The Effect of Climate Forcing on Numerical Simulations of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet at the Last Glacial Maximum

Home , Cordilleran Ice Sheet

The Cryosphere, 8, 1087–1103, 2014 www.the-cryosphere.net/8/1087/2014/ doi:10.5194/tc-8-1087-2014 © Author(s) 2014. CC Attribution 3.0 License.

The effect of climate forcing on numerical simulations of the Cordilleran ice sheet at the Last Glacial Maximum

J. Seguinot1, C. Khroulev2, I. Rogozhina3, A. P. Stroeven1, and Q. Zhang1 1Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology and the Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden 2Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, USA 3Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany

Correspondence to: J. Seguinot ([email protected])

Received: 22 November 2013 – Published in The Cryosphere Discuss.: 23 December 2013 Revised: 17 April 2014 – Accepted: 4 May 2014 – Published: 23 June 2014

Abstract. We present an ensemble of numerical simulations and Eurasian ice sheets). Numerical modelling of these for- of the Cordilleran ice sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum mer ice masses allows for a comparison between glaciolog- performed with the Parallel Ice Sheet Model (PISM), apply- ical theories embedded in the models and geomorphologi- ing temperature offsets to the present-day climatologies from cal traces underpinning palaeo-glaciological reconstructions. five different data sets. Monthly mean surface air temperature Yet, a major obstacle in this exercise resides in large uncer- and precipitation from WorldClim, the NCEP/NCAR reanal- tainties concerning the climate forcing, typically atmospheric ysis, the ERA-Interim reanalysis, the Climate Forecast Sys- temperature and precipitation, required as input to numerical tem Reanalysis and the North American Regional Reanal- glacier models (Hebeler et al., 2008). This includes uncer- ysis are used to compute surface mass balance in a posi- tainty in the representation of Earth’s present climate in re- tive degree-day model. Modelled ice sheet outlines and vol- gions of poor station coverage, and even larger uncertainty umes appear highly sensitive to the choice of climate forc- concerning accurate reconstructions of past climate change. ing. For three of the four reanalysis data sets used, differ- Arguably the most physically sound way to force an ice ences in precipitation are the major source for discrepan- sheet model for simulations of glacial history is to couple cies between model results. We assess model performance it with a general circulation model (GCM; Yoshimori et al., against a geomorphological reconstruction of the ice margin 2001; Calov et al., 2002; Abe-Ouchi et al., 2007; Charbit at the Last Glacial Maximum, and suggest that part of the et al., 2013). However the computational demand of GCMs mismatch is due to unresolved orographic precipitation ef- is such that only models of intermediate complexity can run fects caused by the coarse resolution of reanalysis data. The on the timescales of tens of thousands of years characteristic best match between model output and the reconstructed ice of ice sheet growth and decay. margin is obtained using the high-resolution North American Climatologies obtained from GCM palaeo-climate simula- Regional Reanalysis, which we retain for simulations of the tions such as produced within the Paleoclimate Modelling In- Cordilleran ice sheet in the future. tercomparison Project (PMIP; Joussaume and Taylor, 1995) provide perhaps a more reasonable representation of past climate. However, as such climatologies are only available for specific periods of time, using them as climate forcing for an 1 Introduction ice sheet model requires either an assumption of steady-state ice sheet response to climatic fluctuations (Huybrechts and At the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), glaciers of a compara- T’siobbel, 1996), or interpolation through time between cli- ble size to the present-day Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets matologies from different periods, which can be linear (Char- covered parts of North America (Laurentide, Cordilleran and bit et al., 2002), or modulated by a “glacial index” weighting Innuitian ice sheets) and northern Eurasia (Fennoscandian

Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. 1088 J. Seguinot et al.: Climate forcing for Cordilleran ice sheet simulations

150° W 120° W 90° W 60° W 75° N entirely a new approach as a few studies of this kind are

1 500 km IIS 6 km presently available. Quiquet et al. (2012), for example, as-

60° N sessed the sensitivity of a Greenland Ice Sheet model to var- 0 ious climate forcing ﬁelds, including a regional parametrisa-

W 60° N - tion by Fausto et al. (2009a), output from several GCMs and S S E - M K -6 km an atmospheric reanalysis. Rodgers et al. (2004) and Char-

C bit et al. (2007) tested the sensitivity of a model of North-

o R

a o

s c t ern Hemisphere ice sheets to climate forcing from different 3 000 km CIS k M y

LIS o M u o PMIP LGM simulations. Although using different set-ups, n t u a n i t n a

s all three studies demonstrate the very large sensitivity of ice i n 45° N s sheet models to the choice of climate forcing data used. To 45° N limit the degrees of freedom in our model and obtain results s e d (km)0 2000 a independent of palaeo-ice-sheet reconstructions such as ICE-

