Birds on the Farm

Home , Cedar waxwing, Eastern towhee, Indigo bunting, Killdeer, Veery

Birdson the Farm A Stewardship Guide

Written by Erin McGauley

Edited by Gregor G. Beck and Anne Bell

Spring 2004

1 Introduction – 4

Homestead Areas – 8 Boxes and Tunnels Planting Native Vegetation Ontario Barn Owl Recovery Project Cedar Waxwing

Cropland Techniques – 14 Conservation Tillage Voracious Visitors Vesper Sparrow Contents Other Cropland Techniques Crop Rotation Strip Cropping and Grassy Borders Cover Crops Northern Bobwhite

Pest Management and Organics – 23 Trends in Pesticide Use Reducing Exposure to Pesticides Integrated Pest Management Agriculture is for the Birds! Birds Can Help Prevent Your Pest Problems

Grasslands – 27 Rotational Grazing Pasture and Hayfield Species Haying Loggerhead Shrike Case Study: Rotational Grazing Bobolink Eastern Meadowlark Upland Sandpiper

Marginal Farmland – 38 Deciding to Retire Your Land Retired Farmland is for the Birds Brown Thrasher Eastern Towhee

Strip Habitat – 43 Strip Habitat is Critical for Birds Strip Cover Design Tips Cowbird Parasitism and Yellow Warblers Strip Cover Specifics highlight Indigo Bunting 2 Eastern Kingbird

Woodlands – 49 Interior Forest Habitat Bigger is Better Naturalizing Tree Plantations Scarlet Tanager Red-eyed Vireo

Water Resources – 55 If it Isn’t Broken… Buffer Strips Buffers for What? Birds Benefit from Buffers Livestock and Waterways Don’t Mix The Multiple Benefits of Exclusion Exclusion Fencing Contents Alternate Watering Systems Common Yellowthroat American Woodcock

Monitoring for Success – 64 Christmas Bird Count Ontario Nest Record Scheme Project FeederWatch Ontario Breeding Bird Atlas

Getting Help – Sources of Information – 67 and Assistance

3 Introduction n Southern Ontario, two trends have meant bad news Ifor many species of birds: 1. the countryside is increasingly becoming urbanized, and 2. the remaining farmland is being farmed increasingly intensively.

“In New England they once For example, between 1966 thought blackbirds useless and 1986, agricultural use of and mischievous to the corn. land declined from 68% to They made efforts to destroy 54% in Southern Ontario as a them. The consequence was, result of urbanization. During the blackbirds were dimin- the same period, the percent- ished; but a kind of worm, age of forest on agricultural which devoured their grass, land dropped from 12% to and which the blackbirds 5.5%. Most counties and used to feed on, increased townships now have less than prodigiously . . . they wished 15% forest cover, and some again for their blackbirds.” have less than 5% (Riley & Benjamin Franklin, 1749 Mohr, 1994).

