RGZM – Tagungen 27 (Mainz 2016)

Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie

Sonderdruck

RGZM – Tagungen Band 27

Holger Baitinger (Hrsg.) Materielle Kultur und Identität im Spannungsfeld zwischen mediterraner Welt und Mitteleuropa

Material Culture and Identity between the Mediterranean World and Central Europe

Akten der Internationalen Tagung am Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum Mainz, 22.-24. Oktober 2014 Abschlusstagung des DFG-Projekts »Metallfunde als Zeugnis für die Interaktion zwischen Griechen und Indigenen auf Sizilien zwischen dem 8. und 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr.«

Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 2016 Gedruckt mit Unterstützung der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft

Redaktion: Holger Baitinger, Claudia Nickel (RGZM) Satz: Claudia Nickel (RGZM) Umschlaggestaltung: Reinhard Köster (RGZM)

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ISBN 978-3-88467-262-4 ISSN 1862-4812

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Herstellung: betz-druck GmbH, Darmstadt Printed in Germany. Inhalt

Holger Baitinger Vorwort �� VII

Hans-Joachim Gehrke Von der Materialität zur Identität. Methodologische Überlegungen zu einem zentralen Problemfeld der archäologisch-historischen Wissenschaften �� 1

Holger Baitinger · Tamar Hodos Greeks and Indigenous People in Archaic Sicily – Methodological Considerations of Material Culture and Identity �� 15

Holger Baitinger Metallfunde in sizilischen Kontexten des 8. bis 5. Jahrhunderts v. Chr.: Anzeiger von Identität oder »Internationalität«? �� 33

Chiara Tarditi The Metal Objects from the Sanctuary of Bitalemi and their Context �� 49

Stefano Vassallo Il contributo delle importazioni allo sviluppo e all’identità culturale di Himera �� 69

Erich Kistler · Martin Mohr The Archaic Monte Iato: Between Coloniality and Locality �� 81

Francesca Spatafora Insediamenti indigeni d’altura: relazioni interculturali nella Sicilia occidentale �� 99

Birgit Öhlinger Ritual and Religion in Archaic Sicily – Indigenous Material Cultures between Tradition and Innovation 107

Nadin Burkhardt Tradition in the Face of Death. Cultural Contacts and Burial in Sicily (7th-5th c. B.C.) �� 121

Kerstin P. Hofmann Funerärpraktiken = Identitätsdiskurse? Die Felskammergrab-Nekropolen von Morgantina und Monte Casasia im Vergleich �� 133

Raimon Graells i Fabregat Destruction of Votive Offerings in Greek Sanctuaries – The Case of the Cuirasses of Olympia �� 149

Hélène Aurigny Sicilian and Italic Votive Objects in the Panhellenic Sanctuary of Delphi �� 161

III Helga Donder Die Metallfunde vom Kalabaktepe in Milet – Siedlungsniederschlag oder thesauriertes Altmetall? �� 175

Svend Hansen A short History of Fragments in Hoards of the Bronze Age �� 185

Viktoria Fischer The Metal Abundance in Swiss Lakeshore Settlements – an Attempt to explain the Phenomenon �� 209

Christoph Huth Metallfunde in urnenfelderzeitlichen Höhensiedlungen Mitteleuropas �� 221

Claudio Giardino Evidence for foreign Contacts in Sicilian and Southern Italian Hoards of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age �� 239

Markus Egg Eisenzeitliche Depotfunde im mittleren Alpenraum �� 263

Andreas M. Murgan · Fleur Kemmers Temples, Hoards and Pre(?)monetary Practices – Case Studies from Mainland Italy and Sicily in the 1st Millennium B.C. �� 277

Verzeichnis der Autorinnen und Autoren �� 291

IV Birgit Öhlinger

Ritual and Religion in Archaic Sicily – Indigenous Material Cultures between Tradition and Innovation

In the 6th century B.C. Western and Central Sicily underwent a period of transition from the old traditional world to a new one, in a gradual process that was triggered by the intensification of cultural contact with the Greek and Phoenician coastal cities 1. This transformation naturally also affected the social field of religion, which provided a system of guidance and values in the local communities 2. These transformations and their materialisation at cult sites in the indigenous inland form the main focus of this article. The first section outlines in archaeological terms how the »old world« found expression in Western and Central Sicily and shows what kind of material manifestations of ritual and religion can be determined. The second part shifts the focus to the transformation processes that lead to a »new world« and different form of cult sites. The third and final section shows on the basis of two case studies how these worlds are interwoven. It makes clear that the social field of religion played a central role in installing new power structures in the local communities of Western and Central Sicily and shows how the old world of ancestors and forebears was used as foundations for creating new social identities.

