of cotton to make their ˆ£ggŽ·£„³£‰Ž£|Œ£‰ƒ¸£ clothes. The designs are drawn |¸Ž‰¬·o«’ŒÅgp¨·ˆjiǃ¦ÇoŠ¸”h using the batik technique. They dip metal sticks into hot wax ¬Œ¸Ž‰¸”ˆ‘i|¸Ž‰lŠ£ˆ and dye the cloth with indigo.

Ban Mae Khi, Chiang Mai province (1998) ¸£h¬ˆ·j¥”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š— 125

Ban Nong Hoi, Mae Rim district, Chiang Mai province (1998) Ban Mae Khi, Chiang Mai province (1995) ¸£h’h”o’”‰”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™ž 124 ¸£h¬ˆ·j¥”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™ž 126

79 Ban Mae Khi, Mae Rim district, Chiang Mai province (1995) Ban Tup, Hueysay District, Bokeo province, Laos (2009) ¸£h¬ˆ·j¥”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™ž 127 ¸£h}¨¹«ˆ§”o’¸Ž‰s£‰¬jŽo·”¬g¸Ž‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜››˜ 128

Modern sewing machines p¢gŠ«‰Åƒ¸£«Š¥Æˆ«‚½hiÆh¥‰ˆ}¢Ço¬}· Modern clothes and Lao-style g£Š‘Žˆ«‘§Ç”}£ˆ‘ˆ¢‰h¥‰ˆg¢s¥ÆhŒ£Ž«‚½hiÆ started to be widely used r·ŽoŽŠŠ—ŸŸ–¬Œ¡’u¥o skirts are increasingly common h¥‰ˆˆ£gj¦Çh®h’ˆ©·’h¨·ˆ‘£Žˆ¸oŒ£Ž during the 1990s, making among the young Hmong of Laos. textile work easier and r£}¥ ¢h€¨»£ogŒ¨·ˆgŒ£s§Ç”ƒ¸£ However, traditional embroidery ”‰·£o¯ŠgÅ|ig£Š‚¼gƒ¸£¬|¢Ço«|¥ˆgʼn¢olo quicker. With modern ¯hŒ·”hˆ£}¢|«‰Å«‘§Ç”ƒ¸£®‘· is still an important activity, both ˆilŽ£ˆ‘¤l¢u¢Ço« §Æ”g£Šl¸£¬Œ¡‘¤’Š¢ sewing machines, women g£Š«‰Åƒ¸£|¸Ž‰p¢gŠ¤®’¸o£h for trade and for daily use, as ®r¸®hlŠ¢Ž«Š§”h’u¥o®h‡£ hiǃ©g«‚³ tend to use mostly nylon shown here by the colourful fabric fabrics bought from a «‘ŠÅp¯|¸”‰·£oŠŽ|«ŠÅŽ¬Œ¡¤®’¸ used by this young woman to ”¨¸ˆŒ©gr£‰iƤ|¸Ž‰ƒ¸£‚¼g‘i‘|®‘j”o}h market. The designs have Š©‚¬j”o«lŠ§Æ”o¬}·og£‰ carry her son on her back. also changed dramatically. «‚ŒiƉh¯‚ˆ£g

80 -UEANGDISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROV Ban Tonlung, Mae Taeng district, Chiang Mai province (1998) ”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››˜ 129 ¸£h}¸hŒ¨o”¬ˆ·¬}op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š— 130 129. A Lisu bag, part of Mrs Otome Klein Hutheesing’s collection. While this kind of bag is very common among Southeast Asian peoples, shapes and patterns vary from one ethnic group to another. 130-131. Colourful bands of embroidered fabric tradition- ally used as belts or straps are now produced to sell to visitors in a tourist Lisu village near Chiang Mai. The belt on the left displays Lahu patterns while the others have Lisu patterns. These fabrics are still used by the locals. ‰·£ˆŒis©‘¡‘ˆ l¨{­”­«ˆ·¯lŒh»•¢€i‘¥o ‰·£ˆj”o¬}·Œ¡gŒ¨·ˆ r£}¥ ¢h€¨»ˆiŠ©‚¬ ¬}g}·£og¢h¯‚  ¬~ƒ¸£‚¼g ‘¤’Š¢«jňj¢|’u¥o r£}¥ ¢h€¨»iƤ¯Ž¸j£‰®’¸ h¢g·”o«iƉŽ«jňj¢| |¸£hs¸£‰«‚½hj”o Ban Tonlung, Mae Taeng district, Chiang Mai province (2009) ’u¥oŒ£’©·¬Œ¡|¸£hjŽ£ ¸£h}¸hŒ¨o”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š— 131 «‚½hj”o’u¥oŒis©

81 Ban Sridongyaen, Mae Taeng district, Chiang Mai province (2012) ¸£hŠi|o«‰Åh”¬ˆ·¬}op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››› 132 133 134

132-134. A Lisu silversmith produces decora- tions used by Lisu people, mostly women, for their traditional costumes which include pieces of silver on the neck and on the back. Such activity has also become a profitable full-time job as he started to sell on a large scale to Lisu people from other villages, as well as to members of other ethnic groups and, more rarely, to tourists. Patterns refer mostly to nature and are not necessarily related to the emblems of the  r·£o«o¥hr£ŽŒis©¤«lŠ§Æ”o‚Š¡|¢®’¸’u¥oŒis©‘Žˆ®‘· clans which structure Lisu society. Such activity has become a profitable s¦Æ¦ÆoŠŽˆ~¦o¬ƒoŠ¡‰¸£¬Œ¡|¨ˆ«o¥hiƑŽˆ¢’h¸£”g¬Œ¡¬ƒ·h’Œ¢o full-time job as he started to sell on a large Š©‚¬«lŠ§Æ”o«o¥h‘·Žh®’u·p¤Œ”oˆ£p£g€ŠŠˆr£}¥ scale to Lisu people from other villages, as o£h¤«lŠ§Æ”o«o¥hhiÇgŒ£‰«‚½ho£h«}ň«ŽŒ£« §Æ”’£Š£‰¯|¸ well as to members of other ethnic groups «ˆ§Æ”«j£«Š¥Æˆ¤«lŠ§Æ”o‚Š¡|¢« §Æ”j£‰®’¸¬g· and, more rarely, to tourists. r£ŽŒis©p£gr¨ˆrh®gŒ¸«li‰ogŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»”§Æh ’Š§””£pŠŽˆ~¦oh¢g·”o«iƉŽ|¸Ž‰

82 Ban Nonghoi Mai, Mae Rim district, Chiang Mai province (2006) Ban Ravae luang, Mae Fah Luang district, Chiang Rai province (2005) ¸£h’h”o’”‰®’ˆ·”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›šŸ 135 ¸£hŠ¡¬Ž’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›šž 136

135. An Unmarried Hmong girls wear their best attire during New Year celebrations. This style of decoration is a new fashion copied from the Hmong in China over the last two decades. 136. A belt with Lomi Akha design and four rows of decoration made of coloured beads, cowries and old Thai coins. ’u¥o‘£Žr£Žˆ¸o®ho£hqŒ”o‚c®’ˆ·¬†r¢Æh’ˆŽg¬®’ˆ· hiǯ|¸¬ˆ£p£g’u¥oˆ¸opih¬Œ¡« ¥Æo¯|¸Š¢lŽ£ˆh¥‰ˆ®h‘¢olˆˆ¸o¯‰ ®hr·Žo‘”oŽŠŠiƃ·£hˆ£ «jňj¢|j”o’u¥o­Œ’ˆiǔ·£j·£‚Š¡|¢|¸Ž‰Œ©g‚¼|«‚Œ§”g’”‰ ¬Œ¡«’Ši‰u«o¥h«g·£

83 Akha women start wearing head- dresses at mid-adolescence. These headdresses are decorated by their owner, depending on her wealth, and each is unique. Decorations tradi- tionally always include silver pearls or coins, but also monkey fur or chicken feathers. In recent times, those who cannot afford silver use tin plate instead. ’u¥o”·£j·£«Š¥Æˆ®‘·’ˆŽg}¢Ço¬}·‰·£o‘©·Ž¢‰Š¨··h ¬}·Œ¡lh}g¬}·o’ˆŽgj”o}h|¸Ž‰|¨ˆ«o¥h «’Ši‰ujhŒ¥o’Š§”jh¯g·}£ˆ¬}·x£h¡ ‚¼pp¨¢h‘·Žh®’u·p¡®r¸¬ƒ·h|i¨g¬h«o¥h «’ˆ§”h‘ˆ¢‰g·”h

Ban Ravae luang, Mae Fah Luang district, Chiang Rai province (2005) ¸£hŠ¡¬Ž’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›šž 138 Each headdress is unique but the general form also varies according to subgroups affiliation. The trapezoidal inscribed plate at the back of this headdress is typical of the married women among the Lomi Akha. ’ˆŽgj”o’u¥o”£j·£¬}·Œ¡lh}·£og¢h¯‚’£gŠ©‚Šop¡j¦Çh”‰©·g¢ gŒ¨·ˆ‰·”‰j”o}h’ˆŽgŠo‘iÆ«’ŒiƉˆl£o’ˆ©hiÇ Ban Ravae luang, Mae Fah Luang, Chiang Rai province (2005) ¸£hŠ¡¬Ž’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›šž 137 «‚½hj”o’u¥o­Œ’ˆiǔ·£j·£iƬ}·oo£h¬Œ¸Ž

84 Ban Saenchai, Mae Fah Luang District, Chiang Rai province (1964) Ban Maesa Mai, Mae Rim district, Chiang Mai province (1997) ¸£h¬‘h®p”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›– 139 ¸£h¬ˆ·‘£®’ˆ·”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š– 140

While Akha women wear headdresses, A Hmong silversmith decorates a necklace. Both Akha men wear silver necklaces if their men and women traditionally wore such necklaces family is rich enough to afford them. most of the time but the practice is rare today, «|Ågr£‰r£Ž”·£j·£ƒ©¸ˆix£h¡‚Š¡|¢ except during the New Year festival. Š·£og£‰|¸Ž‰‘Š¸”‰l”«o¥h r·£o«o¥hr£Žˆ¸og¤Œ¢o}g¬}·og¤¯Œl”®h”|i}¢Ço’u¥o¬Œ¡r£‰ r£Žˆ¸op¡‘Žˆg¤¯Œl”¬hiÇ®hriŽ¥}‚Š¡p¤Ž¢h’£g‚¼pp¨¢h ˆ¢g®‘·«q £¡®h­”g£‘‘¤l¢u«r·h«g£Œ‚c®’ˆ·¬Œ¡ o£h¬}·oo£h«·£h¢Çh

85 Ban Chang Mo, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1995) ¸£hr·£o’ˆ¸””¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›™ž 141 A Karen woman walks toward her village while ’u¥or£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo­‚Ž»‘©gŒ¸”o‰£‘© smoking a pipe made of bamboo and wood. iƤ|¸Ž‰¯ˆ¸¯ƒ·¬Œ¡¯ˆ¸«h§Ç”¬jÅo

86 A Karenni woman smokes tobacco in her wooden pipe decorated with tin-plate. The use of such pipes is now more common for women than men among many upland ethnic groups. ’u¥og¡«Šhhi‘©gŒ¸”o¯ˆ¸ iÆ}g¬}·o|¸Ž‰¬ƒ·h|i¨g ¨gŽ¢hhiÇg£Š‘©gŒ¸”o «‚½hiÆh¥‰ˆj”o ’u¥or£}¥ ¢h€¨» ˆ£ggŽ·£r£‰

Ban Dongluang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1983) Karenni village, Mueang district, Mae Hong Son province (1985) 143 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›™ž 142 ”«ˆ§”op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›˜ž A young Pwo Karen man ’h¨·ˆr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo­‚Ž»¬}·og£‰ in his best attire, including «}ň‰¬Œ¡‚Š¡|¢ƒˆ|¸Ž‰g¥È decorated hair clips, beads and a silver pipe. Œ©g‚¼|¬Œ¡«lŠ§Æ”o«o¥h

87 Playing เล#น

Children’s games do not sharply differ from one :+-8D-ĉ! 5DK JEĉ-8 -@ĉ):<&9! @č5:H)ĉĉ: 9!): !9  ethnic group to another, though some games have E)Ċ :+-8D-ĉ!":#+8D( 8D#đ! =L!<*)G!":D$ĉ:): /ĉ:D$ĉ:5?L!Dĉ! become more popular for some groups than others, :+D-ĉ!-A ĉ:E-8E ĉ+H)Ċ =L!<*)): G! -@ĉ):/)Ċ such as the tops game or the wood cart races among the Hmong for instance. :+-8D-ĉ! 5$AĊG3ĉ)9 +8 ;G!D 0 :-3+?5ĉ/D/-:& 5*AĉG!/<==/< :&< = ++)E-829 ) social and ritual life and as such they display impor- 9!9M!>D#đ! < ++) =LE2>Eĉ)@) :/9! ++) 5 -@ĉ):<&9! @č tant aspects of the group culture. In the contemporary =L2; 9*

88 Children’s playground in a resettled Akha village. ‘h£ˆ«|Åg«Œ·h®h’ˆ©·¸£h”·£j·£®’ˆ· "AN.AMDET-AY -UEANG3INGDISTRICT ,UANG.AMTHAPROVINCE ,AOS ¸£hhǤ«|Å|®’ˆ·«ˆ§”o‘¥o¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ž 144

89 "AN$ONG,UANG -AE3ARIENGDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 145 146

During the rainy season, the children bring out their «|Åg±r£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo’‰¥«”£¯ˆ¸­~g«~g stilts, on which they navigate the mud. They are j”o}h””gˆ£«|¥h«Œ·h®h|¥h­lŒhr·Žo‹|©„h highly skilled on stilts.