People who live much of their At the same time, the proportion life outside are very aware of of small family farms declined birds, perhaps more so than any relative to large corporate farms. other life form. We notice the A nation-wide trend, Canadian noisy return of killdeers in the farms are increasing in size and early spring, the clear sweet decreasing in number, with the song of a meadowlark from a average farm size having fence post in the early summer, increased from 50 hectares in or the clamour of gulls follow- 1990 to 250 hectares in the mid- ing the tractor on a warm sum- 1990s (Wildlife Habitat Canada, mer evening. Old timers will tell 2001). you that the birds are different 4 now. The fact is that the num- Larger farms mean less diversi- bers and types of birds around fied farming and more row-crop- us are always changing in ping. As pasture is converted to response to how we use and cropland, sometimes hedgerows manage the land and water. are removed to increase field size, and fields are ploughed to good reasons to do so, some their edges, eliminating grassy economic, some ecological and buffer strips. Equipment is get- some more personal. ting larger, and hedgerows are taken out to facilitate the move- Starting with the more personal ment of equipment between reasons, it is probably fair to say fields. Overall, this trend toward that most people enjoy looking more intensive agriculture is at and listening to birds. It would resulting in a simplified and con- be hard to imagine a silent stantly disturbed landscape, spring, without the chorus of Introduction often more reliant on chemical bird song greeting us when we inputs. Impacts include ground- step out of the house in the water contamination, declining morning. Through their song, surface water quality, and the movement, and comings and degradation and loss of wildlife goings, birds connect us to the habitat. natural world and remind us that According to many researchers, we are part of a living planet. the intensification and special- ization of farms in Ontario is It is up to each of us to ensure contributing to the population that bird populations remain declines of many species of healthy. While the individual birds (Friesen, 1994). For exam- actions of landowners may ple, more than 90% of grass- appear to have little effect on the land birds declined in eastern big picture, collectively their North America between 1966 impact is profound. Hence, as and 1989; two species affected, one small farm after another is the Henslow’s sparrow and log- affected by more intensive agri- gerhead shrike, are now listed cultural practices, we witness as Endangered (Austen et al., declines in entire groups of 1994). Similarly, the clearing of species such as grasslands birds. forests has resulted in declines of forest-dependent species Ironically, when birds disappear such as the whip-poor-will, from the countryside because scarlet tanager and ovenbird the habitat is no longer suitable, (Austen et al., 1994). it is the landowners who may lose out, especially financially. On a farm that is managed con- f we have the ability to sciously to benefit birds, the birds make the landscape worse for themselves can be of consider- Ibirds, then surely we also have able benefit to the farmer. 5 the ability to improve it. And that Consider: is what this guide book is about: improving habitat around the • In Alberta, a pair of savan- farm for birds. There are many nah sparrows (one of the most common breeding areas, there are opportunities to birds in mixed farming improve bird habitat while regions in Ontario) was meeting farm business objec- found to consume over five tives. Modern farming tec- kilograms of insects and spi- niques such as conservation ders during a breeding season. This would amount to about 3.7 kilograms or 149,000 grasshoppers per season. Introduction • In one study, birds removed 64% of over-wintering corn borers in one year and 82% in another year. • In Ohio, white-breasted nuthatch, brown creeper tillage, riparian buffer strips, and downy woodpecker and integrated pest manage- reduce codling moth larvae ment play important roles in by over 90%. enhancing and creating bird- • In pecan groves, a tufted tit- friendly habitat on farms, and mouse was found to eat can result in significant savings 2,100 case bearer larvae, for farmers. Incorporating eco- saving pecan growers an logical management techniques estimated 52,000 nuts. such as those outlined in this • Birds have a strong prefer- book has many benefits for ence for pests: they eat 16 individual landowners, the envi- times more pest insects than ronment and society at large: beneficial insects. • Birds cause 72% mortality • Crop residues left on land of spruce budworm larvae in combination with no-till and pupae. cropping can reduce soil • In one study, evening gros- erosion by 80% and beaks ate 3,036,000 improve water quality. spruce budworms per • Fencerows slow wind speeds square kilometre at one by 15%, lowering associated site and 8,900,000 per erosion rates, saving valuable square kilometre at anoth- top soil and acting as living er. The financial benefits snow fences. were estimated at $1,820 • Shelterbelts can lower 6 per square kilometre (1995 energy needs by 10-30% dollar value). while offering livestock shade in summer and shel- Bird-Friendly Farming ter in the rain and cold. In most intensively farmed • Woodlots can provide fire- wood as well as building At the back of the book you materials, nuts and maple will find a listing of publications syrup to supplement farm and websites where you can income. obtain additional information • Buffer strips protect ground on the featured management and stream water quality techniques. There is also a com- and filter nutrients, particu- prehensive listing of organiza- larly nitrates, from runoff. tions that can provide advice on • Herd health is improved farming and conservation top- when livestock is kept out of ics, including a summary of Introduction waterways. some financial assistance pro- • Enhancing farmland for grams to help offset up-front birds results in better insect costs of implementing ecologi- and rodent control. cal farming methods.