s a

C 4G, we use a simple temperature offset similar to the ap- 120° W 90° W proaches by Greve et al. (1999) and Bintanja et al. (2005) and Figure 1. Shaded relief map of northern North America with the ex- assess ice sheet model sensitivity to the choice of present-day tent of the Cordilleran (CIS), Laurentide (LIS) and Innuitian (IIS) climate data. Hence, rather than using GCM output, we force ice sheets at 14 14C kyr BP (16.8 cal kyr BP) (Dyke, 2004). While our model with climate reanalysis data, which builds on ob- this age denotes the LIS after retreat from its LGM, it closely cor- servational information through data assimilation (Bengtsson responds to the LGM extent of most of the Cordilleran ice sheet et al., 2007). Furthermore, we focus our study regionally on (Porter and Swanson, 1998; Dyke, 2004; Stroeven et al., 2010). The the former Cordilleran ice sheet in western North America. rectangular box denotes the modelling domain of the Cordilleran The Cordilleran ice sheet (Fig. 1) covered an area that ice sheet of 1500 by 3000 km. Major mountain ranges covered by presently experiences strong regional variations in climate. the ice sheet include the Wrangell and Saint Elias mountains (W– From a numerical modelling perspective, it is one of the SE), the Selwyn and MacKenzie mountains (S–MK), the Coast Mountains and the Rocky Mountains. The background map consists least studied palaeo-ice-sheets of the Northern Hemisphere, of ETOPO1 (Amante and Eakins, 2009) and Natural Earth Data despite the fact that signiﬁcant stratigraphical, geomorpho- (Patterson and Kelso, 2010) and was assembled with GRASS GIS logical, and chronological data is available to constrain its (Neteler et al., 2011). extent (Jackson and Clague, 1991; Porter and Swanson, 1998; Duk-Rodkin, 1999; Dyke, 2004; Kaufman and Man- ley, 2004; Kleman et al., 2010; Stroeven et al., 2010, 2014; function derived from ice core δ18O records (Marshall and Margold et al., 2011). The Cordilleran ice sheet has previ- Clarke, 1999; Tarasov and Peltier, 2004; Zweck and Huy- ously been modelled as part of efforts to simulate ice sheets brechts, 2005; Gregoire et al., 2012). An important draw- in North America (Marshall and Clarke, 1999; Calov et al., back in this approach is that GCM palaeo-climate simula- 2002; Tarasov and Peltier, 1997, 2004; Gregoire et al., 2012), tions themselves rely on an accurate description of the global the Northern Hemisphere (Huybrechts and T’siobbel, 1996; surface topography and therefore include global ice sheet re- Greve et al., 1999; Charbit et al., 2002, 2007, 2013; John- constructions such as ICE-4G (Peltier, 1994) for their surface son and Fastook, 2002; Rodgers et al., 2004; Bintanja et al., topographic boundary condition. This condition could poten- 2005; Zweck and Huybrechts, 2005; Abe-Ouchi et al., 2007) tially exert inﬂuence on subsequently modelled ice sheet ge- and world wide (Yoshimori et al., 2001). While these stud- ometries, and particularly glacier extent. ies generally reproduce the magnitude of North American However, avoiding this circular dependence requires glaciation at LGM reasonably well, there exists a tendency simplifying assumptions regarding Earth’s past climate. in the simulations that are independent of ice sheet recon- Such studies include energy balance modelling approaches structions such as the ICE-4G to predict excessive ice cover (Tarasov and Peltier, 1997) and geographic parametrisations in parts of northern Yukon Territory and interior Alaska that of surface mass balance (Robert, 1991) or climate forcing have remained ice free throughout the Pleistocene (Duk- (Johnson and Fastook, 2002). Alternatively, temperature off- Rodkin, 1999; Kaufman and Manley, 2004). set methods (Greve et al., 1999; Bintanja et al., 2005) make Here we use PISM, a Parallel Ice Sheet Model (the use of the high level of detail available in present climate PISM authors, 2013), to simulate the extent and thickness of data sets such as gridded observation data sets, GCM output the Cordilleran ice sheet at the LGM (Fig. 1). We force our or reanalyses, while using simplifying representations of past model with multiple climate data sets and compare the mod- climate deviations from the present state. elled ice extent to a geomorphological reconstruction of the Here, we propose to address some of the uncertainties con- LGM ice sheet margin by Dyke (2004). We aim to determine cerning climate forcing of numerical glacier models by eval- the climate data set which is most suited for simulation of the uating the responses of a numerical model, in terms of glacier Cordilleran ice sheet and to use as input for future, transient extent, to inputs from several climate data sets. This is not studies over a glacial cycle.