90 Ban Mae Tho, Hot district, Chiang Mai province (1968) ¸£h¬ˆ·­~”•”|p«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›—— 147 148

01

147. A man lying on the floor spins a rope around and the other players jump to avoid it. This kind of game is popular during the Hmong New Year celebrations. 148. Two men stage a sword fight during the Hmong New Year’s celebrations. Swords used to be the main weapon in the past for many ethnic groups. 149. Hmong boys and adults play with spinning tops. This game is popular during the Hmong New Year celebrations. r£‰iÆh”h”‰©·h §Çhg¤Œ¢o‚¼¾h«r§”gŠ”}¢Ž« §Æ”®’¸ƒ©¸«Œ·hlh”§ÆhgŠ¡­||j¸£ˆ g£ŠŒ¡«Œ·hhiÇ«‚½hiÆh¥‰ˆ®ho£h‚Š¡« {i‚c®’ˆ·j”or£Žˆ¸o«r·hg¢h g£Š|ŽŒ|£®ho£h‚Š¡« {i‚c®’ˆ·ˆ¸o g£Š«Œ·hŒ©gj·£o«‚½hiÆh¥‰ˆj”o¢Çoƒ©¸®’u·¬Œ¡«|Ågr£‰r£Žˆ¸o ­|‰«q £¡®hr·Žoo£h‚Š¡« {i‚c®’ˆ· Ban Huey Lueang, Mueang district, Tak Province (1963) ¸£h’¸Ž‰«’Œ§”o”«ˆ§”op}£g˜›–œ 149

91 Lua students demonstrate their skills during a stick fight. The floor is covered with rice straw to prevent injuries from falling. ’h¨·ˆ±r£ŽŒ¢Ž¡g¤Œ¢o„dg’¢|¥Œ‚¡g£Š}·”‘©¸ |¸Ž‰¯ˆ¸ Œ”ohŒ£h|¥hiÆlŒ¨ˆ¯Ž¸|¸Ž‰†£o « §Æ”‚³”og¢hg£Š’gŒ¸ˆ£|«pŁ

"AN(UEY9EN #HIANG2AIPROVINCE  ¸£h’¸Ž‰«‰Åh”«Ži‰o¬g·hp«ri‰oŠ£‰˜››™ 151

"AN$ONG -AE,A.OIDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE ¸£h|o”¬ˆ·Œ£h¸”‰p¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 150

Performing a sword dance during the Khmu New Year festival. What used to be a serious affair in the past has now become mostly a show for tourists. g£ŠŠ¤|£®ho£h‚c®’ˆ·j”or£Žjˆ¨ |£«l‰«‚½h”£Ž¨€’Œ¢gj”o¬¨ggŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨» ¥Œ‚¡g£Š}·”‘©¸®h”|i}¯|¸gŒ£‰«‚½h ¥Œ‚¡g£Š¬‘|o®’¸h¢g·”o«iƉŽrˆ®h‚¼pp¨¢h

92 "AN.ONG(OI-AI -AE2IMDISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROVINCE  "AN-AE3ALAEB -AE&AH,UANGDISTRICT #HIANG2AIPROVINCE 153 ¸£h’h”o’”‰®’ˆ·”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›šŸ 152 ¸£h¬ˆ·‘¡¬Œ”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›˜œ

Wooden cart racing has become an increasingly popular part of the celebra- tions of the Hmong New Year. g£Š¬j·oŠ~¯ˆ¸«‚½hg¥pgŠŠˆ®ho£h‚Š¡« {i‚c®’ˆ·ˆ¸o iƯ|¸Š¢lŽ£ˆh¥‰ˆˆ£gj¦Çh«Š§Æ”‰

Akha girls have a go on the swing nearby the village. Traditionally, the swing can be used only for a few days each year. «|Åg‘£Ž”£j·£­Œ¸r¥or¸£ g£Š­Œ¸r¥or¸£}£ˆ‚Š¡« {i|¢Ço«|¥ˆp¡gŠ¡¤ ®hr·Žo«ŽŒ£iÆg¤’h|¯ˆ·giƎ¢h®h¬}·Œ¡‚c«·£h¢Çh 93 Žo|h}Ši §Çh¸£h®ho£h«g£Œ "AN+MONG4HA 3ANGKHLABURIDISTRICT +ANCHANABURIPROVINCE 154 A musical band plays in a Karen village ¸£hg”oˆ·”o¡”‘¢ojŒ¡¨Šipg£uph¨Ši˜›˜ž during the festival for the sand chedis. g·”«p|i‰»Š£‰®h’ˆ©·¸£hg¡«’ŠiƉo

94 "AN$ONGLUANG -AE3ARIENGDISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROVINCE  "AN$ONGLUANG -AE3ARIENGDISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROVINCE ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›™˜ 155 ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 156

Gongs are used in various ritual occasions. They are not produced locally, but obtained in lowland villages. n¸”o«‚½h«lŠ§Æ”o|h}Ši„cˆ§”r·£o §ÇhŠ£ s¦Æoh¥‰ˆ®r¸®h ¥€igŠŠˆj”or¨ˆrhr£}¥ ¢h€¨»h §ÇhiƑ©o

A young Karen man plays drum during an engagement party. r£‰’h¨·ˆr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉog¤Œ¢o}i gŒ”o®ho£h ¥€i’ˆ¢Çh

95 A Hmong man dances and plays a reed pipe in front of his house. Such instruments are common to many different populations in Southeast Asia but the Hmong reed pipe differs by its curved shape. r£‰r£Žˆ¸og¤Œ¢o«‚²£¬lh«}¸hŠ¤”‰©·’h¸£¸£h}h«”o A traditional Lisu instrument similar to a ¬lh«‚½h«lŠ§Æ”o|h}ŠiiÆh¥‰ˆ¬ Š·’Œ£‰ three-stringed guitar. The body of the ®h‡©ˆ¥‡£l«”«ri‰}¡Ž¢h””g«qi‰o®}¸ Lahu villagers dance around the altar set up for the New Year celebrations on instrument is made from wood covered the ritual playground of the village. Women and children make the inner with snakeskin. It is used to lead the dance ¬lhˆ¸oˆiŠ©‚Šo­l¸o«‚½h«”gŒ¢g{»}·£op£g¬lh”§Æh± circle while the men dance and play music in the outer circle. during the Lisu New Year celebrations. ®ho£h‚c®’ˆ·Œ£’©·r£Ž¸£hg¤Œ¢o«}¸hŠ¤Š”«‘£ ¥€igŠŠˆ®hŒ£h ¥€i s¦o‘£ˆ‘£‰j”or£ŽŒis©¤|¸Ž‰¯ˆ¸’¨¸ˆ’h¢oo©r£Ž ƒ©¸’u¥o¬Œ¡«|Åg”‰©·Žo®h‘·Žhƒ©¸r£‰p¡«Œ·h|h}Ši¬Œ¡«}¸hŠ¤”‰©·Žoh”g Œis©ˆ¢g®r¸s¦o«Œ·hh¤g£Š«}¸hŠ¤®ho£h‚c®’ˆ· Mueang district, Tak province (1985) Ban Ton Lung, Chiang Mai province (1990) ”«ˆ§”op}£g˜›˜ž  159 ¸£h}¸hŒ¨o”¬ˆ·¬}op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™™ 160 A rock band is taking part in the Hmong New Year celebrations. They sing in Hmong language. Žo|h}Ši‚´” ŠÅ”lˆ¸o«Œ·h« Œo‡££ˆ¸o®ho£h‚c®’ˆ·

Ban Khun Vang, Mae Wang district, Chiang Mai province (1985) Ban Mae Khi, Mae Rim district,Chiang Mai province (2008) ¸£hj¨hŽ£o”¬ˆ·Ž£op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›˜ž 157 ¸£h¬ˆ·j¥”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››— 158

96 A traditional Lisu instrument similar to a three-stringed guitar. The body of the Lahu villagers dance around the altar set up for the New Year celebrations on instrument is made from wood covered the ritual playground of the village. Women and children make the inner with snakeskin. It is used to lead the dance circle while the men dance and play music in the outer circle. during the Lisu New Year celebrations. ®ho£h‚c®’ˆ·Œ£’©·r£Ž¸£hg¤Œ¢o«}¸hŠ¤Š”«‘£ ¥€igŠŠˆ®hŒ£h ¥€i s¦o‘£ˆ‘£‰j”or£ŽŒis©¤|¸Ž‰¯ˆ¸’¨¸ˆ’h¢oo©r£Ž ƒ©¸’u¥o¬Œ¡«|Åg”‰©·Žo®h‘·Žhƒ©¸r£‰p¡«Œ·h|h}Ši¬Œ¡«}¸hŠ¤”‰©·Žoh”g Œis©ˆ¢g®r¸s¦o«Œ·hh¤g£Š«}¸hŠ¤®ho£h‚c®’ˆ· Mueang district, Tak province (1985) Ban Ton Lung, Chiang Mai province (1990) ”«ˆ§”op}£g˜›˜ž  159 ¸£h}¸hŒ¨o”¬ˆ·¬}op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™™ 160

97 "AN!YO -AE#HANDISTRICT #HIANG2AIPROVINCE 01 ¸£h”£­‰¡”¬ˆ·p¢hp«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›–ž  161

Young Akha men and women dance led by ’h¨·ˆ‘£Ž”£j·£g¤Œ¢o«}¸hŠ¤g¢¬lhhǤ«}¸£ a mouth organ in front of the Thai Survey team ®’¸l{¡‘¤ŠŽpr£Ž¯‰~·£‰‡£ members who asked them to pose for the picture.

98 Ban Ayo, Mae Chan district, Chiang Rai province (1965) ¸£h”£­‰¡”¬ˆ·p¢hp«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›–ž  162 163

99 Nikhom Mae Chan, Mae Chan district, Chiang Rai province (1964) h¥lˆ¬ˆ·p¢h”¬ˆ·p¢hp«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›–  164 In Akha villages, the courting and dancing ground (dekhong) is ˆ¸£h¢ÆoŒ¸”ˆŠ”Œ£hŽ¢zh€ŠŠˆ¬|j·”o j”o’ˆ©·¸£h an open place surrounded by benches where young people meet «‚½h‘~£hiÆiƒh¨·ˆ‘£Žp¡¯|¸ˆ£ ‚¡ ©|l¨‰g¢h in the evening to talk, flirt, and generally enjoy themselves.

100 -UEANG3INGDISTRICT ,UANG.AMTHAPROVINCE ,AOS «ˆ§”o‘¥o¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ž  165 Young Akha men get ready to go ’h¨·ˆh¸”‰”£j·£¬}·o}¢Ž Š¸”ˆ””g«iƉŽ courting in neighbouring villages. pi‘£Ž®h’ˆ©·¸£hj¸£o«li‰o

101 TRADING ค"าขาย

The highlanders’ economy is often considered as being D0+1 <"!&?M! =L2A)9 A )5/ĉ:D#đ!D0+1 <D&?L5 :+*9=&D ĉ:!9M! subsistence oriented and even self-sufficient. Yet, ethnic 3: !:<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2AG!(: D3!?5#+8D 0H *HĊ Ċ:/D Ċ:2AĉD +?5 ĉ:* : :+ Ċ: highlanders of Northern Thailand have always been integrated in wide regional commercial networks involving the production or ):!:!E-Ċ/ :+$-<3+?5E- D#-=L*!2cattle, iron and bronze objects, #0@29/č7-7G!5=)=&ĉ5 Ċ:=!*A!!:!>L):&+Ċ5) 9" :+:/:!)Ċ:E-8-ĉ5D#đ! opium) with the participation of Yunnanese traders with their mules and horse caravans. Some groups such as the Karen and 9/ -:!5 : !=M": -@ĉ)!Dĉ!:/ 8D3+=L*E-8 )@*9)=2ĉ/!D =L*/ Ċ5 9" the Khmu became heavily involved in the teak economy at the @+ < :+ ;H)Ċ29 G!ĉ/Ċ!0/++1 =LVTG!:!8E+:!E-8 /:Ċ:Ċ/* turn of the 20th century as forest workers and mahouts.