Formation – The »old traditional world«

Since the Bronze Age, the traditional settlement structures consisted of a cluster of buildings with oval, round or rectangular outline, usually grouped around a courtyard or an open area. They resemble hamlet- like farmsteads, so-called compounds, as is illustrated by ethnological comparative studies 3. A direct parallel to these settlement structures can be found, for example, in the Iron Age settlements in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. Similar to Sicily, the small, fortified settlements in the north-west of Iberian Galicia comprise groups of round-houses with rectangular annexes surrounded by a boundary wall, the typical architectural units for compounds. Within these compounds one or several buildings usually with circular plans serve for social gatherings and intra-familial or clan-internal rituals 4. Particularly the Sanfins hill-fort settlement in northern Portugal (14 ha) 5 is reminiscent of Sicilian Bronze and Iron Age settlement structures, e. g. the settlements of Thapsos 6, Cannatello 7, Mokarta 8 or I Faraglioni on the island of Ustica 9 (figs 1-2). Like the Galician settlement, the latter consist of several compounds sepa-

Fig. 1 Sanfins hill-fort in northern Portugal: a settlement plan; b reconstruction of a south Galician compound. – (After González-Ruibal 2006, 155 fig. 9; 154 fig. 8). a b

Materielle Kultur und Identität im Spannungsfeld zwischen mediterraner Welt und Mitteleuropa 107 b

Fig. 2 Mokarta: a settlement plan; b round-hut 6; c reconstruction. – (After a c Tusa 2009, 42 fig. 4; 44 figs 6-7). rated from one another by enclosing walls and arranged along the line of the streets. The inhabitants of such compounds usually lived within extended families or clan-like groups 10. The existence of this kind of social system in Western and Central Sicily is corroborated not only by the settlement structures, but also by the funerary record in the necropoleis 11. The predominant burial ritual was shaped by multiple burials in rock-cut chamber tombs. This is particularly in evidence in the East Necropolis of Polizzello 12. In Tombs 5 and 25 multiple burials were found across several layers, indicating the succession of generations from the 8th well into the 6th century B.C. 13. Starting from this socio-archaeological framework of living in compounds, the material expressions of this way of life shall be considered in greater detail and will shed light on the field of religion, as well as ritual and sacrificial practices in the indigenous settlements. The architectural clay model of Monte Iato serves as a useful starting-point, arising from the socio-religious structure of the »old world« (fig. 3). Not only does it depict a prestigious round-house, but it also portrays a powerful bull, situated on the roof. On a symbolic level, the two key elements of traditional cultic and sacrificial practices have been united here to create a meaningful memorial to the past: on the one hand, the model comprises the central hut of the compound which traditionally served as the cultic and feasting hut for the extended family; on the other hand, it shows the bull which stands for the animal sacrifices that symbolised the virility of the host and local leadership. This interpretation of the latter is supported, above all, by a series of small bull

Fig. 3 Architectural clay model with a cow on the top from Monte statuettes that were identified in cultic contexts, but Iato. – (After Isler 2009, 163 fig. 31a-d). also during excavations of settlements and necropo-