What this guide book is about Good land stewardship involves developing an understanding of As a general rule, almost any the birds that use your farm, practice that reduces soil erosion, their habitat needs and the improves water quality, reduces techniques to manage that pesticide use and diversifies habitat for the good of both farming operations will likely birds and the farm. We hope benefit birds (Best, 1990). that this guide book demon- Throughout this guide book, we strates that bird-friendly farm- have highlighted some of the ing and sound farm most readily available ecological management can support and management techniques that benefit each other, and that help protect birds and their habi- together these approaches can tat. Each technique is briefly out- result in economic savings and lined, as are the economic, ecological benefits for farmers. environmental and/or social benefits of their implementation.

Various bird species that may benefit from your actions are named in the descriptions of the management techniques. In addition, each section features one to three profiles of particular bird species to give you a 7 better idea of the birds that can benefit from the implementation of the management techniques described. Homestead Areas

magine being able to watch birds in their natural habitat and admire them from the comfort of the I kitchen table or the porch. By enhancing the area around a farm homestead so that it is attractive to birds, you can create year-round bird watching opportunities for you and your family. Installing nesting structures for birds and planting trees and shrubs that provide food and cover for birds are two of the most readily accessible ways of creating a bird-friendly homestead. 8 Boxes and Tunnels

esting boxes are inex- sparrows and European pensive to build, easy to starlings.) Nmaintain, and provide • Place the box in habitat important nesting areas for that is suitable for the many species of cavity-nesting desired species and where birds. Some of these birds, it will be relatively undis- such as eastern bluebirds, pur- turbed for the entire nest- ple martins, tree swallows and ing season. Homestead Areas American kestrels can help • Install the box so that the control insects and small mam- opening is protected from mals on the farm! Wood ducks the prevailing direction of will also use nesting boxes, wind and rain and so that while other waterfowl, such as it is protected from direct mallards, will use nesting tun- sunlight. nels. Keep in mind that it may • Protect nesting boxes from take a few years after the nest- predators. Ensure that ing structure is installed before boxes are placed at an it is inhabited. adequate height and install them on poles away from shrubs and trees. Include a baffle or guard on the pole to prevent rac- coon or cat predation. • Clean nesting boxes in early spring before the birds return. Waiting until Below are a few guidelines to fol- early spring will allow ben- low when building or installing eficial wasps, which nesting boxes for birds: pupate in nesting materials, to emerge and kill • Use weather-resistant nesting box parasites wood such as cedar, pine (AAFC, 1996). or hemlock for nesting boxes, if possible. Do not Organizations including Ducks use pressure-treated lum- Unlimited, Bird Studies ber, since the chemicals Canada, Canadian Wildlife could harm nesting birds Federation, Ontario Nature – and chicks. Federation of Ontario 9 • Match the size of the nest- Naturalists, and the Ontario ing box opening to the Federation of Anglers and species of bird you would Hunters have building plans like to attract. (Otherwise and advice for nesting box you may encourage house construction. Homestead Areas Planting Native shelter for many bird species. Vegetation Low-maintenance plants such as native grasses or creeping lanting native vegeta- groundcovers are much more tion around the farm valuable to birds than conven- Phomestead provides tional lawn grasses. In fact, many benefits, including shel- habitat can be improved simply ter, shade, erosion control and by eliminating lawn pesticides water filtration. Enhancing the and mowing the lawn less fre- homestead with native trees, quently, thereby reducing dis- shrubs, vines and grasses can turbances to birds. (Note also also attract many species of that setting the mower blades migratory or resident birds and higher results in a healthier provide year-round nature lawn that requires less water- appreciation opportunities. ing.) Plantings improve bird habitat by providing readily available Native + Local = Best food sources, cover and nest- Throughout this guide book, ing materials. Once plants are all of the plant species sug- established, watch for species gested for wildlife habitat that tend to thrive around enhancement are native to homestead areas including the Ontario. Many of the plant eastern phoebe, white-breast- species growing around homes ed nuthatch, northern cardinal, and settlements in southern black-capped chickadee, east- Ontario are exotics (that is, not ern kingbird and house wren. originally growing there). Unfortunately, these species, Tree and shrub species, such as whether introduced deliberate- nannyberry, serviceberry, pin ly or unintentionally, can often 10 cherry, choke cherry, birches crowd out native plants. When and staghorn sumach, are an exotic plant such as com- excellent choices for feeding mon buckthorn becomes birds. White spruce and east- established, it can take over ern white cedar trees provide habitat, prevent the growth of native food sources and cover make sure that the plants you required by local wildlife, and are buying have been grown change the ecological make-up from local seed sources. Such of an area. Purple loosestrife is plants will be adapted to local a prime example of the way in climatic and ecological site which exotics can become conditions. How local is local? quickly established and choke The Ministry of Natural out native species. Resources has divided Ontario into tree seed zones. Using Exotic species, including many plants that originated in the Homestead Areas animals, are a growing con- same seed zone as your plant- cern. For instance, European ing site will ensure that the starlings, which take over the plants are adapted to the local nesting cavities preferred by conditions and therefore have the native eastern bluebird, a better chance of survival. have had a significant impact on their populations. The A Note About Cats recent arrival of the emerald Cats play an important role in ash-borer and the Asian long- keeping vermin down in and horned beetle (insects that around barns. It must be rec- threaten to devastate ash, ognized, however, that they maple and other hardwood can also pose a real threat to species in Ontario) provides birds. Outdoor cats have been another example of the harm known to kill an average of 12- that can be caused by invasive 14 birds per year, resulting over exotic species. time in the loss of millions of birds (American Bird By planting native species that Conservancy, 2003). are adapted to local conditions, you will help to maintain or restore healthy communities of plants and animals and to prevent the potential disrup- tions caused by exotics. At the plant or tree nursery ask for native species. Avoid cultivars, and watch out for inappropri- ate substitutions - for example, European highbush cranberry (Viburnum opulus) instead of 11 native highbush cranberry (Viburnum trilobum).