The spread of new technology, the industrial development in +A#E""9MD<) 5 :+&>L&: 9!E-8 9!E-8$-$-<59!D#đ!D5 -9 1č 5 Ċ5$?!#Ą: introduction of new cash crops (potato, cabbage, tomato, corn, 5:/"Ċ:!!F*":*3Ċ:) :+#-A %ĀĒ!;D!M! marketing of ethnic crafts for tourism economy. : :+D#Ā-:39 ++)D&?L5 :+ ĉ5D =L*/5= Ċ/*

102 An elephant working with Karen mahout. lŽ£ur¸£or£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo g¢r¸£oŒ£g¯ˆ¸j”o«j£ Ban Huai Mae Kong, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) ¸£h’¸Ž‰¬ˆ·lo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 166 103 "AN3AEN#HAI -AE&A,UANGDISTRICT #HIANG2AIPROVINCE ¸£h¬‘h®p”¬ˆ·†³£’ŒŽop«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›–Ÿ 167 Akha women sell cabbages to soldiers in front of ’u¥o”·£j·£g¤Œ¢oj£‰ƒ¢g¬Œ¡g¡’ŒÆ¤‚Œi®’¸’£Špihg¹gˆ¥h}¢Éo the Kuomintang Army base near the Burmese iƒh¸£x£h¢ j”o Žg«j£Š¥«Ž{®gŒ¸r£‰¬|h ˆ·£’Œ¢op£gh¢Çh border. A few months later the KMT soldiers were sent to Mae Salong by the Thai government and ¯ˆ·giÆ«|§”hŠ¢x£Œ¯‰¯|¸p¢|g£Š®’¸’£ŠgŒ¨·ˆhiǯ‚}¢Ço~¥Æhx£h®’ˆ· settled there. h|”‰¬ˆ·‘Œ”o

104 Highland economies were never purely based on subsistence only. Trade, or barter, with neighbours has always been practised. In some cases, villages could develop a commercial specialization, such as pottery or rice alcohol.

0HA5DOM "OKEOPROVINCE ,AOS «ˆ§”oƒ£”¨|ˆ¬jŽo·”¬g¸Ž‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜››˜  169

"AN6AD .ALAEDISTRICT ,UANG.AMTHAPROVINCE ,AOS ¸£hŽ£|«ˆ§”oh£¬Œ¬jŽo’ŒŽohǤ£‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›™ž  168 «Šxg¥p §ÇhiƑ©o¯ˆ·¯|¸j¦Çh”‰©·g¢g£Š« £¡‚Œ©g« §Æ”‰¢ori « i‰o”‰·£o«|i‰Ž ’£g‰¢oˆig£Šl¸£j£‰¬Œg«‚ŒiƉhg¢r¨ˆrh®gŒ¸«li‰o”ig|¸Ž‰ r¨ˆrh£o¬’·o ¢zh£„cˆ§”ƒŒ¥}‘¥hl¸£«q £¡j”o}h”‰·£o«r·h «lŠ§Æ”o‚¼¿h|¥h«ƒ£’Š§”«’Œ¸£j£Žph«riƉŽr£u

105 The teak economy developed in Northern Thailand from the last decades of the 19th century up to the 1930s. Karen as well as Khmu men from Laos gained a reputation as reliable foresters and mahouts. €¨Šg¥pl¸£¯ˆ¸‘¢g«†e¾”o†©®h‡£l«’h§”‚Š¡«¯‰ˆ£g®hr·Žo‚Œ£‰}ŽŠŠiÆ—Ÿph~¦o ŽŠŠiÆ—Ÿ™–r£Žjˆ¨p£gŒ£Ž¬Œ¡r£Žg¡«’ŠiƉoˆir§Æ”«‘i‰oŽ·£«‚½hlŽ£ur¸£o ¬Œ¡lho£h¤¯ˆ¸„cˆ§”«‰iƉˆ

-AE,A.OIDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE ”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——  171

-AE3ARIENGDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE ”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——  170

Timber was rarely cut on site, except for local need. s¨o‘·Žh®’u·p¡~©gjh‘·o¯‚¢Æo·”h ‘·Žhg£Š®r¸®h¸”o~¥Æhp¡~©g«Œ§Æ”‰«‚½hr¥Çh«ŒÅg 106 01

"AN(UAY-AE+ONG -AE3ARIENGDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE 172 Teak trunks were usually loaded on s¨o~©gjh‘·o£oŠ~ŠŠ¨gŠ~¯† ¸£h’¸Ž‰¬ˆ·lo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——  trucks or trains, or floated downriver. ’Š§”‚Œ·”‰®’¸¯’ŒŒo¯‚}£ˆ¬ˆ·hǤ

107 After the 1930s, these companies diversified their activities. The picture shows the office of the Danish East Asiatic Company in Lampang and its staff (predominantly Khmu men from Laos) in front of a truck used to promote consumption of condensed milk. The company closed its Lampang branch in 1963. ’Œ¢op£gŽŠŠiÆ—Ÿ™–ƒ·£h¯‚Š¥¢}·£or£}¥ «’Œ·£hiǯ|¸‚Š¢¬hŽ£o€¨Šg¥pp£gg£Šl¸£¯ˆ¸‘¢g ¯‚‘©·‘¥hl¸£”§Æh h¢go£hŠ¥¢¬|h¥r”i‘}»«”«ri‰}¥g ‘£j£p¢o’Ž¢|Œ¤‚£o®h‡£ hiǑ·Žh®’u·«‚½hr£Žjˆ¨ p£g‚Š¡«Œ£Ž Žg«j£g¤Œ¢o‰§h”‰©· ’h¸£Š~‚Š¡r£‘¢ˆ ¢h€»hˆj¸hiÆp”|”‰©·’h¸£‘¤h¢go£h

Unknown ¯ˆ·‚Š£gv‘~£hiƬŒ¡‚ciÆ~·£‰‡£ 173 Foreign companies became involved in the teak trade in Burma and Northern Thailand during the last quarter of the 19th century. They used elephants and Karen or Khmu workers and mahouts. Š¥¢}·£or£}¥«j¸£ˆ£¤€¨Šg¥pl¸£¯ˆ¸‘¢g®h‚Š¡« ˆ·£¬Œ¡‡£l«’h§”j”o¯‰®h‚Œ£‰}ŽŠŠiÆ—Ÿ ­|‰ˆir¸£o¬Œ¡lho£hr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo¬Œ¡jˆ¨ «‚½hg¤Œ¢o‘¤l¢u

East Asiatic Company, Mueang district, Lampang province (1955) ‘hoŠ¥¢¬|h¥r”i‘}»«”«ri‰}¥g‘£j£Œ¤‚£o”«ˆ§”opŒ¤‚£o˜šŸž  174 108 Chiang Dao market, Chiang Dao district, Chiang Mai province (2013) }Œ£|«ri‰o|£Ž”«ri‰o|£Žp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››œ  176 A Hmong woman sells vegetables to a Lisu customer. Commercial agriculture, local specializations and use of money have changed patterns of trade and local livelihoods over the last decades. ’u¥or£Žˆ¸og¤Œ¢oj£‰ƒ¢g®’¸¬g·Œ©gl¸£r£ŽŒis©g£Š«g}Š«r¥o £{¥r‰» g£ŠƒŒ¥}‘¥hl¸£« §Æ”j£‰¬Œ¡g£Š®r¸«o¥h}Š£¯|¸«‚ŒiƉhŠ©‚¬g£Šl¸£ ¬Œ¡Ž¥~i¤g¥hj”or¨ˆrhh §ÇhiƑ©o®hr·Žo’Œ£‰ŽŠŠiƃ·£hˆ£

Ban Mae Tho, Hot district, Chiang Mai province (1990) ¸£h¬ˆ·­~”•”|p«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™™ 175 A pile of cabbage ready to be loaded on a truck and sent to the lowland market. Extensive cabbage cultivation replaced previous opium fields mid-1980s. g”og¡’ŒÆ¤‚Œi®’u· Š¸”ˆp¡~©gjhj¦ÇhŠ~ŠŠ¨g« §Æ”«|¥h£o¯‚‰¢o }Œ£|®h«ˆ§”o¯Š·g¡’ŒÆ¤‚Œijh£|®’u·«j¸£ˆ£¬h¯Š·„b¾hh|”‰ ®hr·ŽogŒ£oŽŠŠiÆ—Ÿž–

109 Cash crop economy and trans-border trade: Lao farmers under contract with Thai agro-business companies grow corn on their land and export it to Thailand after harvest. The corn comes by boat from Laos and is loaded on trucks. §r«Šxg¥p¬Œ¡g£Šl¸£j¸£ˆ¬|h «g}ŠgŠr£ŽŒ£ŽiƂŒ©gj¸£Ž­ |®’¸g¢Š¥¢«g}Š ¢h€‘¢uu£j”o¯‰ ‘·oƒŒƒŒ¥}j¸£ˆ«Š§”ˆ£‰¢or£‰¬|h¯‰¬Œ¡}·”¯‚‰¢o«ˆ§”o®’u·|¸Ž‰Š~ŠŠ¨g

Ban Chomphong, Viang Kaen district, Chiang Rai province (2006) ¸£h¬pˆ‚µ”o”«Ži‰o¬g·hp«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›šŸ 178

Ban Hueyluek, Chiang Rai province (2007) ¸£h’¸Ž‰Œ¦g”«Ži‰o¬g·hp«ri‰oŠ£‰˜››– 177

110 Warorot Market, Chiang Mai province (2008) Ban Khot Yao, Payao province (2007) 179 180 179. A Hmong lady sells bags and handicrafts }Œ£|Ž­ŠŠ‘”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››—  ¸£hl”|‰£Ž”«ri‰ol¤p ¡«‰£˜››– made from hemp. In the foreground, a poster promotes the next Indigenous People’s Day celebration which takes place each year on the 9th of August. 180. Hmong traders select used skirts bought in Laos, Vietnam and China to sell in Chiang Mai markets. The colourful traditional Hmong skirts are popular among the lowlanders who wear them or use them to make various kinds of crafts. 181. Ethnicity and globalization: Akha ladies try to sell souvenirs to tourists in front of the McDonald’s in Chiang Mai. ’u¥or£Žˆ¸og¢Š¸£h’¢}~gŠŠˆiƤp£g®‰g¢uro ­}¹¡’h¸£Š¸£hj”o«€”}¥|­‚‘«}”Š»‚Š¡r£‘¢ˆ ¢h€» o£hŽ¢hrh«ƒ·£ §Çh«ˆ§”oiÆp¢|j¦Çh®hŽ¢hiÆŸ‘¥o’£lˆj”o¨g‚c ¬ˆ·l¸£r£Žˆ¸o«Œ§”ggŠ¡­‚Šoˆ¸oˆ§”‘”op£gŒ£Ž «Ži‰|h£ˆ¬Œ¡pihˆ£j£‰®h}Œ£|«ˆ§”o«ri‰o®’ˆ· ‘i‘¢h‘|®‘j”oƒ¸£ˆ¸o«‚½hiÆ~©g®pj”olh §ÇhŠ£ iÆs§Ç”ˆ£‘Žˆ®‘·’Š§”h¤¯‚‚Š¡|¥x»«‚½h«lŠ§Æ”o®r¸”‰·£o”§Æh lhr£}¥ ¢h€¨»g¢­Œg£‡¥Ž¢zh» ’u¥o”£j·£g¤Œ¢o ‰£‰£ˆj£‰j”oiƊ¡Œ¦g®’¸¬g·h¢g·”o«iƉŽ ’h¸£Š¸£h¬ˆÅl­|h¢Œ|»gŒ£o«ˆ§”o«ri‰o®’ˆ·

Night Bazaar, Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (1995) ¯h»£s£Š»”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™ž 181

111 Connecting เชื่อมโยง

In Thailand as in other Southeast Asian countries, the hill areas 9Dĉ!G!#+8D 05?L!G!(A)<(: D5D=*8/9!55 D=*GĊ&?M! =L2A#+8D 0H *H)ĉD * were never completely isolated from the lowland polities but they FD=L*/E* :: &?M!+:"3: D&=*  /:)D#đ!5<2+85*Aĉ): E-8*: 8D Ċ:> long remained difficult to access and kept a large degree of 0/++1 =LU]YTD#đ!ĉ/D/-:E3ĉ /:)D#-=L*!E#-