108 B. Öhlinger · Ritual and Religion in Archaic Sicily leis, such as the bronze bull from a votive deposit in Butera-Fontana Calda 14 and the terracotta bull T 215 from Monte Iato 15. Sculpted cows not only existed as free-standing votive offerings, but also as three-dimensional figurines applied to the interior of matt-painted donation bowls 16. A remarkable example of this was found in Polizzello in Deposit 10 of the Roundhut B, depicting a cow with its calf 17 (fig. 4). The significance of cattle sacrifice and the symbolism surrounding hospitality are likewise evident on fire-dogs used for roasting-spits and deco- rated with bull protomes, as is illustrated by the two pairs from Sabucina 18. The same is true of the relief Fig. 4 Dipinta vessel with a cow and her calf from Polizzello, Round-hut B, Deposit 10. – (After Guzzone et al. 2006, 267). appliqués of cow horns found on incisa and dipinta amphorae 19. Such a pars pro toto representation can be found, for example, on a dipinta amphora 20 from Deposit 7 or an incisa amphora 21 from Tomb 25 in the East Necropolis of Polizzello (fig. 5). In terms of the sculptural creations by the indigenous population of Western and Central Sicily, equally as prominent as the cow effigies are the models of round-houses with conical bodies and a round aperture in the roof, mostly with an arch- shaped handle above it. Such models have been found in Monte Roveto and Rocca Ficarazze near Casteltermini, Colle Madore, Polizzello, Sabucina, Vassallaggi, Monte Maranfusa and Monte Iato 22. Moreover, small stylised huts also adorned the interior of bowls and cups 23. All these clay miniatures are copies of cultic and ceremonial buildings which were reserved for ritual gatherings and celebrations, as shown by ethnological and archaeological studies, such as that by González-Ruibal 24. In the Sicilian compounds such a cultic building is mostly a huge, round building, which was in many cases equipped with a central hearth and a prestigious entrance framed by two partition walls (figs 1-2. 9-10). The Fig. 5 Dipinta amphora with relief appliqués of cow horns from diameter of these cultic buildings varied from 6 to Polizzello, East Necropolis, Deposit 7. – (After Guzzone et al. 2006, 14 m, but averaged between 8 to 10 m, which cor- 295). responds to an area of around 50-80 m². In terms of their architectural appearance, they were in fact very similar to the surrounding dwellings, although in most cases they were somewhat larger. As comparative studies show, such buildings can be identified as intra-family cultic buildings. Indications of cultic activities are primarily provided by ritual deposits in and around the buildings. Such intra-familial, congregational and ceremonial buildings have been found in Montagnoli di Menfi 25, Polizzello 26, Sabucina 27, Caltabel-

Materielle Kultur und Identität im Spannungsfeld zwischen mediterraner Welt und Mitteleuropa 109 lotta 28 and Colle Madore 29. These buildings have so far been described in the scientific discourse as isolated indigenous temples and have not been set within the context of the settlements. When they are considered in the overall context of the settlements and necropoleis, however, it soon becomes clear that these buildings are cultic and feasting huts within individual compounds, which functioned on an intra-familial basis and did not serve the entire community, as was more commonly the case at Greek sanctuaries. It is not only the model from Monte Iato that sheds light on the power-discursive connection between Fig. 6 Dipinta phiale with stylised horns surrounding a round-hut from Polizzello, Round-hut B, Deposit 4. – (After Guzzone et al. the central ceremonial hut and the staging of opu- 2006, 240). lent sacrificial feasts. This link is highlighted in a similar way by a dipinta phiale featuring a round-house at its centre, which is surrounded by a series of horns pressed onto the inner wall 30 (fig. 6). This connection between the hut and the horns of the sacrificed animals is reminiscent of corresponding ethnological examples. It is custom among the Akha, a south-east Asian mountain people, for example, to ritually sacrifice water-buffalo and then hang their horns on the exterior walls of the central village hut as a symbol of the community’s prosperity 31. The Toraja, a people in the mountain regions of the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, is likewise accustomed to hanging the horns of slaughtered animals on and in front of special houses as a demonstration of family wealth 32. Similar ritual practices of blood sacrifice have also been identified in the indigenous interior of Western and Central Sicily. Accordingly, ritual deposits have been discovered within indigenous compounds and necropoleis along with simple deposits of ceremonial rubbish, which are indicative of communal feasts after ritual ceremonies 33. The deposits from a sacrificial feast primarily comprise the pottery used during the feast, drinking receptacles and feasting crockery, as well as ash and the remains of animal bones. As far as can be identified by examining the remaining animal bones, it was mainly cows, sheep / goats, pigs, boar and deer that were sacrificed 34. Cattle were sacrificed most frequently, archaeologi- cally underlining its prominence and importance in indigenous cultic and ceremonial customs.

Transformation and Innovation – The »new world«

In the course of the 6th century B.C. the world of Bronze and Early Iron Age compounds was increasingly being confronted – particularly in a religious sense – with a »new world« arising from intense contact with the coastal cities 35. From an archaeological point of view, the arrival of this »new world« in Sicily’s interior primarily found expression in the increase in the number of objects of Greek and Phoenician origin and in changing settlement structures, consisting now of agglomerate homes comprising one or several rooms and a more or less rectangular layout 36. This phase also brought about a gradual change in funeral rites and the prevalence of new grave types such as a cappuccina burials, fossa graves, small child (enchytrismoi) and sarcophagus burials. The dead were no longer buried collectively, but increasingly in individual graves. These changes suggest a gradual dissolution of extended family groups in hamlet-like compound settlements and the associated evolution of new social structures, as recently identified by N. Burkhardt 37 and K. P. Hofmann 38.