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2 Model set-up A pseudo-plastic sliding law (Aschwanden et al., 2013) relates the bed-parallel shear stress and the sliding velocity. Given basal topography, sea level, geothermal heat flux and The yield stress is modelled using the Mohr–Coulomb cri- climate forcing, the model computes ice extent and thickness, terion. The till friction angle φ varies from 10 to 30◦. It is its thermal and dynamic state, and the associated lithospheric computed once at the beginning of the run, as a function of response. Our modelling domain encompasses the entire area modern bed elevation, with lowest values occurring at low covered by the Cordilleran ice sheet at LGM including inde- elevations: pendent ice growing on the western Alaskan ranges and the  Brooks Range, and intermediate expanses of ice-free terrain 10 for z < 0  in northern Yukon Territory and interior Alaska (Fig. 1). φ = z/10 + 10 for 0 < z < 200 (1) As we aim to model glacial inception and growth of the 30 for 200 < z, Cordilleran ice sheet towards a configuration as last attained during the LGM, we mimic palaeo-climatic conditions by where φ is given in degrees and z in metres above current sea applying constant temperature offsets homogeneously over level. This model thus accounts for a weakening of till asso- the modelling domain. Each simulation starts from ice-free ciated with the presence of marine sediments (Martin et al., conditions and runs for 10 kyr, a time interval representa- 2011; Aschwanden et al., 2013). Because the distribution of tive of the rapid build-up of the last Cordilleran ice sheet marine sediments is assumed constant throughout the run, the from nearly ice free to full glacial conditions (Clague, 1989; till friction angle φ is not affected by changes in bed eleva- Stroeven et al., 2010). Our simulations are performed in par- tion. Basal topography (Fig. 2) is derived from the ETOPO1 allel on 32 cores at the Swedish National Supercomputing combined topography and bathymetry data set with a resolu- Center. tion of 1 arcmin (Amante and Eakins, 2009). Sea level is lowered by 120 m and basal topography re- 2.1 Ice thermodynamics sponds to ice load following a bedrock deformation model The central part of an ice sheet model consists of the compu- that includes point-wise isostasy, elastic lithosphere flex- tation of flow velocity which itself depends on temperature. ure and viscous mantle deformation in a semi-infinite half- PISM is a shallow model, which implies that the balance of space (Lingle and Clark, 1985; Bueler et al., 2007). It uses −3 stresses is approximated based on their predominant compo- a lithosphere density of 3300 kg m , a flexural rigidity of 24 21 nents. On the other hand, the model is polythermal: it ac- 5 × 10 N m and a mantle viscosity of 1 × 10 Pa s. Due to counts for differences in temperature and softness within the the high mantle viscosity, there exists a time lag between ice ice column. sheet growth and isostatic bedrock response. The shallow shelf approximation (SSA) is used as a “sliding law” for the shallow ice approximation (SIA) (Bueler and 2.2 Surface mass balance Brown, 2009; Winkelmann et al., 2011). SIA and SSA veloc- Ice surface accumulation and ablation are computed from ities are computed by finite difference methods on a 10 km monthly mean surface air temperature and monthly precip- resolution horizontal grid of 300 by 150 points (the mod- itation by a temperature-index (positive degree day) model elling domain). Ice softness depends on temperature and (Hock, 2003). Ice accumulation is equal to precipitation water content through an enthalpy formulation (Aschwan- when temperature is below 0 ◦C, and decreases to zero lin- den and Blatter, 2009; Aschwanden et al., 2012). Enthalpy early with temperature between 0 and 2 ◦C. Ice ablation is is computed in three dimensions in up to 51 irregularly computed from the number of positive degree days, defined spaced layers within the ice, and temperature is addition- as the integral of temperatures above 0 ◦C in one year. ally computed in 11 regularly spaced layers in bedrock to The positive degree-day integral (Calov and Greve, 2005) a depth of 1 km. Surface air temperature from the climate is numerically approximated using week-long sub-intervals. forcing provides the upper boundary condition to the ice It accounts for temperature variability assuming a normal enthalpy model, and a geothermal heat flux of 70 mW m−2 distribution along a central (input) value. The temperature provides the lower boundary condition to the bedrock ther- standard deviation is a constant model parameter and was as- mal model. Although this uniform value does not account signed a value of 3.07 ◦C, which corresponds to the mean for the high-spatial geothermal variability in the region, it summer (JJA), model domain-averaged monthly standard is on average representative of available heat flow mea- deviation of daily mean temperature from monthly mean surements (Artemieva and Mooney, 2001; Blackwell and temperature, as computed from North American Regional Richards, 2004). Whereas spatial variations in the geother- Reanalysis data (Mesinger et al., 2006) in a manner sim- mal heat flux may significantly affect basal conditions (Pat- ilar to Seguinot (2013). The ablation model incorporates tyn, 2010), this study focuses on reconstructing the former degree-day factors of 3.04 mm ◦C−1 day−1 for snow and extent of the Cordilleran ice sheet, on which it has relatively 4.59 mm ◦C−1 day−1 for ice, as derived from mass-balance little effect (Rogozhina et al., 2012). measurements on contemporary glaciers from the Coast www.the-cryosphere.net/8/1087/2014/ The Cryosphere, 8, 1087–1103, 2014 1090 J. Seguinot et al.: Climate forcing for Cordilleran ice sheet simulations

6000 WorldClim ERA-Interim NARR

4500

3000

1500

0 ETOPO1 CFSR NCEP/NCAR surface topography (m) 1500

3000

4500

6000

Figure 2. Topography maps from WorldClim (Hijmans et al., 2005), ERA-Interim reanalysis (Dee et al., 2011), North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR; Mesinger et al., 2006), ETOPO1 (Amante and Eakins, 2009), Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR; Saha et al., 2010), and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis (Kalnay et al., 1996). Whereas ETOPO1 is used as basal topography for the ice sheet model, all other data are used as a reference for temperature lapse-rate corrections. Figures 2–16 are drawn using Matplotlib (Hunter, 2007).

Mountains and Rocky Mountains in British Columbia (Shea 3 Climate forcing et al., 2009). Our climate forcing consists of monthly climatologies of sur- 2.3 Air temperature corrections face air temperature and precipitation obtained from one observational data set, three global reanalyses and one regional Prior to surface mass balance computation, the model dy- reanalysis. namically applies a lapse-rate correction to surface air temperature. This correction accounts for the evolution of ice 3.1 Observational data: WorldClim thickness on the one hand, and differences between the climate forcing reference topography and the ice ﬂow model WorldClim is a high-resolution global climate data set built basal topography on the other hand. It uses a reference to- from meteorological observations (Hijmans et al., 2005). It pography distinct from the modelled basal topography and was built by applying a spatial interpolation between a large speciﬁc to each climate forcing data set (Fig. 2). An annual set of measurements taken at terrestrial weather stations lapse rate of 6 ◦C km−1 is used in all simulations. No correc- worldwide, using SRTM (Jarvis et al., 2005) and GTOPO30 tions apply to precipitation changes with elevation. elevation data (Gesch et al., 1999). This data set provides a resolution much higher than attained by circulation models, however its reliability is variable due to the highly inhomogeneous distribution of measurements (Hijmans et al., 2005).

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30 WorldClim JJA ERA-Interim JJA NARR JJA

0 WorldClim DJF CFSR JJA NCEP/NCAR JJA

6 surface air temperature (°C)

Figure 3. Summer (JJA) and winter (DJF) temperature maps from WorldClim (Hijmans et al., 2005), and summer (JJA) temperature maps from ERA-Interim reanalysis (Dee et al., 2011), North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR; Mesinger et al., 2006), Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR; Saha et al., 2010), and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis (Kalnay et al., 1996) climatologies.

Table 1. Characteristics of reanalysis climatologies used to inform the mass balance component of PISM.