New communication technologies, including all-weather roads G! 8D=*/ 9!D F!F-*= :+2?L52:+E-8 :+ )!: )>L+/)>!!E-828&:! and bridges, airplanes, and radio and telephone networks, 2)9*G3)ĉ =LGĊHĊ @ ,A :-D +?L5"&?M! =L2AD#đ!H#F*28/ *M!!5 : !=M attention to the economic and social development of ethnic 2:"9!&+8)3: 19+<*čH **9HĊD+E!8!; :D-?5 : :+D 1+G3)ĉ): E ! :+ ;H+ĉ3)@!D/=*!E""9MD<) also an important role in this process, as missionaries, anthropologists or development experts. :/ĉ::<)=" ": G! +8"/! :+!=MĊ/*Dĉ! 9! 9MG!:!8 =LD#đ!)<9!!:+= !9 ):!@1/< *:E-8$AĊD=L*/:Ċ:! :+&9!:

112 "AN+ANG(O 0UADISTRICT .ANPROVINCE ¸£hl¸£o•·””‚¼Žph·£h˜›–ž 182 USAID plane lands nearby a Hmong village. USAID «lŠ§Æ”o¥hj”o53!)$Œop”|®gŒ¸’ˆ©·¸£hr£Žˆ¸o”ol»g£Š53!)$ conducted development activities in highland villages to «j¸£|¤«h¥h­lŠog£Š ¢zh£®h §ÇhiƑ©o« §Æ”‚³”og¢hg£Šl¨gl£ˆj”o prevent the spread of communist insurgency in those areas. g”og¤Œ¢ol”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}»®hr·Žo«ŽŒ£|¢ogŒ·£Ž

113 "AN0A+LANG 0UADISTRICT .ANPROVINCE -UEANGDISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROVINCE ¸£h‚²£gŒ£o”‚¼Žph·£h˜›—— 183 ”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›˜—  184

Lao Ta (on the left), his eldest son (on the right) Narong Kittiyangkul, Lao Ta’s nephew from Ban Pa Klang of and their wives listen to a radio program in Nan province, was the first Hmong speaker at the Chiang Mai Hmong language broadcast from Chiang Mai. radio station. Radio programmes in ethnic languages started in «Œ·£}º£¬s·‰·£os¸£‰ ƒ©¸h¤r¨ˆrhˆ¸o¬Œ¡Œ©gr£‰lh­} 1968 in Thailand. They were an outcome of the cooperation between Thailand and the US government to ensure the jŽ£ g¢‡ŠŠ‰£j”o Žg«j£g¤Œ¢o†¼oŠ£‰g£ŠŽ¥‰¨ cultural and political integration of the highlanders. ‡£l‡££ˆ¸oiƔ”g”£g£p£g«ri‰o®’ˆ· {Šol»g¥}}¥‰¢og©Œ’Œ£hr£‰j”o«Œ·£}º£ «‚½hƒ©¸‚Š¡g£r£Žˆ¸olh¬Šgj”o‘~£hiŽ¥‰¨«ri‰o®’ˆ· Š£‰g£ŠŽ¥‰¨‡££rh«ƒ·£””g”£g£lŠ¢Ço¬Šg®h ‚c ˜›——­|‰«‚½hlŽ£ˆŠ·Žˆˆ§”Š¡’Ž·£oŠ¢x£Œ¯‰ ¬Œ¡‘’Š¢x ®hg£Šƒ‘ˆgŒˆgŒ§h£og£Š«ˆ§”o¬Œ¡ Ž¢zh€ŠŠˆj”orh«ƒ·£h §ÇhiƑ©og¢‘¢olˆ¯‰

114 Ban Dong luang, Mae Sarieng district, Mae Hong Son province (1978) A group of Pwo Karen ’h¨·ˆ‘£Žr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo­‚Ž»}¢Ço·£~·£‰Š©‚ ¸£h|o’ŒŽo”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›˜— 185 teenagers posing for a g¢«lŠ§Æ”oŠ¢Ž¥‰¨j”o Žg«j£ picture with a radio receiver.

115 Thai official of the Hill Tribe Socio-Economic Survey team showing his notebook to local villagers. «p¸£’h¸£iÆl{¡‘¤ŠŽpj¸”ˆ©Œ£o«Šxg¥p‘¢olˆ j”or¨ˆrhh §ÇhiƑ©og¤Œ¢o®’¸r£Ž¸£hˆ¸o|© ‘ˆ¨|¢h¦gj”o}h

"AN(UEY,UEANG -UEANGDISTRICT 4AKPROVINCE ¸£h’¸Ž‰«’Œ§”o”«ˆ§”op}£g˜›– 187

"AN(UEY,UEANG -UEANGDISTRICT 4AKPROVINCE ¸£h’¸Ž‰«’Œ§”o”«ˆ§”op}£g˜›– 186

Hmong villagers stare at the vehicle of the Thai Highland Survey team. The survey aims at getting basic socio-economic data in order to eradicate opium cultivation among upland farmers. r£Ž¸£hˆ¸og¤Œ¢o‘¤ŠŽp £’h¡j”ol{¡‘¤ŠŽpr£Ž¯‰ ¬Œ¡}·£or£}¥iƈ£«gŁj¸”ˆ©Œ£o«Šxg¥p‘¢olˆj”o r¨ˆrh« §Æ”­lŠog£Šjp¢|g£Š‚Œ©g„b¾h®h §ÇhiƑ©o

116 -AE#HAN #HIANG2AIPROVINCE ”«¬ˆ·p¢hp«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›–Ÿ 188 Clark Cunningham was a visiting scholar at the Faculty of Medicine, lŒ£Š»ll¢hh¥o¬•ˆh¢gŽ¥r£g£Š¬Œg«‚ŒiƉhj”ol{¡¬ ‰£‘}Š» Chiang Mai University. He made frequent visits to highland villages ˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰«ri‰o®’ˆ·«|¥h£o¯‚«‰§”hr¨ˆrhh §ÇhiƑ©o·”‰lŠ¢Ço during his stay. Road access to highland villages during those days «‘¸h£og£Š«j¸£~¦o’ˆ©·¸£h®h‘ˆ¢‰h¢Çh‰¢o‰£gŒ¤£gˆ£g¬ˆ¸¯ˆ·®r·‹|©„h was often difficult, and not only during rainy season.

117 Ban Pang Ung, Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai province (2002) ¸£h‚£o”¨ºo”«¬ˆ·¬p·ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š› 190

Unknown (1964) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gv‘~£hiÆ~·£‰‡£ ˜›– 189 Thai researchers survey a poppy h¢gŽ¥p¢‰r£Ž¯‰¬Œ¡}·£or£}¥ field as part of the campaign for |¤«h¥hg£Š‘¤ŠŽp¯Š·„b¾h opium eradication.

Thai soldiers cut down poppies ’£Š¯‰g¤Œ¢o}¢|}¸h„b¾h®h¯Š· while journalists take pictures and ®’¸h¢gj·£Ž~·£‰‡£ ¬Œ¡Ž¥|i­” videos. Opium cultivation is still marginally practiced in remote «p¸£’h¸£iƊ¢x®r¸«l­h­Œ‰i«r·h areas but the authorities now use |£Ž«i‰ˆ}ŠŽp’£ §ÇhiƂŒ©g„b¾h modern techniques, including ¬Œ¡«j¸£¤Œ£‰}¢Ço¬}·gŒ£o satellites, to spot and destroy poppy ŽŠŠ˜›˜–«‚½h}¸hˆ£ fields. since mid-1980s 118 01

"AN-AE3A-AI -AE2IMDISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROVINCE ¸£h¬ˆ·‘£®’ˆ·”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›–ž 191 During their trek from Phuping Palace to Mae Sa Mai ®hŠ¡’Ž·£og£Š«‘|Åp Š¡Š£r|¤«h¥hp£g Š¡}¤’h¢g‡© ¥ol»Š£rh¥«Žh» village, HM the King and HSHP Bhisadej meet a ¯‚‰¢o’ˆ©·¸£h¬ˆ·‘£®’ˆ· Š¡£‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡«p¸£”‰©·’¢Ž¬Œ¡ Hmong opium cultivator who shows them the road to ˆp‡i«|rŠ¢rhi¯|¸ g¢«g}ŠgŠ¯Š·„b¾hƒ©¸gŠ£©Œ«‘¸h£o¯‚‰¢o their destination. Although opium trading and smoking was banned in 1958, there was no clear p¨|’ˆ£‰¬ˆ¸Ž·£Š¢x£Œ’¸£ˆg£Š«‘ ¬Œ¡s§Ç”j£‰„b¾h}¢Ço¬}·‚c  policy on opium cultivation among highland farmers ˜›–—¬}·‰¢o¯ˆ·ˆih­‰£‰iÆr¢|«ph«giƉŽg¢g£Š‚Œ©g„b¾hphgŠ¡¢Æo until he initiated the Royal Project in 1969 Š¡”ol»|¤Š¥®’¸ˆi­lŠog£Š’ŒŽo®h‚c ˜›—˜ 119 During the 1960s and 1970s, King Bhumibhol travelled intensively to the margins of the kingdom using modern means of transportation. These visits to highland ethnic communities (here a Lahu village) were a new practice on the part of the Thai monarchy. They intended to ensure the loyalty of peripheral and transnational groups at a time when communist insur- gencies were occurring in mainland Southeast Asia. In many cases they were also the first step toward the establishment of development projects in the highlands. "AN3AEN+HAM,UE 0AIDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE ¸£h¬‘hl¤Œ§””‚£‰p¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—™ 192 ®hr·ŽoŽŠŠiÆ—Ÿœ– —Ÿ– Š¡£‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡«p¸£”‰©·’¢Ž«‘|Åp «‰iƉˆ«‰i‰hr¨ˆrhr£}¥ ¢h€¨»hiƑ©o|¢o«r·hr£ŽŒ£’©·®h‡£  ·”‰lŠ¢Ço Š¡Š£rgŠ{i‰g¥phiÇ«‚½hg£Š«‘Š¥ˆ‘Š¸£olŽ£ˆpoŠ¢g‡¢g|ij”ogŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»®hj{¡iÆg”og¤Œ¢ol”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}»‰¢o‚w¥¢}¥g£Š ”‰©·®h §ÇhiƬŒ¡«‚½hg¸£Ž¬Šgj”og£Šg¤«h¥|­lŠog£Š ¢zh£®h §ÇhiƑ©o}·”ˆ£

120 "AN$OI0UI #HIANG-AIPROVINCE ¸£h|”‰‚¨‰”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›–ž 194

HM the King sponsored the first souvenir shop in the Hmong village of Doi Pui near Chiang Mai. This village has since become a very popular destination for domestic and international tourists. Š¡£‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡«p¸£”‰©·’¢ŽŠo‘h¢‘h¨h Š¸£hl¸£j”oiƊ¡Œ¦gŠ¸£h¬Šg®h’ˆ©·¸£hˆ¸o|”‰‚¨‰ ’ˆ©·¸£hhiÇgŒ£‰«‚½h‘~£hiÆ·”o«iƉŽiÆh¥‰ˆ j”o¢Çor£Ž¯‰¬Œ¡r£Ž}·£o‚Š¡«}·”ˆ£

"AN-AE4HO (OT$ISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROVINCE ¸£h¬ˆ·­~”•”|p«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›—  193 Green beans were part of the first cash crop varieties ~¢ÆŽ«ji‰Ž«‚½h’h¦Æo®h §r«o¥h‘|¬Šg± that the Royal Projects introduced in the highland iÆ­lŠog£Š’ŒŽo¬h¡h¤®’¸’ˆ©·¸£hh §ÇhiƑ©o villages after 1969 as a substitute to opium cultivation. ‚Œ©g|¬h„b¾h

12112 Fighting สู#รบ

The two Indochina wars caused intense fighting and bombing G!ĉ/2 +:)5 1:#ď:!H *3-"3!= joined communist strongholds in Nan, Petchabun and :+#+:"#+:)G!D)?5D Ċ:2Aĉ:! =L)9L! 5&++ 5)) 1:D3-ĉ:!=M5:09*5*AĉE-8+ĉ/)+"D =* Ċ:!9 +": -@ĉ):<&9! @č various ethnic people including Lua, Hmong or Mien. ": -@ĉ)G! 8 =L+9":-H * KHĊ99ME-8%Ă %!3!ĉ/* 3:+ -@ĉ):<&9! @č Meanwhile, the Thai government set up ethnic military units and D&?L5G3Ċĉ52AĊ 9" 5 ;-9&++ 5))L2:! :+č:*E! K*9 5*AĉG!(:/8/< ,@)!:<&9! @č livelihoods insecure, especially in the numerous refugee camps F*D&:8 ĉ:*$AĊ-=M(9**9 #+82"#ď3: : /:))9L! G!/<= ; /9!!=M

122 Phetchabun province (1979) p« rŠ©Š{»˜›˜˜ 195 Communist insurgents, both ethnic (grey shirts) ’£ŠgŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»«‘§Ç”‘i«j¸ˆ ¬Œ¡h¢g¦g£¯‰p£g and Thai students from lowland (white shirts) ®h«ˆ§”o«‘§Ç”‘ij£Ž ®hg”og¤Œ¢o ŠŠll”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}» posing for a picture with their weapons. The Communist Party of Thailand set up bases in ¬’·o‚Š¡«¯‰s¦Æo}¢Çox£h”‰©·®h §ÇhiÆr£‰¬|h’·£o¯gŒ remote areas throughout the country from the ¢ÆŽ‚Š¡«®hr·Žo}¸hŽŠŠiÆ—Ÿœ–~¦o—Ÿž– early 1960s to the early 1980s.