110 B. Öhlinger · Ritual and Religion in Archaic Sicily a

Fig. 7 Morgantina, Farmhouse Hill: a ground-plan of the so-called Hecatompe- dos; b reconstruction with antefixes of the first phase. – (After Allen 1970, 377 ill. 11; Kenfield 1990, pl. 43). b

The social field of religion was quite naturally likewise affected by this transition to a new life in centralised, concentrated settlements. The transition to this new way of life went hand in hand with the appearance of new rectangular cultic buildings – so-called oikoi – which were designed with tiled roofs, antefixes, acroteria and painted beams. These architectural features refer to Greek architectural styles. The size and features of these new buildings varied quite significantly from simple oikoi, such as at Colle Madore, whose interior measured 40 m², to monumental complexes with richly painted architectural terracottas, such as the oikos of Monte San Mauro near Hill 1-2 and the so-called Hecatompedos on Farmhouse Hill in Morgantina, which in its second phase covered an interior area of 220 m² (fig. 7) 39. As »Greek« as the architecture of these buildings may have been, their usage was very much aligned to the needs of the local indigenous population. Therefore, these Greek-like buildings cannot be considered inland offshoots of Greek divine worship or equated with the physical presence of the Greeks in inland areas through which indigenous settlements purportedly assimilated Greek cultic practices.

Sabucina and Monte Polizzello between tradition and innovation

In the course of these transformations and the abandonment of compound structures the intra-compound cultic and ceremonial huts were also closed down. Only in some cases were they preserved and modified into places of remembrance for the new communities which arose through the synoecism of the hamlet- like compounds 40. As the settlements were restructured, the former intra-compound meeting and feasting huts were expanded into powerful and central ritual sites serving the interior. They were symbolically based on the order of the »old world« of fathers and forefathers, thus creating a foundation for a new identity as a cultic community. This process and the associated local power discourse in the field of religion shall

Materielle Kultur und Identität im Spannungsfeld zwischen mediterraner Welt und Mitteleuropa 111 Fig. 8 Sabucina. Settlement plan with different phases: round buildings of the compound-phase; agglomerate rectangular buildings behind the protective wall of the new settlement-phase. – (After Panvini / Guzzone / Congiu 2009, 18). be illustrated more clearly using as examples the cases of Sabucina and Polizzello. The two settlements in Central Sicily demonstrate in quite an exemplary fashion how the old could be sustained alongside the new in a period of transition towards a new way of life. They also show how closely these two worlds are interwoven particularly in the realm of religion and in the formation and reinforcement of identities and power structures on the foundation of old traditions in a changing world. In doing so, elements from foreign cultures were accepted and became embedded in traditional contexts, whilst real and imagined traditions were consciously created to strengthen the group’s own identity 41. As in other inland settlements around the mid-6th century B.C., Sabucina also adopted a new settlement structure which found expression in clustered rectangular buildings (fig. 8) 42. The old compound settlement on the lower slopes of the hill was abandoned, whilst the new settlement withdrew to a higher area behind a protective wall, which in turn led to a more densely arranged settlement featuring rectangular buildings. In the course of this centralisation and consolidation process, an extensive cemetery was created on the west slope of the hill 43, where individual burials in fossa and a cappuccina graves, as well as in clay sarcoph- agi prevailed. Whereas these new burial practices point towards a change in the way society was organised, sporadic rock-cut tombs used into the 5th century B.C. and featuring multiple burials on the south-facing slope of the settlement are indicative of a certain amount of continuity with respect to preserving the old order. This ambivalence between the old and the new is also reflected in one of the central cultic sites of this phase, which had evolved from the traditional habit of living in compounds. Before the settlement was restructured, Sabucina was in fact a compound settlement with a hamlet on the south-facing slope (sector D). It consisted of several small rooms carved into the rocks and two central congregational round-houses (A and B). When the settlement moved higher up the hill, the living spaces in the hamlet were abandoned and filled in, whilst Round-house A remained intact (fig. 9). Round-house B was, by contrast, built over and replaced by a rectangular oikos with a tiled roof and Silenus antefixes. Even so, it was evidently decided that the round-house beneath should not be completely forgotten, which would explain why part of the external wall of the round-house was integrated into the new construction and used as a kind of bench 44. This visual and at the same time symbolic connection bears witness to the social importance of the former round building, whilst showing that the inhabitants of the settlement and those building the oikos were very well- aware of its significance and were, therefore, eager to preserve it. During this phase, both buildings were