At the nursery, it also pays to Ontario Barn Owl Recovery Project The barn owl is a medium-sized owl with dark eyes set in a distinctive heart-shaped face. Barn owls hunt in wet grassy meadows, old farm fields, tallgrass prairie and vegetated ditches. From both a conservation and pest control standpoint, barn owls are a valuable component of the rural landscape. A family of eight barn owls can consume over 1,000 mice, voles and shrews in just one breeding season (Ingels, 1992). Homestead Areas

Rare in Ontario, the eastern population of the barn owl has been formally recognized as Endangered. In 1997, when barn owl numbers were very low, a group of interested people in Haldimand-Norfolk initiated the Ontario Barn Owl Recovery Project. One of the components of this project is to erect nesting boxes on farms that have suitable habitat for the bird, such as old fields, wetlands, barns and silos. Nesting boxes have been installed on dozens of farms along the north shore of Lake Erie with the hope of encouraging the barn owl’s recovery.

Cedar Waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum 12 Cedar waxwings are common summer residents and can be easily attracted to your homestead by native berry-producing trees and shrubs. They breed late in the spring, a habit which ensures that berry crops are ready when nestlings need to be fed in the later summer. Cedar waxwings have a remarkable ability to digest nearly any type of berry, including ones that are poisonous to humans. They will even consume fermented berries, a practice which causes them to show definite signs of tipsiness!

Rarely seen alone, these handsome birds move erratically among food crops, feeding on berries in large flocks. Cedar waxwings in a flock tend to cooperate. When one bird has had its fill of berries, it will pass berries on to its neighbour, who will eat the berry or con- tinue to pass it along in a sort of berry bucket brigade, until a hun- Homestead Areas gry bird snatches it up. Listen for the faint, high pitched ‘tsee’ calls of cedar waxwings throughout the summer.