123 "AN4HAM6IANG+AE #HIANG+LANGDISTRICT .ANPROVINCE ¸£h~Ǥ«Ži‰o¬g”«ri‰ogŒ£oph·£h˜›—Ÿ 196 HM the King visits a Hmong unit of the Border Š¡£‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡«p¸£”‰©·’¢Ž«‘|Åp «‰iƉˆ’h·Ž‰‚w¥¢}¥g£Šr£Žˆ¸o Patrol Police. During the 1970s, Nan province was a j”og”og¤Œ¢o}¤ŠŽp}Š¡«Žhr£‰¬|h®hr·ŽoŽŠŠiÆ—Ÿ– stronghold of the communist insurgency in Northern Thailand. Highlanders were recruited by the Thai Š¢x£Œ¯‰¯|¸r¢grŽhgŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»h §ÇhiƑ©o®’¸«‚½hg¤Œ¢oŠ·ŽˆŠ State to help fight the insurgents. }·”}¸£h„²£‰l”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}»s¦Æoˆix£hiƈ¢Æh‘¤l¢u®hp¢o’Ž¢|h·£h

124 Ngao district, Lampang province (1971) l·£‰‚Š¡}©ƒ£”o£ŽpŒ¤‚£o˜›—š 197 Young soldiers from Hmong and Mien villages in Phayao, Nan r£‰’h¨·ˆr£Žˆ¸o¬Œ¡«ˆiƉhp£g ¡«‰£h·£h¬Œ¡« rŠ©Š{»«j¸£Š¢g£Š„dg’£Š and Phetchabun during their training near Lampang. So-called iÆl·£‰‚Š¡}©ƒ£®hp¢o’Ž¢|Œ¤‚£og”o¤¯‰g·”}¢Ço_g”oŠ¸”‰r£Ž«j£”£‘£‘ˆ¢lŠ` “Hill Tribe Units” were created in the Thai army and sent to fight communist insurgents throughout Northern Thailand. ®’¸«j¸£Š·Žˆ}·”}¸£hg£Šj‰£‰}¢Žj”o„²£‰l”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}»®h‡£l«’h§”

125 Sayaburi province, Laos (1964) Ban Namtuang, Mae Charim district, Nan province (1974) ¬jŽo¯s‰¡¨Ši‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›–  198 ¸£hhǤ}Žo”¬ˆ·pŠ¥ˆph·£h˜›—  199

198. These two young Hmong men were trained by the Thai army to search for and kill communist insurgents in Nan province. During their free time, they pay a visit to the girls working in the fields. 199. A young Hmong soldier from the Lao Royal Army with his friend proudly exhibits an army rifle. In the background, his father and his brother look at him. In the centre, between the two young soldiers, Vang Geu, a Hmong student trained as an agronomist in Phnom Penh. The conflict in Laos between royalists and communists created divisions not only between ethnic groups but also within 198. ’h¨·ˆˆ¸o®hr¨|’£Š‘¢og¢|_’h·Ž‰Œ·£‘¢o’£Š`j”oŠ¢x£Œ¯‰®r¸«ŽŒ£«‰iƉˆr£Ž¸£h®h¯Š· ’£Šˆ¸o¬’·og”o¢ Œ£Ž„²£‰jŽ£g¤Œ¢o”Ž|”£Ž¨€j”o}h”‰·£o‡£l‡©ˆ¥®p ·”¬Œ¡ iÆr£‰j”o«j£ˆ”oˆ£p£g«§Ç”o’Œ¢or£‰iƉ§h”‰©·gŒ£oŠ¡’Ž·£o’£Š¢Ço‘”o l§”’Ž¢o«g£h¢g¦g£ˆ¸oiƯ|¸¸Š¢g£Š„dg”Šˆ|¸£h‚x iŽ¥‰£p£ggŠ¨o hˆ«‚u lŽ£ˆj¢|¬‰¸oŠ¡’Ž·£o ŠŠll”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}»g¢gŒ¨·ˆh¥‰ˆg¢}Š¥‰»®h‚Š¡«Œ£Žg·”®’¸«g¥| g£Š¬}g¬‰gŠ¡’Ž·£ogŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»¬Œ¡‡£‰®hgŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»«|i‰Žg¢h

126 Northern Laos (1975) Northern Laos (1970) ‡£l«’h§”‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›—ž 200 ‡£l«’h§”‚Š¡«Œ£Ž˜›—™ 201 200. Two ethnic women welcome Pathet Lao soldiers with fruit. 201. Pathet Lao instructors train ethnic women in the handling of firearms. Women had an important role in village defense during the war against royalist troops. 202. Parade of Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA) on the Karen New Year Day. KNLA has been fighting for Karen autonomy ’u¥or£}¥ ¢h€¨»}¸”hŠ¢’£Š along the Thai- „²£‰s¸£‰l”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}» |¸Ž‰ƒŒ¯ˆ¸ Myanmar border for more than half a lŠ©„dgj”og”og¤Œ¢o‚¡«|Œ£Ž century. The area „²£‰s¸£‰ g¤Œ¢o„dg’u¥or£}¥ ¢h€¨» under its control is ®’¸’¢|®r¸”£Ž¨€ƒ©¸’u¥oˆi£‘¤l¢u now smaller and more fragmented. ®hg”og¤Œ¢o”£‘£‘ˆ¢lŠŠ¢g£’ˆ©·¸£h Negotiations are ®hr·Žo‘olŠ£ˆŠ¡’Ž·£o ŠŠll”ˆˆ¥Žh¥‘}» currently taking g¢gŒ¨·ˆh¥‰ˆg¢}Š¥‰»„²£‰jŽ£  place with the Burmese govern-  ¥€i‘Žh‘h£ˆj”og”o¢  ment for peace and ‘’‡£ ¬’·or£}¥g¡«’ŠiƉoh power sharing r£‰¬|h¯‰ ˆ·£

Jeidong, Myanmar border (1995) r£‰¬|h‚Š¡« ˆ·£˜›™ž  202

127 Converting รับความเชื่อใหม/

Christian and Buddhist proselytising became truly active in the :+!9"?50:2!: +<2čE-8&@ D+

Christian missionaries, most of them Protestants, were especially successful among Karen and Lahu, with whom they had )<9!!+=>L2ĉ/!G3ĉ):: !< :*F#+D2E!č#+82" /:)2;D+KG! :+D$*E$ĉ0:2!: established contacts during the early colonial period in Burma. 9":/ 8D3+=L*E-8-:3Aĉ>LHĊ<ĉ529)&9! č 9!):9MEĉĊ!*@ 5::!< ) 5&)ĉ: In addition to their efforts to spread Christian faith, Western missionaries were the first to introduce modern education and ;!/!)<9!!:+=D&M!G! 0/++1U]YTD!?L5: A 9"55 : #+8D 0=! medicine to the highland villages. Christian-based organizations !5 : 8D$*E$ĉ0:2!:E-Ċ/)<9!!+=8/9! *9 ;3!Ċ: =LE!8!;G3Ċ@)!+AĊ9 *: also provided emergency aid to ethnic refugees during the E-8 :+0> 1:2)9*G3)ĉE-85 č + +<2D=*! KHĊG3Ċ /:)ĉ/*D3-?5 :)!@1* ++) Vietnam War. During the last two decades, many young ethnic men have trained as priests or pastors and are now E ĉ$AĊ-=M(9*!D$ĉ:G!ĉ/2 +:)D/=*!:)G!ĉ/25 0/++13-9!=M in charge of local churches. :*:<&9! @č;!/!): HĊ+9" :+0> 1:Ċ:!0:2!:!HĊD#đ!0<1*:(<":- 3+?50:2!::+*čG! +<29 + 5@)!!D5 Buddhism has long been exerting its influence in the highlands, especially among some groups of Karen and Lawa, while Christianity is a recent occurrence in this region. State-led efforts E)Ċ&@ 0:2!:8)=5< <&-"!&?M! =L2A):D! G! /:)D#đ!H * 9" 9MD&?L5D#đ! They put the emphasis on a sense of belonging to the Thai Nation #< <+<*: 9" :+D$*E&+ĉ0:2!: +<2č 5:/8/9!  :+!9"?50:2!:&@ !;H#2Aĉ while Christian proselytising promotes a transnational affiliation and access to modernity. Conversion to Buddhism can lead to :+$2) -) -?! 9"29 )H *(: D3!?5G! 8 =L :+!9"?50:2!: +<2č5: ;G3Ċ assimilation of the highlanders into Northern Thai society, -@ĉ)!*9 9/! =LE ĉ:E)Ċ8-):5*AĉG!D)?5E-Ċ/ K:) while conversion to Christianity allows them to retain a distinct identity even if they live in the lowlands.

128 Chiang Mai province (1954) p«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜šŸ 203 John Kuhn, a missionary from OMF (formerly Overseas ˆ¥rr¢hhŠip”’»hl¨’»h¬Œ¡lŠ”lŠ¢Žg¤Œ¢op¡«|¥h£op£g Missionary Fellowship and before 1964 the China Inland «ri‰o®’ˆ·¯‚«ˆ§”o}”o”©®h‚Š¡« ˆ·£ Š¸”ˆg¢Œ©g’£r£Ž¯‰ Mission), travels from Chiang Mai to Taungoo in Burma with his family and their Thai porters. He is the author of several «j£«‚½hƒ©¸«ji‰h’h¢o‘§”’Œ£‰«Œ·ˆ«giƉŽg¢gŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨» books about ethnic groups in Thailand including his last one, ®h‚Š¡«¯‰ŠŽˆ~¦o!SCENTTOTHE4RIBES Ascent to the Tribes: Pioneering in North Thailand (1956). 0IONEERINGIN.ORTH4HAILAND

129 Don Rulison worked as a missionary among the Hmong in Tak province during the late 1950s and early 1960s. Kathy, Don Rulison’s wife, taught Hmong Christian children to write in Hmong using the romanized alphabet. «l€iŠ©Œ¥‘¢h‡ŠŠ‰£j”o|”hŠ©Œ¥‘¢hs¦¦Æo«‚½hˆ¥rr¢hhŠiiƤo£h®h r¨ˆrhˆ¸op¢o’Ž¢|}£g®hr·Žo‚Œ£‰ŽŠŠiÆ—Ÿ›–~¦o}¸h—Ÿœ– «‚½hƒ©¸‘”h®’¸«|Ågr£Žˆ¸olŠ¥‘«}i‰h’¢|«ji‰h‡££ˆ¸o­|‰®r¸”¢gŠ­Šˆ¢h

Nam Yao Refugee Camp, Pua, Nan province (1976) l·£‰ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰hǤ‰£Ž”‚¼Žph·£h˜›—Ÿ 205

Ban Hueylueang, Tak province (1960) ¸£h’¸Ž‰«’Œ§”o”«ˆ§”op}£g˜›–™ 204

Bishop Rath, Catholic head for Northern Thailand region, administers the sacrament of confirmation to a group of Hmong refugees from Laos. Confirmation is the second step of Catholic initiation after baptism. Š¡‘¢onŠ£r­Š«¥Š»}Š¢}h»¤Š¨o}Š¡g©Œ ‚Š¡ˆ¨j‘¢onˆ{yŒ«ri‰o®’ˆ·s¦ÆolŠ”lŒ¨ˆ §ÇhiƇ£l«’h§”}”hh¤ ¥€iŠ¢ _iŒg¤Œ¢o`®’¸¬g·ƒ©¸ŒiLJ¢‰r£Žˆ¸op£gŒ£Ž g£ŠŠ¢iŒg¤Œ¢ol§”g£Š‰§h‰¢h g£ŠŠŠŒ¨h¥}¥‡£Ž¡£olŽ£ˆ«r§Æ” ’Œ¢op£g¯|¸Š¢iŒŒ¸£o£‚¬Œ¸Ž

