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BIRDS IN THE AMAXHOSA WORLD An ethno-ornithological exploration of the cultural significance of birds, and its potential for conservation in South Africa. by Jaap Gijsbertsen August 2012 A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Wageningen University – Department of Forest and Nature Conservation Birds in the amaXhosa World An ethno-ornithological exploration of the cultural significance of birds, and its potential for conservation in South Africa. D.J. (Jaap) Gijsbertsen 801027-263-010 Supervisors: Dr. ir. K.F. Wiersum (Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group) and Prof. dr. ir. C.S.A. van Koppen (Environmental Policy Group) & Dr. M.L. Cocks (Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes University) MSc. Thesis Forest and Nature Conservation Forest and Nature Conservation - Policy Group Wageningen University The Netherlands August 2012 FNP – 80436 SUMMARY In South Africa rural people have been living in close relation with their natural environment for centuries. Even today they depend in part on natural resources for their daily livelihood. Utilization of natural resources can be a threat as well as supportive to local biodiversity conditions. Preservation strategies in South Africa have created national parks and protected areas where local people were no longer allowed on their ancestral land, and excluded from the resources they had relied upon. The impact of this strategy on people and their former habitat caused a shift among conservation professionals to more participatory conservation strategies, restoring the relation of local people with their environment. To support this approach a deeper understanding of the human – nature relation is required. A particular a research gap exists in determining the cultural significance of a local environment. This research investigates the cultural significance of birds and its potential for conservation in two rural amaXhosa communities in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. The research answers the question: ‘How can the cultural significance of birds among amaXhosa contribute to birdlife conservation?’ The aim of this investigation is to document the ethno- ornithological characteristics of the traditional amaXhosa culture. In addition we explore its importance for local birdlife conservation. We assume that the local significance of birds forms an opportunity for participatory conservation practices. This study took an explorative approach collecting data among amaXhosa through interviews, forest walks, and free list exercises. Data of this traditional perspective was analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively using a knowledge-practice-belief framework. To assess whether birds play a different role in different communities, two villages (Pirie Mission and Ndlambe) were included in this study. In addition the local attitudes to birdlife conservation were assessed. To provide a background that would allow for the identification of common ground, a number of professionals conservationists throughout the Eastern Cape, were interviewed regarding their opinions on the integration of traditional values in birdlife conservation. Findings indicate that the amaXhosa culture assigns cultural significance to a number of birds. A main distinction can be made between the utilitarian and the symbolic value of birds. Utilitarian values are expressed in material practices such as hunting, birds as climate indicators, and al kind of indirect livelihood services. Symbolic values are expressed in non-material practices such as the role of birds in ancestral relations, birds providing a sense of place and identity, and birds as omens. Findings further indicate that birds do relate to particular place associated with ancestral veneration, this providing people a sense of place and identity. In particular ‘birds of the house’, are of high significance for amaXhosa well-being. Comparison of the two communities indicates an increased influence of modernity in Pirie Mission with utilitarian values of birds most prevalent. In the more rural village of Ndlambe the symbolic value of birds was emphasiZed. In respect to the ethno- ornithological characteristics of the Xhosa culture, this research does indicate that birds are recogniZed as meaning full even in a modernized rural context. The contemporary significance of birds for amaXhosa does support local incentives for birdlife conservation practices. This research shows that there is a possibility for formal conservation bodies to incorporate local cultural values. We therefore challenge conservation professionals to cooperate with local communities and develop practices that find their strength in the connection with local cultural values. I ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The completion of this research would not have been possible without the dedicated help of many wonderful people who have supported me in various ways to complete this investigation and report. I would like to thank my supervisors Freerk Wiersum and Kris van Koppen for their recommendations on my research proposal before going into the field, and the useful suggestions, advices, reflections and patience necessary to complete this final report. Many thanks as well to my field supervisors Michelle Cocks and Tony Dold, who have been of vital help during my fieldwork. Without your support after the theft of my belongings I would have been lost in the unknown and vast world of the Eastern Cape. Thanks and deep appreciation to all the people of Pirie Mission and Ndlambe who invited me into their lives and homes, and taught me so much about their beautiful culture. Thanks for enabling me to contribute to the understanding of your lives and culture, as well as to contribute to the science of ethno-ornithology in sharing with me your knowledge and beliefs about birds. Thanks to all conservation professionals who gave me their time and shared their opinion during our interviews. Thanks also to the librarians of the Niven Library (Percy FitZPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town), and the Cory Library (Rhodes University, Grahamstown), and their institutes who kindly allowed me access to their rich database of historical material. Gratitude is expressed to all students and employees from the Institute for Social and Economic Research of Rhodes University who have assisted me and kept company during my stay in Grahamstown, South Africa. A special thanks to Mlu and Paki, whose translation and assistance enabled me to enter the Xhosa world. I will never forget your friendship, company and good times during my stay in South Africa! I would like to thank SANPAD for the generous funding that made all the fieldwork possible. My sincere gratitude goes to my family that has supported and encouraged me to finalize my study. Words fall short for Esther who enabled me to leave for fieldwork caring for our beloved kids BoaZ and Aurelia. Thanks for your strength and love, my dear wife. I would like to thank my family as well; I could not have finished this study without your dedicated support. Thank you for my childhood, for all your encouragement over the years, and for introducing me into the beauty of man and nature. Finally my gratefulness goes to God, creator of heaven and earth, birds and people, who as the very source of all expressions of life blessed and enabled me to enjoy and complete my study. To him be glory and honor forever. I hope this report will be an expression of skills, as much as a proof of my gratitude to all of you, and a contribution to our appreciation for, and sustainable interaction with the birds in our lives and world! Jaap Gijsbertsen Ingen, August 2012 II TABLE OF CONTENTS SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................................... II TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................... III LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ....................................................................................................... VII LIST OF ABRIVIATIONS ................................................................................................................. VIII GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................... VIII 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THIS STUDY ........................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ..................................................................................................................... 2 2 THEORETICAL ORIENTATION ..................................................................................................... 4 2.1 NATURE CONSERVATION .................................................................................................................. 4 2.1.1 History roots of nature conservation .................................................................................. 4 2.1.2 Nature conservation in South Africa ................................................................................... 4 2.1.3 Community based conservation in South Africa .................................................................
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