Cedar waxwings are sleek, crested birds with a black mask and a yellow band on the tip of the tail. A little smaller than a robin, these birds frequent open, wooded areas as well as parks, gardens and overgrown fields.

13 from last year’s last from leaving crop residue on the residue leaving crop field during the cold winter the months as well as through seeds spring, farmers provide and other food, elevated song and cover for birds. perches to e managed

op residue on the soil surface of the field before op residue reatures large and small benefit reatures cr and during planting operations. Conservation and during planting operations.

with conservation tillage irds are attracted are irds fields that ar

for a number of reasons. By for a number of reasons. The Birds Will Thank You The Birds Conservation Tillage tillage is a technique that helps farmers meet production tillage is a technique that helps farmers bird and enhance goals, conserve soil and water resources, Technology habitat at the same time. The Conservation as “any tillage or Information Center defines this technique least 30% of the soil sur- planting system that maintains at 1994). after planting” (CTIC, by residue face covered that can include sev- Conservation tillage is a general term mini- systems such as no-till, mulch tillage, eral different till. mum till or reduced

C B Cropland Techniques 14 Waste grains and weed seeds vation tillage can save money, are important fall food topsoil and time. sources for migrating and resident birds such as the • Water Quality: Leaving savannah sparrow, song crop residue on the soil sparrow, snow bunting and surface allows water to winter songbirds. Consider collect and infiltrate the making a good situation soil, improving soil mois- even better by leaving a few ture levels and reducing Conservation Tillage rows or a small area of crop wind and water erosion as standing as a food source for well as the risk of associat- birds. ed chemical runoff. • Erosion: Crop residue on Reduced tillage, particularly fields can reduce wind in the spring, translates into erosion by up to 80%, fewer disturbances to birds saving valuable topsoil. nesting in fields. Some of • Time: Reducing the num- these birds include the ber of tillage trips results horned lark, killdeer and ves- in reduced labour and fuel per sparrow. Fall-planted costs. Taking fewer trips crops such as winter wheat on a tractor also reduces provide habitat that is superi- carbon dioxide emissions. or to spring-seeded crops • Soil Improvement: Crop because there is no distur- residue improves the bance during the nesting organic content of the soil season. A study in North over the long term, and Dakota showed that nesting less tillage means less soil success for waterfowl in no- compaction. till winter wheat was two to • Weed Control: three times higher than in Eliminating tillage means conventionally farmed areas that fewer dormant (Duebbert, 1987). No-till annual weed seeds are winter wheat, particularly brought to the surface to when planted in corn or soy- germinate. Eliminating bean stubble, has shown tillage also means that great potential for benefiting perennial weed rhizomes songbirds and ground-nest- are not cut and brought ing birds (Foy, no date). to the surface, infesting a larger area. Generally, 15 Your Pocketbook and Your reducing tillage results in Environment Will Thank You less perennial weed pressure over the long term Among other benefits, conser- (AAFC, no date). Careful Pesticide Use Is Important Conservation Tillage

Enhancing wildlife habitat also means that when pesticides are used, they must be carefully selected and applied. Informed decisions are needed to balance weed and pest control in crop production with the possible risks to wildlife and wildlife habitat. Insecticides may have a direct toxic effect on some birds, particularly ducks, and both insecticides and herbicides can harm wildlife food sources (AAFC, 1996). Many pesticide labels note toxicity to wildlife. Careful pesticide selection and application in strict accor- dance with label directions will ensure maximum wildlife benefits from your conservation tillage system.

Also remember that wells are affected by what is put on fields. Some herbicides such as 2,4-D remain for a long time in ground water and have been linked to increased health risks among farm workers.