130 Baptism of a Hmong couple by a Hmong Seventh-day Adventist pastor. ¥‰£‡¥£Œˆ¸oh¥g£‰«s«Ž·h«|‰»¬”¹|«Žh}¥‘}» g¤Œ¢o¤ ¥€iŠ¢iŒ®’¸l©·‘£ˆi‡ŠŠ‰£ˆ¸o

Ban Mae Yang Ha, Samoeng district, Chiang Mai province (2007) ¸£h¬ˆ·‰£o’¸£”‘¡«ˆ¥op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››– 207

Chiang Khong district, Chiang Rai province (1984) ”«ri‰oj”op«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›˜ 206

Celebration of the 125th anniversary of the propagation of Christianity among the Karen of Thailand. The photo was taken during the nomination of new Karen Baptist pastors. g£Š«qŒ¥ˆqŒ”olŠŠ”—˜›‚c¬’·og£Š«ƒ‰¬ƒ· £‘h£lŠ¥‘}»®hgŒ¨·ˆr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo®h‚Š¡«¯‰

131 Ban Nam Khek, Nakorn Thai district, Phitsanulok province (1955) Ernest E. Heimbach, an OMF «””Š»«h‘}»”i«•ˆ£lr» ¸£hhǤ«jÅg”hlŠ¯‰p ¥{¨­Œg˜šŸž 208 missionary, shows a poster g¤Œ¢o®’¸r£Ž¸£hˆ¸o|©­‚‘«}”Š» about the Gospel to the villagers. He is the author of l¤‘”hj”o Š¡«‰s©«j£l§”ˆ¥rr¢hhŠi a Hmong-English dictionary ƒ©¸p¢|¤ ph£h¨gŠˆ‡££ˆ¸o ”¢og‹ published in 1966. iÆ}i ¥ˆ »®h‚c ˜›–Ÿ

132 Ernest E. Heimbach, an OMF missionary, is burning spirit objects of a Hmong family before their baptism. «””Š»«h‘}»”i«•ˆ£lr»g¤Œ¢o«ƒ£ Ž¢}~¨£olŽ£ˆ«r§Æ”|¢Ço«|¥ˆj”olŠ”lŠ¢Žˆ¸o g·”hiÆ Žg«j£p¡«j¸£ ¥€i¢}¥ˆ£

»(UEY.AM+HEK 0HITSANULOKPROVINCE ¸£hhǤ«jÅg”hlŠ¯‰p ¥{¨­Œg˜›–– 210

Ban Nam Khek, Nakorn Thai district, Phitsanulok province (1955) ¸£hhǤ«jÅg”hlŠ¯‰p ¥{¨­Œg˜šŸž 209

An American Baptist pastor baptises a Hmong couple £‘h£p£Š‰»r£Ž”«ˆŠ¥g¢h¤ ¥€i¢}¥ˆ£ ®’¸¬g·l©·‘£ˆi‡ŠŠ‰£r£Žˆ¸o

133 A Hmong villager gives alms to Buddhist monks of Tammacharik, a state-supported project to promote Buddhism among ethnic highlanders since 1964. r£Ž¸£hˆ¸o}¢g£}Š Š¡‘on»p£g ­lŠog£Š Š¡€ŠŠˆp£Š¥gs¦Æo«‚½h ­lŠog£ŠiƑh¢‘h¨h­|‰Š¢x¯‰®’¸ «ƒ‰¬ƒ· Š¡ ¨€£‘h£®hr¨ˆrh h §ÇhiƑ©oh¢¬}·‚c ˜›–ž Mae Rim district, Chiang Mai province (1992) ”¬ˆ·Š¥ˆp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›™› 212

Wat Benchamabophit, Bangkok (1996) Ž¢|«upˆŠ£r©¥gŠ¨o« ·˜›™Ÿ 211 Each year, young ethnic men ordinate as monks under the State-supported Thammacharik project. The ceremony takes place in Bangkok and they then travel back to Chiang Mai to spend the Buddhist lent in Wat Srisoda. ®hr·Žo«j¸£ ŠŠ£j”o¬}·Œ¡‚cr£‰’h¨·ˆp£g gŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»p¡«j¸£ ¥€i”¨‚‘ˆ«‚½h Š¡‘on»®h ­lŠog£Š€ŠŠˆp£Š¥giÆgŠ¨o« ¬Œ¡p¡¯‚ p¤ ŠŠ£”‰©·iƎ¢|Ši­‘|£®hp¢o’Ž¢|«ri‰o®’ˆ·

134 "AN0A0AE -AE3ARIENGDISTRICT -AE(ONG3ONPROVINCE 213 A ceremony organized by ¥€iŠ¢h¢g«Ši‰hr£ŽŒ¢Ž¡ ¸£h‚²£¬‚µ”¬ˆ·‘¡«Ši‰op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›——  local Buddhist monks to «‚½h ¨€£‘h¥grh entice Lua students to become Buddhist followers. ­|‰ Š¡‘on»¸”o~¥Æh

135 Schooling เข#าเรียน

Among most of the ethnic highlanders, transmission of :+ĉ:* 5 /:)+AĊG! -@ĉ):<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2AEĉ9MD<))9 D#đ! :+"5 D-ĉ:Ċ/* knowledge traditionally relied on oral tradition and practical ;&AE-8%Ă G3ĊD+=*!+AĊ: #+82" :+č#<"9<)=D&=*": -@ĉ)D ĉ:!9M! =LGĊ59 1+D =*! experimentation. Scripts were used in some rare cases (Karen and Mien for example) for ritual performances accessible only to men. E-8)9 D#đ!H#D&?L5 :+ ;&< = ++)F*2ĉ/!G3ĉ8D#đ!$AĊ:*D ĉ:!9M! =L8D Ċ:>

Missionaries were the first to introduce formal education among D3-ĉ:)<9!!+=D#đ!$AĊ+ 1:G!+8"" 9" -@ĉ)!"!&?M! =L2AF*#+8<1č the highlanders. They created Romanised scripts for various ethnic languages and taught both children and adults to use them. E-825!+8"" :+D =*!(:1::<&9! @čĉ:JF*GĊĊ!E"": 59 1+F+)9!E-8&)ĉ: In addition, they also set up hostels for ethnic children who went ": -@ĉ)99M35&9 G3ĊDK J:<&9! @č =L-):0> 1:G!&?M!+:"E-82!9"2!@! to study in the lowlands and provided some of them with financial support when they were able to continue their studies after @! :+0> 1:G3ĊDK D3-ĉ:!=MHĊ0> 1:ĉ5G!+89"2A!9 D+=*!:<&9! @č;!/!): =L secondary school. Many of these young highlanders became civil " :+0> 1:+89"2AHĊ$9!9/D5H#D#đ! Ċ:+: :+-A Ċ:"+<19 D5 ! servants, employees of private companies or local priests. 3+?5$AĊ!;0:2!:G! Ċ5 1:G!+8"" 5+9H * Ċ:/D Ċ:>@)!"!&?M! =L2AG!ĉ/+:/ 0/++1U]ZT police initially carried it out in order to promote literacy in Thai language, instil nationalism among ethnic people and facilitate 5"9: :+;+/+8D/!:*E!99MF+D+=*!G!@)!D&?L52ĉD2+<) the implementation of highland development programs. :++AĊ3!92?5H *2+Ċ: /:)+AĊ2> : 1: < :+>HĊD+ 1: children and adults. Since the mid-2000s, an increasing number of (:*GĊ +) :+0> 1:!5 F+D+=*!>L9 :+0> 1:G3Ċ 9MDK E-8$AĊG3ĉ#ď@"9! ethnic students manage to follow-up their studies in public universities, mostly in Ratachaphat University ;!/!!9 D+=*!:<&9! @č =LHĊD Ċ:0> 1:ĉ5G!)3:/< *:-9* 5+92A >M!):  (a former teacher college) but also in Thammasat University F*D&:8)3:/< *:-9*+:(9E-8)3:/< *:-9* =L9F /Ċ:G3ĊE ĉ!9 0> 1:!D$ĉ: and Chiang Mai University, which have each implemented quotas for ethnic students. D#đ! +=&

136 Ban Phami, Lamam district, Sekong province, Laos (1995) 214 Raising up the Thai national flag before «l£Š €or£}¥‰£ˆ«r¸£ ¸£hƒ£’ˆi”¬ˆ·‘£‰p«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›– the beginning of school class in Border ®h­Šo«Ši‰h}r| Patrol Police school in an Akha village. ’ˆ©·¸£h”·£j·£

137 Mae Chan district, Chiang Rai province (1992) Ban Prang, Pua district, Nan province (1968) ”¬ˆ·p¢hp«ri‰oŠ£‰˜›™› 215 ¸£h‚Š£ol»”‚¼Žph·£h˜›——  216

215. The Ministry of Education has set up several primary education centres for ethnic children in the mountainous areas. Adults are also attending classes during the evening time. 216. Young ethnic students hosted at the Christian Hostel in Pua watch one of their friends getting on the bus to Nan. He is leaving for Chiang Mai to pursue his secondary education over there. 217. Teng is one of the ethnic students based at the Christian Hostel. The picture is taken in early morning while leaving for school gŠ¡ŠŽo¦g£€¥g£Š¯|¸p¢|}¢Ço©h‰»g£Š¦g£« §Æ”r¨ˆrh®h«j}‡©«j£ s¦Æoƒ©¸®’u·®hr¨ˆrh¯|¸«j¸£«Ši‰h‡££¯‰‡£llƤ|¸Ž‰ h¢g«Ši‰hˆ¸oiƒ” ¢glŠ¥‘«}i‰h”¤«‡”‚¼Ž‰§hˆ”o« §Æ”h± j¦ÇhŠ~‚Š¡p¤£o¯‚}¢Ž«ˆ§”oh·£h« §Æ”p¡}·”Š~¯‚¦g£}·”®hp¢o’Ž¢|«ri‰o®’ˆ· h¢g«Ši‰hˆ¸o®h’” ¢glŠ¥‘«}i‰h”¤«‡”‚¼Ž””gp£g’” ¢g¯‚­Šo«Ši‰h Ban Prang, Pua district, Nan province (1965) ¸£h‚Š£ol»”‚¼Žph·£h˜›–ž  217 138 0UA#HRISTIAN(OSTEL 0UADISTRICT .ANPROVINCE 218 ’” ¢glŠ¥‘«}i‰h”‚¼Žph·£h˜›——  219 Nub and Kab came from a «|Åg’u¥op£g’ˆ©·¸£hˆ¸o®‘·«lŠ§Æ”o¬ highland Hmong village to ¬Œ¡}¢|ƒˆŠoh¢g«Ši‰h}£ˆ enter primary school in the gwgŠ¡ŠŽo¦g£€¥g£Š lowlands. As other young students they had to wear the «ˆ§Æ”ˆ£«j¸£­Šo«Ši‰h‚Š¡~ˆ®h §ÇhŠ£ Thai school uniform and to get their hair cut to follow the regulations adopted by the Thai Ministry of Education. 139 4HAI (IGHLANDER&OUNDATION -UEANGDISTRICT #HIANG-AIPROVINCE -ANAROMDISTRICT #HAINATPROVINCE ˆ©Œh¥€¥r£Ž¯‰‡©«j£”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›˜— 220 ”ˆ­hŠˆ‰»pr¢‰h£˜›˜™ 221

Mr Panya Kirisathayakul gradutates from Mae Jo ‚¼uu£liŠi‘¢}‰g¨Œr£Žˆ¸olh¬Šg Pongsri, a Hmong nurse ƒ·”oŠi’u¥or£Žˆ¸oiÆ«Ši‰h University. He was the first Hmong in Thailand ®h‚Š¡«¯‰iÆ«Ši‰hp‚Š¥uu£}Ši student, graduates from p’Œ¢g‘©}Š ‰££Œ£‘}Š» to graduate at BA level. He poses for photogra- Manorom Christian 01 phy with his parents and Imogene Williams, a ~·£‰‡£ Š·Žˆg¢ ·”¬ˆ·¬Œ¡¯”­ˆpih Nursing College p£gŽ¥‰£Œ¢‰ ‰££Œˆ­hŠˆ‰» missionary from OMF working in Nan province, Ž¥Œ«Œi‰ˆ‘»’h¸£ˆ©Œh¥€¥r£Ž¯‰‡©«j£ in front of the office of the Thai-Highlander ”¥­ˆpih«‚½hˆ¥rr¢hhŠiiƤo£hg¢r£Žˆ¸o Foundation. ®hp¢o’Ž¢|h·£h

140 Chiang Mai Orchid Hotel, Chiang Mai province (2008) Chiang Dao district, Chiang Mai province (1998) ­Šo¬Šˆ«ri‰o®’ˆ·””Š»l¥|”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››— 222 ”«ri‰o|£Žp«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›š— 223