Reanalysis Spatial coverage Averaging period Resolution Description NCEP/NCAR global 1981–2010 1.875◦ Kalnay et al. (1996) ERA-Interim global 1979–2011 1.000◦ Dee et al. (2011) CFSR global 1979–2010 0.325◦ Saha et al. (2010) NARR North America 1979–2000 32 km Mesinger et al. (2006)

Within our modelling domain, the spatial distributions of words, there is a strong contrast in seasonality between summer (JJA) and winter (DJF) air surface temperatures in coastal temperate-climate and inland continental-climate re- WorldClim generally show a decrease of temperature from gions. south to north (JJA) and from south-west to north-east (DJF), The spatial distribution of JJA and DJF mean precipita- such that regions further inland experience colder winters tion rates in WorldClim reveals a strong precipitation decline (Fig. 3). It should be noted that temperature gradients are beyond the coastal regions (Fig. 4), primarily as a result of much stronger in winter than in summer. Temperature rises the continuous orographic barrier formed by the Wrangell well above zero during the summer months over the entire and Saint Elias mountains, the Coast Mountains and the Cas- modelling domain, except for the highest mountain peaks, cades (Fig. 1). A less pronounced precipitation peak is also and even regions where mean annual temperatures are well visible over the interior ranges. From an ice-sheet mass- below freezing point experience warm summers. In other balance point of view, these heterogeneities become even www.the-cryosphere.net/8/1087/2014/ The Cryosphere, 8, 1087–1103, 2014 1092 J. Seguinot et al.: Climate forcing for Cordilleran ice sheet simulations

1000 WorldClim DJF ERA-Interim DJF NARR DJF ) 1 - h t n o m m m (

100 t a r WorldClim JJA CFSR DJF NCEP/NCAR DJF n o i t a t i p i c e r p

Figure 4. Winter (DJF) and summer (JJA) precipitation maps from WorldClim (Hijmans et al., 2005), and winter (DFJ) precipitation maps from ERA-Interim reanalysis (Dee et al., 2011), North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR; Mesinger et al., 2006), Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR; Saha et al., 2010), and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis (Kalnay et al., 1996) climatologies. Additional forcing data was prepared to correct for wave-like precipitation artefacts in CFSR (Sect. 3). stronger due to the difference in timing of the precipitation (Hijmans et al., 2005). Second, WorldClim lacks data off- peak through the year. Whereas coastal regions experience shore, which would have been particularly useful over the most precipitation as snow during the accumulation season Paciﬁc continental shelf which was partly covered by ice dur- (DJF), inland regions experience dry winters and most of the ing the LGM (Jackson and Clague, 1991). annual precipitation consequently falls as rain during the ablation season (JJA). 3.2 Reanalysis data: NCEP/NCAR, ERA-Interim, In regions such as the northern Yukon Territory and in- CFSR and NARR terior Alaska, dry winters and warm summers prohibit ice to accumulate and glaciers to form, despite strongly nega- In addition to the WorldClim data, we use surface air temper- tive mean annual temperatures. In order to account for these atures and precipitation rates from three global atmospheric strong gradients in seasonality, we use monthly rather than reanalyses and one regional atmospheric reanalysis to inform annual averages of temperature and precipitation to drive the the mass balance routine of PISM: the NCEP/NCAR reanal- ice sheet model. ysis (Kalnay et al., 1996), the ERA-Interim reanalysis (Dee There are two problems inherent to the use of WorldClim et al., 2011), the Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR; data in our study area. First, the density of weather stations Saha et al., 2010), and the North American Regional Reanal- used by WorldClim in the northern American Cordillera is ysis (NARR; Mesinger et al., 2006). Monthly climatologies highly inhomogeneous. Although good coverage exists for from NCEP/NCAR and NARR reanalyses were provided by the southern part of our modelling domain, several hundred the NOAA/OAR/ESRL Physical Sciences Division (2013), kilometres can separate neighbouring stations in the north whereas monthly climatologies from the ERA-Interim and

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CFSR reanalyses were computed from their monthly mean a −5 ◦C temperature offset, final glaciated area differs be- time series (Table 1). tween WorldClim and CFSR forcing by a factor of 6 and final The spatial distributions of JJA air surface temperatures volume by a factor of 12 (Fig. 5). For particular temperature and DJF precipitation rates from the four reanalysis clima- offset values, given input climatologies result in similar fi- tologies are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. Summer temperature and nal glaciated areas and ice volumes, yet regional patterns are winter precipitation are most relevant to the glacier model different (Fig. 6). as they drive summer melt and winter accumulation, respec- Under present climate (0 ◦C offset), WorldClim, ERA- tively. Because reanalyses include observational information Interim and NARR forcing produce local ice caps in areas through data assimilation, they are closer to observations presently glaciated (Fig. 6). These results are fairly consistent than pure GCMs in densely monitored regions, such as the with contemporary ice distribution, although both the 10 km southern part of our modelling domain (Bengtsson et al., horizontal resolution and the occurrence of glaciers and ice 2007). On the other hand, the atmospheric physics embedded caps surface topographies in the ETOPO1 data set used for in the models provide more realistic output than obtained by basal topography prevent a meaningful detailed comparison. spatial interpolation in sparsely monitored regions, such as CFSR forcing, on the other hand, yields continuous ice cover the northern part of our modelling domain. over the northern Coast Mountains, and NCEP/NCAR forcing results in ice sheet growth, both of which are largely in- 3.3 Preprocessing and lapse-rate corrections consistent with the present state of glaciation. At the opposite side of the temperature offset range, it can be noted that both WorldClim, NCEP/NCAR, ERA-Interim, CFSR and NARR the NCEP/NCAR and CFSR forcing produce oversized ice climatologies were re-projected to the Canadian Atlas Lam- sheets whose extents are primarily restricted by the domain bert conformal conic projection (EPSG code 3978) and bilin- boundaries (Fig. 6). The smoothing of CFSR precipitation early interpolated to the 10 km resolution model grid using yields an insignificant effect on the resulting ice sheet geom- the module r.proj from GRASS GIS (Neteler et al., 2011). etry. In addition, WorldClim data was extrapolated to cover grid To contrast the effect of the six different input climatolo- points in the ocean using the nearest-neighbour algorithm gies, we plot simulations using a −5 ◦C temperature off- (Oliphant, 2007). Note that here we choose to present origi- set (Fig. 7). The magnitude of glaciation differs dramat- nal rather than interpolated data, in order to highlight differ- ically from one climate forcing to another. Whereas the ences between data sets related to spatial resolution (Figs. 3 NCEP/NCAR and CFSR climatologies produce a large ice and 4). sheet that covers most of the model domain (Fig. 7, lower The CFSR climatology presents wave-like artefacts in its panels), WorldClim, ERA-Interim and NARR climatologies precipitation field (Fig. 4). These are a common feature in lead to a more restrictive ice cover (Fig. 7, upper panels). The GCM simulations due to the failure of spectral models to re- WorldClim run only resulted in the growth of mountain ice solve the very local nature of topography-induced precipita- caps bounded to the highest topography. tion events, which becomes particularly visible in the high- resolution, less spatially smoothed data. Therefore, an al- ternative forcing was prepared for CFSR by smoothing its 5 Discussion precipitation field. This was achieved by averaging data lo- cally in a circular kernel of 7 pixels in diameter prior to re- These simulations of the LGM Cordilleran ice sheet show projection using the module r.neighbors from GRASS GIS a very large sensitivity to the choice of climate forcing data (Neteler et al., 2011). Finally, input files for PISM were pre- used (Figs. 5–7). To understand the origin of the discrep- pared using netCDF4-Python (Whitaker, 2014). ancies between model results, we quantify differences in surface air temperature and precipitation rate between the input climatologies and test their effect on the ice sheet 4 Results model. We then compare our findings to a geomorphological reconstruction of the LGM Cordilleran ice sheet margin, and Using WorldClim, NCEP/NCAR, ERA-Interim, CFSR discuss some of the key assumptions of this study. (smoothed and original data sets) and NARR input climatologies as climate forcing, we run 66 simulations of glacial 5.1 Comparison of forcing climatologies inception and growth of the Cordilleran ice sheet over 10 kyr using temperature offsets ranging from −10 to 0 ◦C. Signif- As previously outlined, significant differences in the distri- icant differences in patterns of ice sheet growth, final glacial bution of winter (DJF) precipitation and summer (JJA) tem- extent, and volume are attained (Figs. 5–7). perature, which are the predominant controls on accumula- Across the range of temperature offsets used, final tion and melt at the modelled ice sheet surface, exist be- glaciated area and final ice volume differ widely between tween data sets (Figs. 2–4). In this section we use the World- different input climatologies (Fig. 5). For instance, using Clim climatology, which is derived from observations, as www.the-cryosphere.net/8/1087/2014/ The Cryosphere, 8, 1087–1103, 2014 1094 J. Seguinot et al.: Climate forcing for Cordilleran ice sheet simulations