Voracious Visitors

Throughout this guide book, the advantages of attracting birds to the farm have been emphasized. There are, however, some situations where farmers are finding it difficult to co- exist with birds. Depending on the type of farm operation, location and 16 the populations of certain species, birds which feed on fruit and other crops are a growing concern for producers in Ontario. Resident Canada Geese

Due to the widespread hunting of local game for food and sport in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Canada goose had virtually disappeared from nearly all of its for- mer breeding range in southern Ontario. In the 1960s, the Ministry of Natural Resources and some local groups re- introduced the Canada goose to southern Ontario. Since that time, goose numbers have not only rebounded, but in many cases are increasing exponentially due to suitable Conservation Tillage habitat and low predator numbers in the province. The Canadian Wildlife Service estimates that there are more than 400,000 resident Canada geese that breed and live in southern Ontario year-round (OSCIA, 2002).

Until recently, the familiar honking V-shaped formations of Canada geese were welcomed by farmers. For farmers working hard to make a living from their crops, however, large numbers of resident geese and goslings grazing on emergent crops are not a welcome sight. The expanding goose population is causing significant crop damage in some agricultural areas (OSCIA, 2002).

Management Options

Canada Geese are protected under the Migratory Birds Convention Act, which requires a permit for hunting within open seasons. Where geese are causing serious crop damage, several options exist to control them (CWS, 1997).

Modify breeding habitat Breeding females look for open areas with clear visibility, low predator numbers and nearby water. Create natural barriers of brush and shrubs around water areas to dis- courage geese from selecting a breeding site on the farm. Focus efforts on the habitat between open cropland and wetlands. This will also create habitat for songbirds such as the common yellowthroat. 17 Use scare techniques As soon as geese arrive, use sirens, strobe lights, propane cannons and bird-call distress tapes to scare birds away and encourage them to nest elsewhere. Vary the patterns of sounds or lights. Implementing a combination of scare tactics works best.

Erect barriers

Conservation Tillage To deter geese from entering cropland for food, place strands of ‘Bird Scare Flash Tape’ or other shiny, fluttery materials at goose and gosling height levels between waterways and crops. Although adult geese could fly over these barriers, they will not leave their flightless goslings.

Contact the Canadian Wildlife Service The Canadian Wildlife Service as well as Ducks Unlimited Canada and the Ontario Soil and Crop Improvement Association have been involved in researching various control methods to prevent severe crop damage. Permits are required to hunt or scare geese with a firearm or to attempt other more invasive control methods and may be obtained from the Canadian Wildlife Service.

18 Vesper Sparrow Pooecetes gramineus

The vesper sparrow is a bird little known to most casual observers. Its rich, musical song, which begins with two sets of unforgettable, double notes, ‘here-here! there-there!’, is commonly heard on rolling farmlands in Ontario. It is absent, however, from intensively farmed areas. The vesper sparrow favours ‘messy’ crops, showing a clear preference for foraging in fields with lots of crop residue (Rodenhouse & Best, 1994). The abundance of insects in conserva- Conservation Tillage tion tillage fields attracts these birds, which eat insects throughout the breeding season and switch to seeds for the rest of the year.

Vesper sparrows are found on the ground in well-drained or dry grassland areas. During the springtime, males will hop onto a perch or a high tree branch to sing. The white outer tail feathers of the vesper sparrow are a distinctive mark when this little grayish, streaked bird takes off in flight from farm fields. Other distinguishing marks include a narrow white eye ring and a small patch of chestnut on the bend of its wing.

Vesper sparrow nests hold four to six white eggs that are heavily spotted with brown. The nest itself is a loosely-woven grass and rootlet cup, concealed on the ground in grass.