222. Ethnic sudents are posing for picture h¢g¦g£gŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»~·£‰‡£ g¢}¢Ž¬h with the representatives of Ministry of p£ggŠ¡ŠŽoˆ’£|¯‰¬Œ¡ˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰«ri‰o®’ˆ· Interior and of Chiang Mai University. ˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰«ri‰o®’ˆ·p¢|‘ŠŠ­lŽ}¸£®’¸«‰£Žrh Chiang Mai University has established a quota for ethnic students. Each year, 20 to r£}¥ ¢h€¨»¯|¸ˆi­”g£‘¦g£®hŠ¡|¢‚Š¥uu£}Ši 25 ethnic students are selected and receive h¢g¦g£r£}¥ ¢h€¨»˜– ˜›lhp¡¯|¸Š¢¨h funding from the Ministry of Interior. g£Š¦g£p£ggŠ¡ŠŽoˆ’£|¯‰¨g‚c 223. These students from Princess Ubonrat h¢g«Ši‰h­Šo«Ši‰h«p¸£†³£”¨ŒŠ¢}h¯|¸Š¢g£Š secondary school are encouraged to wear their ethnic costumes each Friday. ‘·o«‘Š¥ˆ®’¸¬}·og£‰r¨|‚Š¡p¤«ƒ·£®h¨gŽ¢h¨gŠ» 224. Hmong students dance at the h¢g¦g£ˆ¸o«}¸hŠ¤®ho£hqŒ”opg£Š¦g£ Chiang Mai University, Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2003) graduation ceremony of fellow Hmong j”oŠ¨·h iƈih¢g¦g£r£Žˆ¸o”‰©·Š£Žž–lh®h ˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰«ri‰o®’ˆ·”«ˆ§”o«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›šœ 224 students. There are currently around 80 ˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰«ri‰o®’ˆ·p£giÆ«l‰~©g’¸£ˆ’Š§”¯ˆ·¯|¸ Hmong students studying at Chiang Mai University. While expressing an ethnic Š¢g£Š‘h¢‘h¨h®’¸¬‘|o}¢Ž}h£or£}¥ ¢h€¨»®h identity is discouraged in schools, things ­Šo«Ši‰h®hŠ¡|¢ˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰ Žg«j£¯|¸ change for the ethnic students who reach ŠŽˆgŒ¨·ˆ¬Œ¡¬‘|o””g¯|¸”‰·£o«‚b|«ƒ‰ University level. ˆig£Šp¢|}¢ÇorˆŠˆ}£ˆgŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»

141 Claiming, Staging ทวงสิทธิและนำเสนอตัวตน

Policies implemented by the Thai state in highland villages !F*":*+9ĉ5@)!"!&?M! =L2AEĉD<))9 9M5*Aĉ"! 90!8 =L/ĉ:Ũ:/D :ŨD3-ĉ:!=M long presumed that the so-called “Hill Tribes” were all -Ċ/!D#đ!$AĊ5&*&):G3)ĉE-8$AĊ#-A %ĀĒ!>L)= /:)29)&9! č 9"#+8:! !H *!Ċ5*):  recent immigrants and opium growers, and that they had few ties to Thai people. As a consequence, many of them -@ĉ):<&9! @č"!&?M! =L2A;!/!): >H)ĉHĊ+9"29: were not granted Thai citizenship, a problem that still #ď3: :+D Ċ:> :+0> 1: :++9 1:2@ (:&E-82<  @ /9!!=M hampers their access to mobility, healthcare or education.

Things changed after the mid-1990s. There was a growing /:)D#-=L*!E#-D < >M!G!ĉ/ -: 0/++1U]]TD)?L5#+8:!H *D+ :+0> 1:= >M!HĊD+2:!8E-82< < 5!E-8D < "/!D -?L5!H3/ Ċ:):<&9! @č>Lĉ5): ?5 highlanders also became more aware of their status. They started to organize themselves into pan-ethnic movements D +?5 ĉ:*!D$ĉ:&?M!D)?5 =LHĊ+9" :+ ĉ59M >M!G!#ā&Ŵ0ŴVYYW and formed the Indigenous People’s Network in 2007. There #ď@"9!Ů#ā&Ŵ0ŴVYYZů)=;!/!Y[ -@ĉ):<&9! @č =L&"#8 9!5*ĉ:2)L;D2)5 are currently 57 ethnic groups in Thailand who gather regularly for cultural exchanges and political action, such D&?L5E- D#-=L*!/9! ++)E-8D -?L5!H3/D<!F*":*Dĉ! :+9:! as Indigenous People’s Day on the 9th of August each year. /9!!D$ĉ:&?M!D)?5G!/9! =L]2<3: ) 5 @ #āE-8 :+&*:*:)$-9 9! They have proposed to government the creation of a G3Ċ+9":-*5)+9" :+99M2(:!D$ĉ:&?M!D)?5E-8 -@ĉ):<&9! @čE3ĉ:<D#đ!Ċ! National Council of Indigenous and Ethnic Peoples.

142 Mueang district, Mae Hong Son province (1968) ”«ˆ§”op¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h˜›—— 225 Ceremony at which HM the King dedicated a royally-cast gŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»g¤Œ¢oŠ”Š¢«‘|Åp Š¡£‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡«p¸£”‰©·’¢Ž Buddha image as the palladium of the province. Ethnic ¬Œ¡ Š¡ŠˆŠ£r¥hih£~®ho£h Š¡Š£r ¥€i Š¡Š£r£h Š¡ ¨€Š©‚ highlanders are waiting for the arrival of the King and Queen. ‚Š¡p¤«ˆ§”o¬ˆ·•·”o‘”h

143 Doi Inthanon, Chomthong district, Chiang Mai province (1966) |”‰”¥hhh»”p”ˆ”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›˜Ÿ 226 Princess Sirindhron visits a Karen village. Visits of royal family ‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡« «‘|Åp Š¡Š£r|¤«h¥h«‰iƉˆr£Žg¡«’ŠiƉo members are an opportunity for the ethnic people to show off g£Š«‘|Åp«‰§”h’ˆ©·¸£hr£}¥ ¢h€¨»j”o‘ˆ£r¥gŠ£rŽo»«‚½h”ig­”g£‘’h¦Æo their identity and to claim an existence within the Thai nation. j”or£Ž¸£hr£}¥ ¢h€¨»iÆp¡¯|¸¬‘|o}¢Ž}h®h §ÇhiƑ¢olˆ¯‰

144 National Cultural Centre, Bangkok (2010) ©h‰»Ž¢zh€ŠŠˆ¬’·o‚Š¡«¯‰gŠ¨o« ˜››™ 227 227. Representatives of the Kui ethnic group from Northeast Thailand perform a show during the International Cultural Festival organized in Bang- kok for the 84th birthday of HM the King. 228. A parade was organized in Chiang Mai for the 80th birthday of HM King Bhumiphol. Dara-Ang people are recent immigrants to Thailand. They received the visit of HM the King in the late 1990s and a Royal Project was launched in their villages. 229. A representative of the Kachin ethnic group dressed with a mix of urban and “ethnic” clothes takes pictures of the parade }¢Ž¬hr£Žg¨‰p£g‡£l}¡Ž¢h””g«qi‰o«’h§”g¢ g£Š¬‘|oŽ¢zh€ŠŠˆ®hˆ’gŠŠˆŽ¢zh€ŠŠˆh£h£r£}¥ iÆp¢|j¦Çh« §Æ”«qŒ¥ˆ Š¡«gi‰Š}¥ Š¡£‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡«p¸£”‰©·’¢Ž «h§Æ”o®h­”g£‘Šo«pŠ¥u Š¡rhˆ ŠŠ£lŠžš ŠŠ£ jŽh~Ž£‰ Š¡ Š«h§Æ”o®h­”g£‘ Š¡£‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡«p¸£”‰©·’¢ŽŠo«pŠ¥u Š¡rhˆ ŠŠ£ ž– ŠŠ£r£Ž|£Š¡”¢Ço‚¡’Œ·”o ®h‡£ «‚½hgŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨» iÆ« ¥Æo” ‰ ˆ£p£g‚Š¡« ˆ·£ˆ£Š£Ž™–‚cg·”h Š¡£‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡«p¸£”‰©·’¢Ž¯|¸«‘|Åp«‰iƉˆ«‰i‰hr¨ˆrh ¬Œ¡p¢|®’¸ˆi­lŠog£Š’ŒŽo« §Æ” ¢zh£’ˆ©·¸£h }¢Ž¬hr£ŽŠ¡Ž£og¡q¥Æh ®h«‘§Ç”lŒ¨ˆ‚Š¡p¤«ƒ·£g¢ g£o«go¬lh §ÇhŠ£‰§h~·£‰‡£ jŽh~Ž£‰ Š¡ Š Š¡£‘ˆ«|Åp Š¡«p¸£”‰©·’¢Ž

Tribal Museum, Chiang Mai province (2006) Tribal Museum, Chiang Mai province (2006) ¥ ¥€‡¢{y»r£Ž«j£”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›šŸ 228 ”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›šŸ 229

145 Tribal Research Institute, Chiang Mai prov. (1964) Provincial Hall, Mueang district, Payao province (2012) 231 ‘~£¢hŽ¥p¢‰r£Ž«j£”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›–  230 £Œ£gŒ£op¢o’Ž¢| ¡«‰£”«ˆ§”op ¡«‰£˜›››

230. In the 1960s, Thai officials perceived all the minorities ®hr·Žo}¸hŽŠŠ—Ÿœ–Š¢x¯‰ˆ”ogŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»¢Ço’ˆ|«‚½h as immigrants in Thailand. Such misconceptions still exist ƒ©¸‰¸£‰~¥Æh«j¸£«ˆ§”olŽ£ˆ«j¸£®pƒ¥||¢ogŒ·£Ž‰¢o|¤Šo”‰©·}Š£ph‚¼pp¨¢h today. They are one of the reasons why many ethnic villagers have problems accessing basic rights, ¬Œ¡«‚½h’h¦Æo®h‘£«’}¨iƤ®’¸·gŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»hiƑ©op¤hŽhˆ£g‰¢o¯ˆ· including citizenship. ‘£ˆ£Š~«j¸£~¦o‘¥€¥j¢Çh §Çhx£hŠŽˆ~¦o‘¥€¥}·”‘¢ur£}¥¯|¸ph~¦o¨gŽ¢hhiÇ 231. “Children are waiting for hope from the Minister (of «|Ågr£‰r£Žˆ¸olhhiÇ~·£‰‡£ ’h¸£‚³£‰¯Žh¥Œ’h¸£’¸”o‚Š¡r¨ˆ Interior)”. A young Hmong boy is posing in front of a poster during a meeting with Payao provincial authorities. There Š¡’Ž·£o”ol»gŠ ¢zh£«”grhg¢«p¸£’h¸£iƊ¢xiÆp¢o’Ž¢| ¡«‰£‚¼pp¨¢hˆi are presently around 200,000 stateless children in Thailand. «|Ågr£}¥ ¢h€¨»iƉ¢o¯ˆ·¯|¸Š¢‘¢ur£}¥¯‰ˆ£g~¦o‘”o¬‘hlh

146 Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2009) ”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››˜ 232

Ethnic villagers demonstrate against the Hatgyi r£Ž¸£hr£}¥ ¢h€¨»Š·Žˆg¢h¬‘|op¨|‰§h®hg£Š}·”}¸£hg£Š‘Š¸£o dam during Indigenous Peoples’ Day. The dam was «j§Æ”h•¢}pi®hŽ¢ho£hrh«ƒ·£ §Çh«ˆ§”oŠ¢x¯|¸r¡Œ”g£Š‘Š¸£o supposed to be built on the Salween River at the Thai-Burma border. Its construction has been «j§Æ”hg¢Çh¬ˆ·hǤ‘£Œ¡Ž¥hhr£‰¬|h¯‰  ˆ·£hiǔ”g¯‚ stopped since this demonstration. ’Œ¢op£gˆi«‘i‰ol¢|l¸£hp£g’Œ£‰„²£‰

147 Ban Huey Yuark, Viengsa District, Nan province (1998) Ban Huey Yuark, Viengsa district, Nan province (2003) 233 ¸£h’¸Ž‰’‰Žg”«Ži‰o‘£ph·£h˜›š— ¸£h’¸Ž‰’‰Žg”«Ži‰o‘£ph·£h˜›šœ 234