WorldClim smoothed CFSR ERA-Interim CFSR NARR NCEP/NCAR 4 12 ) 2

) 10 3 m k

3 m 6 k 0

6 8 1 0 (

1 ( a

e 2 6 e r a m

u d l

e 4 o t v a

i 1 e c c a

I 2 l G 0 0 10 8 6 4 2 0 10 8 6 4 2 0 Temperature offset Temperature offset

Figure 5. Total glaciated area and ice volume after 10 kyr as a function of temperature offset for each climate forcing used.

WorldClim ERA-Interim NARR 0

5 smoothed CFSR CFSR NCEP/NCAR

6 temperature offset (°C)

Figure 6. Extent of ice cover after 10 kyr as a function of applied temperature offsets for each climate forcing used. A reconstructed LGM ice sheet margin by Dyke (2004) (Fig. 1) is given for reference (black line). a reference with which to compare other climate forcing data rate correction prior to this comparison, using the same lapse on land. rate of 6 ◦C km−1 as in the simulations. ERA-Interim, CFSR Because much of the disparity between reanalyses and ob- and NARR climatologies exhibit temperature distributions servational temperature data is caused by topographical de- fairly consistent with WorldClim data (Fig. 8). The spatial tail at scales unresolved in the reanalyses, we apply a lapse- distribution of temperature differences between reanalyses

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104 WorldClim ERA-Interim NARR

103 ) 1 - a m (

y t i c o l e v

smoothed CFSR CFSR NCEP/NCAR e c a f r u s

e c i

102

101

Figure 7. Ice surface topography (1 km contours) and velocity (m yr−1) after 10 kyr under a climate 5 ◦C colder than present for each climate forcing used. and WorldClim data shows partly consistent patterns, such Most likely, this is the signature of an orographic pre- as positive anomalies in the northernmost part of the mod- cipitation effect. The topography of the Northern American elling domain. These may relate to weaknesses of World- Cordillera is such that its western ranges form a continuous Clim data in areas of sparse observational coverage (Fig. 9). orographic barrier, causing high precipitation along the Pa- However, significant disparity among reanalyses exists, too. cific coast while leaving much of the interior arid. The abil- More specifically, surface air temperature data from the ity of a GCM to reproduce these contrasts in precipitation NCEP/NCAR climatology shows the largest disparity with is bounded by spatial resolution. In a model of coarser res- that of WorldClim, with a significant cold anomaly over most olution, these high mountain ranges are reduced to smooth of the modelling domain (Figs. 8 and 9). hills and the modelled distribution of precipitation is also All four reanalyses used in this study exhibit higher pre- smoother (Fig. 12). However, this effect alone cannot ex- cipitation rates than WorldClim data (Fig. 10). However the plain the widespread and pronounced positive precipitation magnitude of this anomaly differs significantly between data anomalies observed in CFSR data (Figs. 10 and 11) despite sets. The spatial distributions of precipitation differences be- its high-spatial resolution (Table 1). tween reanalyses and WorldClim data show that negative precipitation anomalies are generally constrained to the wind- 5.2 Model sensitivity to climate forcing ward slope of the major mountain ranges, while positive precipitation anomalies are found on the leeward slope of these To distinguish the effects of temperature and precipitation ranges and extend downwind to interior plateaux and low- biases on the ice sheet model, we run a series of eight ad- lands (Fig. 11). ditional simulations. These new simulations use a “hybrid” climate forcing that consists of temperature data from World- Clim, combined with precipitation data from each of the four www.the-cryosphere.net/8/1087/2014/ The Cryosphere, 8, 1087–1103, 2014 1096 J. Seguinot et al.: Climate forcing for Cordilleran ice sheet simulations