112 B. Öhlinger · Ritual and Religion in Archaic Sicily Fig. 9 Sabucina. Cult area in sector D. – (After Panvini / Guzzone / Congiu 2009, 92).

given a new meaning and social depth. Once the settlement had been restructured, these buildings were no longer the central cultic huts of a single compound, but an extramural cultic site for the newly resettled community. This transformation from a cultic centre in the compound of a clan-like group to a central cultic site serving the entire community directly outside the new defensive wall is also reflected in the rich votive deposits in the two buildings. Such far-reaching conversion and expansion measures to create a cultic area for the community may also have embraced a lavish refurbishment of Round-house A, which was fitted with a portico-like entrance 45. The case of Sabucina illustrates that round-houses and oikos buildings could co- exist and that the arrival of the oikoi did not necessarily coincide with the advent of new cultic practices and rituals. Tradition living successfully alongside innovation is also apparent on Colle Madore, where the round building on the summit plateau was in use at the same time as the oikos on the south-facing slope 46. A clay model of a hut bears witness to the connection between both buildings, since it was found near the oikos and is adorned with traditional symbolism. A symbolic fusion of tradition and innovation is also in evidence in the unique architectural model of an oikos from the aforementioned cultic district of Sabucina 47. Interest- ingly, it was found in Round-house A and not in the directly adjacent oikos B. In view of the fact that nearly all the round-house models appeared in rectangular cultic buildings, it can hardly be a coincidence that the only model of an oikos actually came to light in a round-house.

Materielle Kultur und Identität im Spannungsfeld zwischen mediterraner Welt und Mitteleuropa 113 In the second case in point, namely the settlement of Monte Polizzello, similar transformation processes can be identified to those in Sabucina 48. On the one hand, these changes affected the settlement, as is shown in the »città bassa« at the foot of the eastern slope of the hill 49. Here the round and annex buildings of the compound phase of the 8th to 7th century B.C. 50 were replaced in the early 6th century B.C. with individual rectangular dwellings. This transition is also evident in the finds at the necropolis, which not only suggests that the traditional concept of settling in compounds was abandoned, but that the associated social structures were also dissolved. After all, the transition to consolidated living in rec- Fig. 10 Polizzello. Settlement plan of the summit plateau. – (After tangular dwellings in the first half of the 6th century Tanasi 2009, 312 pl. 1). B.C. also coincides with the end of multiple burials in Chamber Tombs 5 and 25. Whereas the compounds in the »città bassa« were abandoned in the course of the restructuring phase, the powerful compound on the summit plateau had developed into a central cultic and remembrance site which was presumably of wider geographical importance, as the rich votive offerings and the abundance of imported goods would suggest (fig. 10). They include, for example, a helmet from Crete 51, imported kylikes, ivory and amber intarsia work 52, a small ivory monkey 53 and numerous items of jewellery, such as amber necklaces 54. The closure of this compound as the residence of a powerful leading family must have occurred in the early to mid-6th century B.C., by filling in the foundation walls of the Round-houses A-E with soil. The infill in the interior rooms meant that the buildings were no longer accessible and therefore no longer suitable as dwellings. However, from this point onwards the infill was used for ritual deposits, which indicates the cultic character of the sealed ruins. The area between the former dwellings was also sealed with flagstones 55. As a result, the »old world« of this compound dating from the 8th to 7th century B.C. was architecturally frozen in time during the transition to the »new world« of the »città bassa«, and converted into a central cultic site of remembrance for the world and identity of the fathers and forefathers. This transformation is clearly apparent in the largest Round-house E. As the former cultic and ceremonial hut of a large family association, it was not simply closed and ritually sealed in the early 6th century B.C., but was converted into a platform with a central hearth which served as an altar for burnt offerings (fig. 11) 56. Moreover, a short time later, a canopy-like construction with a tiled roof was installed on the platform, which suggests it was used for ceremonial purposes. The ritual deposits in the sealing layer of the round buildings contained, somewhat in contrast to earlier finds from the compound phase, more objects resembling votive offerings, along with ash and bones. This demonstrates that the ritual feast was still of central significance even after the site’s transformation into a sacred place of remembrance and that the traditional sacrificial ritual was preserved unchanged, but was now held in a larger cross-community setting. This is illustrated by the numerous deposits of remains from ritual ceremonies found in the rectangular Bothros F, positioned next to the monumental altar for burnt offerings. What was new were the goods used in the ritual, as well as the increased incidence of valuable votive offerings, including, above all, high-quality and numerous imported Greek objects 57. These objects were, however, embedded in local practices in the same way that the new technology of tiled roofing was used to cover the altar for burnt offerings. As an accessible showroom featuring the »old world«, the acropolis