233-234. A Mlabri man plays the mouth organ and dances for tourists. Previously hunting and gathering near the Thai-Lao border, they have been settled in Ban Huey Yuak near a Hmong village by Thai authorities of the Ministry of Human Security and Social Welfare. They are regu- larly asked to go into the forest to perform their traditional way of life for groups of tourists. Here, they show how to cook food using bamboo. 235. The Mani are a hunter-gatherer population living in the South of Thailand. Three young Mani men have their picture taken with two ladies from the Northeast during the celebration of Indigenous Peoples’ Day. Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2011) ”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››š 235  r£‰ˆŒ£Ši«‚²£¬lh«}¸hŠ¤®’¸h¢g·”o«iƉŽrˆŠ¢x¯|¸ £gŒ¨·ˆr£ŽˆŒ£ŠiiÆ«l‰·”o‚²£Œ·£‘¢}Ž»®gŒ¸r£‰¬|h¯‰ Œ£Žˆ£}¢Ço r¨ˆrh~£ŽŠiƁ¸£h’¸Ž‰’‰Žg®gŒ¸g¢r¨ˆrhˆ¸o’£gr£Ž¸£h«’Œ·£hiLj¢g~©g«Ši‰g®’¸gŒ¢«j¸£‚²£« §Æ”¬‘|oŽ¥~iriŽ¥}|¢Ço«|¥ˆ®’¸h¢g·”o«iƉŽrˆ |¢o«r·hg£Š¬‘|oŽ¥€i’¨o}¸ˆ”£’£Š|¸Ž‰gŠ¡”g¯ˆ¸¯ƒ·|¢o®h‡£ r£Žˆ¢hh¥«‚½hgŒ¨·ˆr£}¥ ¢h€¨»®h‡£l®}¸‚Š¡«¯‰iƈilŽ£ˆ«riƉŽr£u|¸£hg£Š’£j”o‚²£¬Œ¡Œ·£‘¢}Ž»r£‰’h¨·ˆˆ¢hh¥¢Ço‘£ˆ ~·£‰‡£ g¢’u¥op£g‡£l}¡Ž¢h””g«qi‰o«’h§”®hŽ¢hrh«ƒ·£ §Çh«ˆ§”o‚c ˜››š

148 Doi Pui village, Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2007) Chiang Mai University Art Center, Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2007) 237 ¸£h|”‰‚¨‰”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››– 236 ’”¥Œ‚Ž¢zh€ŠŠˆˆ’£Ž¥‰£Œ¢‰«ri‰o®’ˆ·”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››–

Khum Khantok Restaurant, Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2013) Š¸£h”£’£Šl¨¸ˆj¢h­}g”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››œ 238

236. Mirror image: a Hmong «o£‘¡¸”hr·£o‡£ r£Žˆ¸o photographer takes a picture of a Thai ~·£‰‡£ h¢g·”o«iƉŽ¯‰iƑŽˆ®‘·r¨|ˆ¸o tourist from Bangkok dressed in Hmong costume in front of the village ”‰©·’h¸£ ¥ ¥€¥‡¢{y»’ˆ©·¸£h museum. ƒ©¸«z·£”·£j·£‘£€¥}Ž¥€i­Œ¸r¥or¸£®’¸ 237. An Akha elder demonstrates to «p¸£’h¸£iƊ¢x¯‰|©®ho£hŽ¢hrh«ƒ·£ government officials how to use the traditional swing during Indigenous §Çh«ˆ§”o‚c ˜››–®h‚Š¡« {i|¢Ço«|¥ˆ Peoples’ Day. The Akha erect a swing in r£Ž”·£j·£p¡}¥|}¢Çor¥or¸£iƒˆ©·¸£h®hr·Žo their villages before the harvest. This g·”h‹|©«gŁ«giƉŽ’£g‚¼pp¨¢hg£Š­Œ¸r¥or¸£ practice is now part of a tradition performed on many different gŠ¡¤g¢h®h’Œ£‰­”g£‘­|‰«q £¡®h occasions, including commercial ones. r¨ˆrh·”o«iƉŽ 238. Lowland Thai employees of the lh¯‰ §ÇhŠ£¬}·og£‰ restaurant perform a so-called “ethnic dance” for tourists. _Š¡¤r£}¥ ¢h€¨»`®’¸h¢g·”o«iƉŽrˆ

149 Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2008) 239 Indigenous Peoples’ Day parade. The sign in the foreground reads ”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››— “No ID card = No access to health care services”. The demonstrators ask for access to citizenship and basic rights, including health care, education, land ownership and access to natural resources. g£Š«|¥hjŽh®hŽ¢hrh«ƒ·£ §Çh«ˆ§”o‚c ˜››—r£Ž¸£hr£}¥ ¢h€¨» ~§”‚³£‰«Ši‰gŠ¸”o‘¥€¥j¢Çh §Çhx£hiƉ¢o¯ˆ·¯|¸Š¢g£ŠŠ¢Š”o¢Ço’Œ£‰

Thaphae Gate, Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2005) ‚Š¡}©·£¬ ”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜›šž 240

Parade for ethnic rights recognition during the celebration of International Indigenous Peoples’ Day. g£Š«|¥hjŽh«Ši‰gŠ¸”o‘¥€¥rh«ƒ·£ §Çh«ˆ§”o ®hŽ¢hrh«ƒ·£ §Çh«ˆ§”o‚c ˜›šž 150 Three Kings Monument, Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2008) ”h¨‘£ŽŠi‰»‘£ˆg¢}Š¥‰»”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››˜ 241

Three Kings Monument, Mueang district, Chiang Mai province (2008) ”h¨‘£ŽŠi‰»‘£ˆg¢}Š¥‰»”«ˆ§”op«ri‰o®’ˆ·˜››— 242

01

A representative of the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement hands a petition to the head of the Chiang Mai administration office. The petition reviews the problems faced by ethnic minorities and possible improvements in Thai public policies. }¢Ž¬hrh«ƒ·£ §Çh«ˆ§”o‰§Æh‰§Æhj¸”«‘h” s¦ÆogŒ·£Ž~¦o‚¼u’£iÆ}h«ƒr¥u ¬Œ¡¬hŽ£o¬g¸¯j‚¼u’£«r¥oh­‰£‰ }·”ƒ©¸¬hj”oŠ¢x£Œ

151 Credits Picture รายการภาพถ.าย

01, 68, 69, 75, 92, 107, 108, 109, 119, 120, 141, 202 21, 22, 76, 94, 95 ,96, 97, 98, 99, 150, 166, 170, 171, 176 Ugrid Jomyim ”¨g‹{»p”ˆ‰¥Çˆ Witoon Buadaeng Ž¥y©Š‰»¢Ž¬|o 172, 213, 225 179, 240 Apai Wanitpradit ”¡‡¢‰Ž£h¥r‰»‚Š¡|¥x» 02, 09, 42, 43, 44, 45 ,46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, Charles F. Keyes r£Š»Œ‘»«”†«l«‰‘ 184 Unknown (courtesy of Mr Narong 57, 58, 63, 64, 65, 67,79 ,80, 106, 145, 146, 1 23, 24, 25, 205 Harry Thiel (Courtesy of Hmong Kittiyangkul) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£   Peter Hinton (Courtesy of Elizabeth Hinton) Catholic Center, Chiang Mai) ¬•ŠiÆ€iŒ  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g{Šol»g¥}}¥‰¢og©Œ ‚c«}”Š»•¥h}¢h|¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g”Œ¥s£«€•¥h}¢h   |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g©h‰»ˆ¸ol£”Œ¥g«ri‰o®’ˆ·  190 Saksit Meesapkwang ¢g|¥Ê‘¥€¥ÊˆiŠ¢ ‰»Ž£o 03, 14, 34, 149, 161, 162, 163, 186, 187, 189, 230 26 Unknown (Courtesy of Friends without 191, 192, 193, 194, 196 Unknown Hans Manndorff •£h‘»ˆ£hh»|”Š»††¶ Borders) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£  (courtesy of the Royal Office) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ” 04, 05, 12, 139, 214  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£gˆ©Œh¥€¥« §Æ”h¯Š¸ Šˆ¬|h  ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£ |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g‘Ë£h¢g Š¡Š£rŽ¢o Lucien Hanks Œ©«si‰h¬•o‘» 31, 32, 33, 204 Don Rulison 195 Unknown (courtesy of Yuepheng Xiong) 06, 122, 182, 183, 216, 217, 218, 219, 221 (Courtesy of Enabel Rulison) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£ |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g‰§”« ·os·o Imogene Williams ¯”­ˆpihŽ¥Œ«Œi‰ˆ‘» |”hŠ©Œ¥‘¢h|¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g«”h£«ŒŠ©Œ¥‘¢h  197 Unknown (courtesy of Tawatchai 07, 08, 167, 188 41 Richard Mann Š¥r£Š»|ˆ£hh» Charuprapatson) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£ Clark Cunningham lŒ£Š»ll¢hh¥o¬•ˆ 72 Unknown (Previously published in Public  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g€Ž¢rr¢‰p£Š¨‚Š¡‡¢‘‘Š 10, 11, 13, 19, 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, Welfare Journal vol 27 no. 3, May-June 1984.) 198 Jacques Lemoine t£l‘»«Œ”ˆŽh 51,54, 59, 60, 61, 62, 66, 78, 82, 85, 86, 90, 105, 113, ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£ }i ¥ˆ »®hŽ£Š‘£ŠgŠˆ199 Unknown (courtesy of Nophadon 116, 117, 118, 128, 135, 144, 152, 165, 168, 169, 177, 178,  ‚Š¡r£‘o«lŠ£¡’»‚ciÆq¢iÆ ˆ¥‰˜›˜  Saensongsiri) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£  228, 229, 231, 236 73, 129, 235, 239, 242 Jakkrapong Aopradit  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£gh |Œ¬‘hŠo¥Š¥ Olivier Evrard ­”Œ¥«Ži‰Š»«”†Š£Š»| p¢gŠ ol»””‚Š¡|¥x» 200, 201 Unknown (courtesy of Robert 15, 37 74, 84 Phongsakorn Chaleunchutidet Cooper) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£  Patiphan Ayi ‚w¥‡£{”£‰¥ ogŠ«pŠ¥ur¨}¥«|r  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g­Š«¥Š»}l©«‚”Š» 16, 77, 81, 87, 88, 89, 93, 101, 102, 103, 104, 110, 111, 83, 100, 227 Jukkam Mathuthaphan 203 One of John Kuhn’s family members 112, 114, 115, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 130, 131, 136, 137, p¢gŠlË£ˆ£}¨£ ©h (courtesy of Enabel Rulison) ‘ˆ£r¥glŠ”lŠ¢Ž 138, 140, 142, 143, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159, 160, 175, 185, 132, 133, 134 Somsiri Thanasarnwatana  l¨’»h|¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g«”h£«ŒŠ©Œ¥‘¢h 211, 212, 223, 226, 233, 234 ‘ˆ¥Š¥€h‘£ŠŽ¢zh£ 201, 206 Nkiag Huj Yaj «giƉ•©·‰·£o Wichian Khacha-Anan (courtesy of Tribal 147, 148 William Geddes (courtesy of the Tribal 202, 207 Nohan Arkniyarn ­h•£h”¢lh¥u£{ Museum) Ž¥«ri‰Šlr£”h¢hh}» Museum) Ž¥Œ«Œi‰ˆ«g|«|‘ 208, 209 Ernest E. Heimbach’s wife (courtesy of  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g ¥ ¥€‡¢{y»r£Ž«j£   |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g ¥ ¥€‡¢{y»r£Ž«j£  Enabel Rulison) ‡ŠŠ‰£«””Š»«h‘}»”i«•ˆ£lr» 17 unknown¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£  158 Siravit Patitham ‘¥ŠŽ¥ru»‚¼}}¥€ŠŠˆ  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g«”h£«ŒŠ©Œ¥‘¢h  (Courtesy of Suchart Sethamalinee) 91, 164 ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£  210 Unknown (courtesy of Enabel Rulison)  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g‘¨r£}¥«Šxˆ£Œ¥hi 173 Unknown (courtesy of Danish East ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£  18, 70, 71, 151, 180, 181, 215, 222, 224, 232, 237, 238, Asiatic Company, Bangkok Office)  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g«”h£«ŒŠ©Œ¥‘¢h 241 ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£ |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£gŠ¥¢ 220 Unknown (courtesy of Thai- Highlander Prasit Leepreecha ‚Š¡‘¥€¥ÊŒi‚Šir£  ¬|h¥r”i‘}»«”«ri‰}¥ggŠ¨o«  Foundation, Mueang district, Chiang Mai 174 Unknown (courtesy of Taen Nyi) ¯ˆ·‚Š£gv ¯ˆ·‚Š£gvr§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£   r§Æ”ƒ©¸~·£‰‡£ |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g¬~h‰i  |¸Ž‰lŽ£ˆ”h¨«lŠ£¡’»p£g¯”­ˆpihŽ¥Œ«ŒiƉˆ‘»