8 25 ERA-Interim NARR ERA-Interim NARR 20 100 6 15

10 4 5

0 WorldClim WorldClim

25 CFSR NCEP/NCAR 10 20 2 number of grid points 15

0 WorldClim WorldClim 1 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 CFSR NCEP/NCAR JJA mean surface air temperature (°C)

Figure 8. Density maps showing a comparison of summer (JJA) surface air temperature data from the WorldClim climatology, against that of each reanalysis. Climate data are presented after bilinear 2 spatial interpolation and correction for topographic differences to WorldClim data, using a lapse rate of 6 ◦C km−1. Colour mapping

is based on a logarithmic scale. Note the cold bias of NCEP/NCAR JJA surface air temperature difference to WorldClim data (°C) data relative to WorldClim data.

4 reanalyses, and vice-versa. A single temperature offset of −5 ◦C is used. This value was chosen to allow for comparison with previous results (Fig. 7). In each case, tempera- 6 ture lapse rates are computed using the reference topography 8 from the corresponding data set. Although only temperature or precipitation changes are Figure 9. Summer (JJA) surface air temperature difference maps applied, this experiment results once more in large differ- against WorldClim data, after bilinear spatial interpolation and ences in modelled ice sheet geometries (Fig. 13) as compared lapse-rate correction. Note the cold bias of NCEP/NCAR data and to the reference WorldClim −5 ◦C run (Fig. 7, top-left panel). temperature anomalies due to unresolved topographic detail. For ERA-Interim, CFSR and NARR climatologies, precipitation anomalies clearly dominate the differences in ice sheet response, whereas temperature anomalies have relatively lit- Considering previously identified weaknesses of the CFSR tle effect (Fig. 14). However, in the case of NCAR forcing, and NCEP/NCAR data (Figs. 8–14), we restrict our analysis both the negative temperature bias (Figs. 8 and 9) and the to the WorldClim, ERA-Interim and NARR input climatolo- important precipitation differences (Figs. 10 and 11) con- gies. In order to compare modelled ice sheets of a similar tribute approximately equally to produce oversized ice sheets size, we select for each climate forcing the simulation that (Fig. 14). leads to a final glaciated area closest to the approximate size × 6 2 5.3 Comparison to geomorphological LGM margin of the LGM Cordilleran ice sheet of 2 10 km . This corre- − ◦ reconstruction sponds to temperature offset values of 8 C (WorldClim), −6 ◦C (ERA-Interim) and −7 ◦C (NARR). These qualitative We compare modelled ice sheet geometries to a reconstruc- “best” runs are presented in Fig. 15 along with their asso- tion of the ice margin at 14 14C kyr BP (16.8 cal kyr BP) by ciated temperature depressions and a reconstruction of the Dyke (2004), based on glacial geomorphology and radiocar- LGM ice sheet margin by Dyke (2004). bon dating (Fig. 1). This corresponds to the LGM extent Although this selection results in similarly sized ice sheets, of most of the Cordilleran ice sheet, which occurred later noticeable differences in shape exist. The ERA-Interim sim- than for the Laurentide ice sheet (Porter and Swanson, 1998; ulation produces a more northerly centred ice sheet with Dyke, 2004; Stroeven et al., 2010, 2014). too much ice in the north and too little in the south. This may partly reflect unresolved orographic precipitation effects (Fig. 12) due to the coarser GCM resolution (Table 1). The

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1000 300 ERA-Interim NARR ERA-Interim NARR 100 200

100 100

10 50 )

WorldClim WorldClim 1 -

1 h t

1000 n 10 o

CFSR NCEP/NCAR m m m (

100 number of grid points 10 a t a d

m i l

10 C d l r o W WorldClim WorldClim o t 1 1 0 e

1 10 100 1000 10 100 1000 c

CFSR NCEP/NCAR n -1 e

DJF mean precipitation rate (mm month ) r e f f i d

Figure 10. Density maps showing a comparison of winter (DJF) e t a r precipitation rate from the WorldClim climatology, against that of n

10 o i each reanalysis, after bilinear spatial interpolation. Colour mapping t a t i

is based on a logarithmic scale. Note the wet bias of all reanalysis p i c e

data relative to WorldClim data. r p

F J D LGM ice sheet margin by Dyke (2004) is best reproduced by 50 simulations driven by input climatologies from WorldClim and NARR data. However, common discrepancies between 100 the modelled ice sheet geometry and the geomorphological reconstruction can still be observed (Fig. 15). 200 First, the modelled eastern margin of the ice sheet extends 300 further east than the inferred position of the junction between Figure 11. Winter (DJF) precipitation rate difference maps against the Cordilleran and the Laurentide ice sheets. This can be WorldClim data, after bilinear spatial interpolation. Note the wet seen for instance in the south-eastern part of our modelling bias of all reanalysis data and the large anomalies of CFSR and domain, where the modelled ice sheets cover an ice-free cor- NCEP/NCAR data. ridor of the LGM reconstruction (Fig. 15). However, such comparisons have been hampered by the fact that we have not considered the buttressing effect of the Laurentide ice sheet, These regions experience a marine climate, including lower which would have inhibited the Cordilleran ice sheet from summer temperature than on the adjacent land (Fig. 3). How- advancing onto the Canadian Prairies. In addition, potential ever in our simulations, sea level is lowered by 120 m, turn- effects of the growing ice-sheet on atmospheric circulation ing large parts of the low-sloping continental shelf into land. and precipitation changes are not included in our model. The This anomalous ice cover is to be interpreted as an artefact Cordilleran ice sheet initiated from the formation of moun- arising from our simplistic temperature offset method, and tain ice caps over the high mountain ranges (Clague, 1989). has little effect on the rest of the results. In our simulations, a continuous ice cover quickly forms over Given the lack of WorldClim data offshore, we consider the western ranges, where precipitation rates are higher than the NARR climate forcing as best suited for simulations of in the rest of the domain. In reality, this continuous ice cover the Cordilleran ice sheet among those tested, and under the enhanced the topographical barrier already formed by the assumptions of the present study. western ranges, and would have resulted in less precipitation and warmer air in the interior. This process of “self-inhibiting 5.4 Model sensitivity to the duration of ice sheet growth” is not captured in our model but was demonstrated inception to be important in a similar setting over Greenland, where it may have been limiting the advance of the ice sheet during Most of the simulations presented in this study, and more its build-up (Langen et al., 2012). particularly those that reproduce the LGM ice margin recon- Second, our simulations produce anomalous ice cover on struction more closely (Fig. 15) do not reach a steady state. parts of the continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean (Fig. 15). Instead, rates of growth remain high throughout the run, and www.the-cryosphere.net/8/1087/2014/ The Cryosphere, 8, 1087–1103, 2014 1098 J. Seguinot et al.: Climate forcing for Cordilleran ice sheet simulations