19 opland techniques is one of the most bird-friendly of the most is one the harvest of various strips the harvest work allows farmers to spread season. out over the growing Leaving a strip of unplowed until and unmowed cropland that an mid-July would ensure such as for birds exists area horned larks, bobolinks and raise killdeer to successfully their young. fields around Grassy borders an integral part of any strip are operation (USDA, cropping 1994). Used in place of end of grass or these borders rows, turninglegumes provide and access lanes for each strip and and erosion help to control filtration. runoff promote can provide Grassy borders habitat if these prime bird of chemical kept free are areas inputs and if mowing is delayed until after the breeding season (USDA, 1994). Birds such as the American wood- open grassy areas cock prefer for courtship displays and will grassy borders. benefit from Cover Crops Planting a ‘blanket’ or cover clover or cere- such as red crop bare al rye will help protect wind and water ero- soils from sion during the winter and early spring months. In addi-

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hile conservation tillage hile conservation other cr several farming techniques, offer particular advantages to birds of all shapes and sizes. of all shapes and to birds particular advantages offer hen crops are hen crops year changed from to year in a planned

pests and weeds specific to one crop; run-off; to continuous cropping. W sequence, diversity is added to sequence, diversity gr a farm operation. A nesting variety of migrant and visit a farm that pro- will birds food and vides several types of the sea- nesting habitat over is also a rotation sons. Crop large component of sustain- with many able agriculture, benefits including: • populations of reduced • and soil erosion reduced •• inputs; crop reduced yields compared increased and Grassy Strip Cropping Borders Alternating strips of forage or small grain with strips of row in large fields provides crop field edges for bird numerous habitat (USDA, 1994). The variety of habitats in strip cropped tall corn to fields, from crops low clover legumes, for exam- the protection, ple, provides food and nesting areas Timing by many birds. required

Crop Rotation Crop W Other Cropland Techniques 20 tion, cover crops can suppress wintering and migrant species. weed growth, add organic The northern bobwhite, for matter, improve soil structure, example is dependent on green provide nitrogen for the next material such as clover to satisfy crop depending on the cover its winter food requirements. species, hold soluble nutrients and prevent leaching (AAFC, no date).

Cover crops are particularly Other Cropland Techniques important for birds, since they provide food supplies for over-

Northern Bobwhite Colinus viginianus

Difficult to glimpse amongst dense, tangled vegetation, the northern bobwhite can be identified by its unmistakable whistle, singing a rising ‘bob, bob-white’ throughout the spring. The patterned facial markings of the bobwhite set it apart in the field: these patterns are black and white in males and buff and white in females.

The northern bobwhite is the only native quail in eastern North America. In Ontario, it only survives in southwestern reaches of the province where winters are less severe. This species needs grass- 21 land for breeding, woody or brushy cover for shelter, and cropland for forage, all in close proximity. As a result, farmers using conservation tillage, strip cropping and cover crops can provide important food and habitat diversity for the bobwhite. In a North Carolina study, researchers found that bobwhite chicks met their daily nutrition- al requirements in less than six hours of foraging in no-till soybeans planted with wheat, compared to more than twenty hours of foraging in tilled soybean fields (Palmer and Lane, 1999). Vitamin A is a particu- Other Cropland Techniques lar requirement of this species, hence cover crops such as clover and grass are critical resources for this bird throughout the winter.

Northern bobwhite nests hold 10 to 15 eggs in a grass-lined hollow concealed in weeds or grass near open or cultivated land. Outside the breeding season, bobwhites gather in coveys of approximately two dozen birds, huddling together in the cold and vigorously defending their territory.

The range of northern bobwhites in Ontario dropped following a series of severe winters in the 1970s, and numbers remain low. Intensive farming methods that tend to limit on-farm diversity have reduced habitat quantity and quality for this species. Given the small, localized populations of this species and the threats to its habitat, the northern bobwhite is now listed as Endangered in Ontario. Consider implementing some of the techniques mentioned in this book to help this species recover.

22 est and weed management is an essential component of food production. Farmers must contend with European corn P borers, Colorado potato beetles, alfalfa weevils, rusts, aphids, mites and many, many other pests in order to produce the food that people need. Conventionally, these pests have been coun- tered with synthetic pesticides, including insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Increasingly, though, consumers and producers are investigating or employing integrated pest management or organic Pest Management and Organics alternatives.