114 B. Öhlinger · Ritual and Religion in Archaic Sicily area became an identity-giving cultic site of remembrance, which in the »new world« sustained the connection to the »old world« with the purpose of creating local identity and power. This identity-based and power-political discourse, which was played out in the religious realm on Monte Polizzello, is probably most closely comparable to the hut of Romulus in the »new« Augustan Rome as the origin of the gens Iulia 58. Here, too, a traditional hut served as a physical reference to an old, albeit imagined world of forebears as a means of mythologically explaining supremacy and ascendancy. In conclusion, it can be seen that in the period from the 8th to the early 5th century B.C. certain trends can be identified which evolved from traditional intra-familial cultic sites into new architectural forms with much wider social significance. This transition Fig. 11 Polizzello. Phases of Round-building E. – (After Pappa- took place between the poles of local, regional and lardo 2009, 176 fig. 40). proto-global factors, linked to changing social structures and an intensification of colonial contacts. Within these transformation processes, local traditions particularly in the realm of religion were vital to stabilising the existing social fabric and the values associated with it. At the same time, »Greek« elements were claimed usable for indigenous sacrificial rituals and were embedded in existing practices where it made sense to do so. With their new external appearance, oikoi can be considered an expression of local prestige, not least because they barely differed in function from the round-houses in the compounds. On the other hand, a comprehensive reorganisation of co-existence following the example of the coastal cities – for example in the course of synoecism – is likely to have led to the conservation and monumentali- sation of the »old world«. In doing so the »old world« mutated into a cultic landscape of remembrance as a means of connecting back to the past during this process of reorganisation. Linguistic corrections: C. Bridger

Notes

1) This article draws on the results of my doctoral thesis: Ritual 7) Castellana 2002, 129-132. und Religion im archaischen Sizilien. Formations- und Trans- 8) Tusa / Nicoletti 2000; Tusa 2009, 30; Kistler 2011, 133-136. formationsprozesse binnenländischer Kultorte im Kontext kultureller Kontakte (Öhlinger 2015a; also see Öhlinger 2015b). 9) Holloway 2003.

2) See Öhlinger 2012. 10) Each compound is occupied by one family. Depending on the size and number of buildings, there would have been either 3) Kistler 2011, 132; González-Ruibal 2006, 154; Gabrilopoulos one family with a central dwelling (hut with porch) or a larger 1995; Flannery 2002; Gabrilopoulos / Mather / Apentiik 2002. family with two or several central buildings: González-Ruibal For a compilation of compound settlements on Sicily see Kistler 2006, 154. 2011, 148 n. 1. 11) For more detail on Sicilian burials Burkhardt 2013, 115-129. 4) González-Ruibal 2003; 2006, 154 f. 158. 195-197. 348-379; for south-east Sicily Hofmann 2013, 232- 235. – Cf. also the contributions of K. P. Hofmann and N. Burk 5) González-Ruibal 2006, 158. hardt in this volume. 6) Especially the northern zone: Voza 1976/1977, 563; Doonan 12) Fiorentini 1999, 196; Kistler 2011, 138-146. 2001,178-181; Castellana 2002, 139-143; Leighton 2009, 150 f. fig. 151, Area 1.