Reality the transient character of the LGM Cordilleran ice sheet, time-dependent palaeo-climate forcing would be needed. Al- prevailing winds though it is clear that past temperature changes over the region were neither homogeneous nor constant in time, their precipitation patterns are not trivial and may potentially display a strong topography inter-dependence with the evolution of the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets. As previously discussed, potential ef- High resolution circulation model fects of the growing ice sheet on precipitation changes are not included in our model. These changes likely consisted of a reduction of precipitation in continental regions and in the ice sheet interior, and an increase of precipitation along part of the margin where the presence of ice imposed ascending winds. They could have resulted in a more westerly centred ice sheet than modelled here, with lower ice thickness in its Low resolution circulation model interior. In addition, the final position of the eastern ice margin is largely controlled by its advance rate through the run. Therefore, the precipitation shadowing effects may have resulted in more similar ice-sheet configurations if they were included in the model. Although using a GCM of intermediate complexity (Yoshimori et al., 2001; Calov et al., 2002; Abe-Ouchi et al., 2007; Charbit et al., 2013) may represent a first step towards including ice sheet feedback on climate, Figure 12. Schematic representation of the orographic precipita- their spatial resolution does not allow for accurate modelling tion effect over a mountain range. In a GCM of low resolution, the precipitation peak appears downwind shifted and smoother and the of orographic precipitation changes in a region as mountain- precipitation shadow is less pronounced than in a high-resolution ous as the North American Cordillera. GCM. Furthermore, the surface mass balance model crudely sim- plifies the processes taking place at the glacier surface. Re- freezing of melted snow and ice and water retention in the bed elevation does not come close to equilibrium with the snow pack was shown to influence surface mass balance of ice load. In turn, a key assumption for the present study is glaciers (Trabant and Mayo, 1985), yet it is not accounted our choice of 10 kyr for the duration of all our simulations. for in our PDD model. Based on scarce observations over the Although geomorphological data shows that the period of Greenland Ice Sheet, different parametrisations of this effect Cordilleran ice sheet inception, from nearly ice free to full have been developed (Janssens and Huybrechts, 2000; Fausto glacial conditions, could not have been much longer than et al., 2009b). However, these parametrisations were shown 10 kyr, they provide no lower bound to this value. to disagree with more complex models (Reijmer et al., 2012), To test the effect of an inception period of shorter dura- and it remains undemonstrated whether their application to tion on model results, we use simulations run under NARR a different region and time period is sound. In addition, we climate forcing with temperature offsets of −11 to −7 ◦C, simulate temperature variability by using a constant, uniform and compare modelled ice sheet extent when glaciated area value of daily temperature standard deviation. This approach reaches the approximate size of the LGM Cordilleran ice implies large biases in surface mass balance (Charbit et al., sheet of 2 × 106 km2. 2013; Rogozhina and Rau, 2014; Seguinot, 2013), particu- This experiment shows that a shorter start-up period leads larly over regions with such various climates as experienced to more restricted ice cover in the eastern part of the mod- within our model domain. elling domain, where precipitation rate controls ice advance, The bedrock deformation model uses homogeneous litho- but more extensive glaciation in the south-western domain spheric properties and a semi-infinite mantle of constant vis- along the Pacific coast, where temperature is the limiting cosity. Thus, it does not represent lateral variations of crustal factor (Fig. 16). Hence, reducing simulation duration leads and mantle properties characteristic of tectonically active to a closer match with the LGM ice sheet margin by Dyke margins such as the American Cordillera, nor does it include (2004) in some sectors of the modelling domain, but higher the influence from the neighbouring Laurentide ice sheet. discrepancy in other sectors. These limitations should be acknowledged when interpreting ice surface elevation and volume reconstructions presented 5.5 Other potential method improvements in this study.

Our representation of climate history by constant temperature offsets is voluntarily simplistic. To better understand

The Cryosphere, 8, 1087–1103, 2014 www.the-cryosphere.net/8/1087/2014/ J. Seguinot et al.: Climate forcing for Cordilleran ice sheet simulations 1099

104 ERA-Interim temperature NARR temperature CFSR temperature NCEP/NCAR temperature

103 ) 1 - a m (

y t i c o l e v

ERA-Interim precipitation NARR precipitation CFSR precipitation NCEP/NCAR precipitation e c a f r u s

e c i

102

101

Figure 13. Ice surface topography (1 km contours) and velocity (m yr−1) after 10 kyr using “hybrid” climate forcing with precipitation rate from WorldClim and surface air temperature from each reanalysis (upper row), and surface air temperature from WorldClim and precipitation rate from each reanalysis (lower row). In other words, the upper row shows the effect of temperature anomalies, and the lower row the effect of precipitation anomalies, for each reanalysis, relative to WorldClim data. Each simulation uses a −5 ◦C offset for comparison with Fig. 7.

6 6 Conclusions both effects 5 temperature Our study shows a strong dependency of ice sheet model re-

) precipitation 3 sults on the choice of climate forcing data. For three of the m

k 4

6 four reanalysis data sets used, precipitation rate, over surface 0 1 (

air temperature, causes much of the variation in modelled ice y

l 3 a sheet outlines and volumes. Furthermore, the spatial resolu- m o

n tion of input data appears critical for providing the ice sheet a

2 e model with an accurate precipitation ﬁeld, conﬁrming the re- m u l

o 1 sults obtained by Quiquet et al. (2012) from various GCM v

c forcing data sets over the Greenland Ice Sheet. I 0 For the Cordilleran ice sheet, we achieve the best ﬁt to the mapped LGM margin by Dyke (2004) using climate forc- 1 ing from the high-resolution interpolated observational data ERA-Interim NARR CFSR NCEP/NCAR set WorldClim (Hijmans et al., 2005) and the North Ameri- Figure 14. Effect of temperature and precipitation anomalies (sep- can Regional Reanalysis (NARR; Mesinger et al., 2006). The arately and jointly) from each reanalysis on modelled ﬁnal ice vol- latter data set is preferable in our case due to the lack of ◦ ume relative to the result of the WorldClim −5 C offset simulation. WorldClim data offshore. Climate forcing from CFSR and Corresponding ice sheet geometries are presented in Figs. 7 and 13. the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis produce largely oversized ice www.the-cryosphere.net/8/1087/2014/ The Cryosphere, 8, 1087–1103, 2014 1100 J. Seguinot et al.: Climate forcing for Cordilleran ice sheet simulations

WorldClim, -8 °C ERA-Interim, -6 °C NARR, -7 °C

Figure 15. Ice surface topography (1 km contours) after 10 kyr using temperature offsets resulting in glaciated areas of circa 2 × 106 km2. A reconstructed LGM ice sheet margin by Dyke (2004) (Fig. 1) is given for reference (blue line).

4 erage in regard to geomorphological data. Therefore, we re- -13 °C -12 °C tain NARR data for forcing simulations of the Cordilleran ice -11 °C sheet in the future. -10 °C One must keep in mind, however, that these results are 3 -9 °C )

2 only accurate for our choices of ice-sheet model (PISM), m

k -8 °C surface mass balance model (PDD), study object (the 6 0

1 Cordilleran ice sheet), and, most importantly, palaeo-climate (

-7 °C a

e 2 representation (temperature offsets). At LGM, it is most r a -6 °C d likely that the presence of ice sheets signiﬁcantly affected cir- e t a i culation patterns and distribution of precipitation. At the cost c -5 °C a l

G of greater computational expense, a more accurate represen- 1 -4 °C tation of palaeo-climate may allow for a better ﬁt between -3 °C model results and the mapped LGM margin. -2 °C -1 °C 0 °C 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Author contributions Model time (ka)

Figure 16. Left panel: model sensitivity to simulation length. Mod- J. Seguinot ran the simulations and wrote most of the paper; elled glaciated area, using NARR forcing data, and temperature off- C. Khroulev implemented necessary code changes in PISM; sets from −15 to 0 ◦C, solid lines corresponding to values from I. Rogozhina helped with model set-up and experiment de- −11 to −7 ◦C. Right panel: modelled ice margin corresponding to sign; A. P. Stroeven initiated the Cordilleran ice sheet mod- temperature offsets from −11 to −7 ◦C when total glaciated area elling project; and Q. Zhang prepared some of the forcing reaches the approximate size of the LGM Cordilleran ice sheet of data. All authors contributed to the paper. 2×106 km2. A reconstructed LGM ice sheet margin by Dyke (2004) (Fig. 1) is given for reference (grey shading). Note that shorter (and colder) simulations lead to more restrictive glaciation of the conti- Acknowledgements. We thank Ed Bueler and Andy Aschwanden nental eastern margin but further ice extent in the maritime south- for providing constant support on PISM and patiently answer- western part of the modelling domain. ing our questions on the code internals, Laurent Brodeau and Soon-Heum Ko for assistance concerning software installations on supercomputing resources, two anonymous referees for supporting publication of this work, Frank Pattyn for constructive editorial sheets due to too high precipitation rates, and in the second comments prior to publication of the discussion paper, and all case, too low surface air temperature. The ERA-Interim data PISM authors for providing the model open source. This work used in this study produces more reasonable results, but it was supported by the Swedish Research Council (VR) grant no. may be too coarse to accurately resolve the spatial distribu- 2008-3449 to A. P. Stroeven, by the German Academic Exchange tion of orographic precipitation associated with the rugged Service (DAAD) grant no. 50015537, the Knut and Alice Wal- topography of the study area, resulting in misplaced ice cov- lenberg Foundation, and the Carl Mannerfelt fund to J. Seguinot,

The Cryosphere, 8, 1087–1103, 2014 www.the-cryosphere.net/8/1087/2014/ J. Seguinot et al.: Climate forcing for Cordilleran ice sheet simulations 1101 and by NASA grant no. NNX13AM16G to E. Bueler. Computer Charbit, S., Ritz, C., Philippon, G., Peyaud, V., and Kageyama, M.: resources were provided by the Swedish National Infrastructure for Numerical reconstructions of the Northern Hemisphere ice Computing (SNIC) allocation no. 2013/1-145 to A. P. Stroeven at sheets through the last glacial-interglacial cycle, Clim. Past, 3, the National Supercomputing Center (NSC). 15–37, doi:10.5194/cp-3-15-2007, 2007. Charbit, S., Dumas, C., Kageyama, M., Roche, D. M., and Ritz, C.: Edited by: F. Pattyn Influence of ablation-related processes in the build-up of simulated Northern Hemisphere ice sheets during the last glacial cycle, The Cryosphere, 7, 681–698, doi:10.5194/tc-7-681-2013, References 2013. Clague, J. 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