Materielle Kultur und Identität im Spannungsfeld zwischen mediterraner Welt und Mitteleuropa 115 13) See De Miro 1988, 35-41; 1988/1989, 34-39; 1991; Fiorentini 30) From Polizzello, Round-house B, Deposit 4: Guzzone et al. 1999; Leighton 2009, 256; Kistler 2011, 138 f. 2006, 240; Tanasi 2009, 38. 50 cat. 16; Panvini / Sole 2009, 273 no. VI/243. 14) Palermo 2006, 116 f.; Panvini / Sole 2009, 133 no. VII/150. For other representations of animals (rams, birds, snakes, reptiles, 31) Hayden 2001, 56 fig. 2.7; 2014, 191-193 fig. 6.10; Clarke type of wild boar) see Panvini / Sole 2009, 141-143 no. VII/169- 2001. 178. 32) For the ritual significance of the buffalo Volkman 1985, 59-82, 15) Votive deposit east of PH1 in the western quarter, second half esp. 67; Hayden 2001, 56; for the ritual architecture of ances- of 6th / early 5th century B.C.; other Archaic animal figures inv. tor houses (Tongkonan) Dawson / Gillow 1994; Adams 2006. no. T 395, 228, 455: see Isler 2009, 164 with secondary litera- 33) Öhlinger 2015a, 161-173. ture; Russenberger 2015, 105-109. 34) Corresponding studies on inland settlements have so far only 16) For bull appliqués on incisa and dipinta vessels see Trombi been published about Colle Madore (Di Rosa 1999), Monte 2003; Russenberger 2015, 104 f. 107-109. Polizzo (Hnatiuk 2003; 2004 with references), Monte Maran- fusa (Di Rosa 2003), Entella (Bedini 1997), Monte Iato (Kist 17) Guzzone et al. 2006, 267; Tanasi 2009, 85, cat. 155; Panvi- ler / Öhlinger forthcoming) and Palike (Di Patti / Lupo 2008). ni / Sole 2009, 273 no. VI/244. Other data come from Montagnoli, Polizzello and Sabucina, 18) The first pair was found within the confines of the Archaic none of which has been extensively published. settlement in a loose deposit beneath Room 21 and dates 35) These social and cultural changes have to be understood as th th from the 7 to 6 century B.C. (Congiu 2009, 67; Panvini / Sole a process that had led to different local responses within the 2009, 79 no. VII/27-28), whereas the second pair, dating from settlements. This process-like character can be observed par- the same period, was located in what was probably the cultic ticularly in the necropoleis. The new types of burials existed Round-house B in Sector A (Guzzone 2009, 102; Panvini / Sole side by side with the traditional chamber tombs, showing that 2009, 80 no. VII/29-30). the connected traditional social structure within clan-like families changed only slowly and could well have existed into the 19) Occasionally, anthropomorphic faces in a similar style adorn 5th century B.C. in some places (e. g. Morgantina, Sabucina, the bowls of these vessels. Their closest parallels are the bronze Monte Bubbonia or Vassallaggi). Burkhardt 2013, 115-129. sheets. Overview in Vassallo 1999, 134 f.; see also Siracusano 2001, 36 f.; Albanese Procelli 2003, 196 f.; Trombi 2003. 36) See González-Ruibal 2006, 158; see Mesoamerica and the Near East for similar developments in settlements: Flannery 20) Guzzone et al. 2006, 295; Panvini / Sole 2009, 82 no. VII/35. 2002. Living in compounds within family groups is replaced 21) Panvini / Sole 2009, 85 no. VII/40. with rectangular buildings for the nuclear family: »In both Mesoamerica and the Near East, villages of rectangular, nu- 22) A compilation of the models can be found in Gullì 2009; cf. clear family houses tended to replace settlements of small, cir- Öhlinger 2015a, 167-169. For the model of Monte Iato: Isler cular huts over time.« (Flannery 2002, 418). For more on Sicily 2009, 162-167; a fragment of another hut model with dipinta see Kistler 2011. painting was uncovered in the southern section of the agora 37) For burial customs from the late 8th to the 5th century B.C. from a Late Archaic infill south of House I (Inv. no. K 19090): Burkhardt 2013, 121-128. see most recently Russenberger 2015, 110 fig. 6.10. For the models of Monte Maranfusa Spatafora 2010, 33 f. fig. 21; 38) For Eastern Sicily Hofmann 2013, 232-235. 2015b; for the models of Sabucina: tent-shaped architectural 39) See for Monte Iato and Monte Saraceno: Öhlinger 2014; forth- model: De Miro 1977, 103 pl. 23; La Rosa 1996, 531; Pan- coming. vini 2006, 72, C; Guzzone et al. 2006, 319; hut model with rectangular outline: Panvini 1997/1998, 25-29 tab. 23 fig. 4; 40) Also the studies of A. Gonzalez-Ruibal have shown that such Guzzone et al. 2006, 320 f. no. 145; Congiu 2009, 68; oikos ritual round-huts longer retained their round shape during the model: De Miro 1980/1981, 563 f. tab. 32-34; Sedita Migliore transformation process through Roman influence than the surrounding huts of the compound, which is due to their connec- 1981, 91 n. 178; De Miro 1983, 336-340. tion to the ancestors and their social importance: González- 23) Miniaturised huts: Tanasi 2009, 50 no. 15-16; 53 no. 30; 84 Ruibal 2006, 158. no. 153; 85 no. 154; 98 no. 12-13; Pappalardo 2009, 141 41) Kistler 2015; Kistler / Mohr in this volume; see also for this phe- no. 20-21; 143 no. 33; 144 no. 41; 283 no. 181-182; also nomenon on Monte Iato: Mohr 2012; Kistler / Öhlinger / Steger see Monte Maranfusa, Campo F, Building B: Spatafora 2015a, 2013, 254-256; Kistler / Öhlinger forthcoming; M. Hoernes in: 14 f.; 2015b; Monte Saraceno: Gullì 2009, 260 fig. 4. Kistler / Öhlinger forthcoming. 24) Kistler 2011, 131-133; also see González-Ruibal 2006. 42) Öhlinger 2015a, 76-85. 25) Castellana 1988/1989; 1992; 1993/1994; 2000. 43) Panvini 2009, 125-127. 26) Frasca / Palermo 1981; De Miro 1988; Palermo / Tanasi / Pappa- 44) De Miro 1980/1981, 564. lardo 2009; Panvini / Guzzone / Palermo 2009. 45) For more on the discussion on the Pronaos see Kistler 2012, 27) De Miro 1977; 1980/1981; 1983; Sedita Migliore 1981; Mollo 221-224. Mezzena 1990; 1993; Guzzone 2009. 46) Vassallo 1999. 28) Panvini 1986/1987; 1988/1989; 1993/1994. 47) De Miro 1980/1981, 563 f. pl. 32-34; Sedita Migliore 1981, 91 29) Vassallo 1999, 24-29. n. 178; De Miro 1983, 336-340.

116 B. Öhlinger · Ritual and Religion in Archaic Sicily 48) Panvini / Guzzone / Palermo 2009. 55) Ibidem 235.

49) Tanasi 2007, 159 f. with literature references. 56) A similar development is attested in Monte Polizzo (platform A1): Öhlinger 2015a, 91-93. 95-97. 50) De Miro 1988/1989; 1999. 57) Accordingly, the 17 deposits of the second phase in Round- 51) Guzzone et al. 2006, 246 f. no. 72; Panvini / Sole 2009, 359 no. house B contained 67 % ceramics, 41 % of which were of VI/438. Greek origin, and only 26 % of local origin. The imported 52) Guzzone et al. 2006, 268 f. no. 101; Panvini / Sole 2009, 146 goods mostly comprise Greek drinking vessels, with the ma- no. VII/183. jority of bowls, jugs and storage receptacles being primarily of local origin. For an evaluation of the deposit in Round-house 53) Guzzone et al. 2006, 272 f. no. 106. B: Tanasi 2009, 110-115. 54) Ibidem 275 no. 108; 280 f. no. 114-115; 286 no. 120. 58) Walter 2004, 179-183.

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Materielle Kultur und Identität im Spannungsfeld zwischen mediterraner Welt und Mitteleuropa 119 Summary Ritual and Religion in Archaic Sicily – Indigenous Material Cultures between Tradition and Innovation In the period of the so-called »Greek colonisation« the indigenous communities of Sicily came into close contact with different foreign groups of people. But it was not until the 6th century B.C. that these cultural contacts – especially with the settlers of the Greek and Phoenician coastal cities – have left deep traces of change in the interior communities. These transformation processes affected all areas of life to a certain degree, likewise the social field of religion. The article examines the implications of these transformation processes on the cult and ritual practice of the local communities of Western and Central Sicily. Starting with the indigenous cult landscape prior to the 6th century B.C, it will be shown what kind of material expressions of ritual and religion can be determined, which belong to a traditional form of living and, therefore, to the »old world«. In a second step the focus shifts to the transformation processes that lead to a »new world« and different form of cult sites. The two case studies of the indigenous settlements of Sabucina and Monte Polizzello in central Sicily (prov. Caltanissetta) clearly point out that these two »worlds« are cor- related with each other and that the social field of religion played a central role in installing new power structures in the local communities.

120 B. Öhlinger · Ritual and Religion in Archaic Sicily