Trends in Pesticide Use tion is growing at a yearly rate of roughly 20%, and in many etween 1983 and cases represents a viable alter- 1998, total usage of pes- native to conventional farming Bticides in Ontario practices (OMAF, 2001). decreased by 40.7%, and the amount of pesticide applied Fish and wildlife, particularly per hectare of crop land birds, have much to gain from decreased by 35.7% (AG Care, this positive trend towards no date). These figures reflect decreased pesticide use and a reduced pesticide applications focus on organic practices. The as well as changes in the type use of pesticides has been of crops grown, increased crop proven to have harmful rotation and the availability of impacts on birds. newer, more effective pesticides which can be applied less Reducing Exposure to frequently and at lower rates Pesticides (AG Care, no date). In addition, pesticide-free organic Birds are exposed to agricultur- agricultural operations have al chemicals when their skin also been increasing. Statistics and feathers touch treated from 2001 show that there are foliage, when they preen their over 400 certified organic residue-covered feathers, and farms in Ontario, representing when they forage and ingest a total of 30,000 hectares pesticide granules or affected 23 (75,000 acres) of the province’s insects, seeds and vegetation farmland. While still a relatively (Brenner, 1991). Some of the small portion of the agricultur- most common pesticides, par- al land base, organic produc- ticularly organophosphate insecticides like diazinon and Increased planting densi- parathion, have been shown to ties and narrow row directly poison birds nesting spaces leave little room for and feeding in farm fields unwanted vegetation. (CWS, 2002). More restrictive • Use biological control and careful use of selective, methods such as cover low residual pesticides, as well and companion crops to as a greater emphasis on inte- fight weeds. Rye, for grated pest management tech- example, inhibits weed niques are making agricultural establishment and growth. Pest Management and Organics lands safer places for birds and • Monitor your fields regu- other animals, including peo- larly. Catching problems ple, to live. early may ease control efforts, and an awareness Integrated Pest of pest life cycles helps Management determine the most effective timing for control. Integrated pest management • Rotate crops to break pest (IPM) focuses on identifying cycles. Maintain a low pes- and monitoring pests, choos- ticide load in the soil by ing a threshold of acceptable including crops that pest damage, and selecting require little or no pesti- from a variety of targeted con- cides, like pasture grasses, trol practices. IPM is both eco- in the rotation. (Note that nomically and environmentally hay fields provide habitat sound in that it minimizes crop for several bird species damage as well as pesticide such as savannah sparrow, use and lowers the risk of vesper sparrow, bobolink developing pesticide-resistant and meadowlark.) pest populations. IPM also • Rotate the family of chem- reduces the risks of harmful icals used for pesticides effects on human health and annually. This will help the environment, since pesti- reduce the incidence of cides are the last resort in an pesticide-resistant pests. IPM program (AAFC, 1996b). • Consider delineating an economic threshold of Listed below are suggested control. Eliminating techniques to reduce agricul- every weed in a field tural chemical use and create a may prove to be less effi- 24 bird-friendly farm, based pri- cient in terms of cost marily on IPM (AAFC, 1996b): and time than simply allowing some controlled • Grow crops aggressively to growth. Late season compete with weeds. weeds do not significantly reduce crop yield. Saskatchewan organic farms • Calibrate pesticide applica- than on conventional farms tion machinery carefully to (Freemark & Kirk, 2001; control chemical drift. Shutler, 2000). No pesticides • Keep records of your pest and, generally, a greater per- control successes and centage of non-crop habitats challenges. Notes that are help to make organic farms specific to your fields will more attractive to birds help you determine the (Robinson, 1991). effectiveness of various Pest Management and Organics control methods. The Canadian Organic Growers is a national member- Agriculture is for the Birds! ship-based education and networking organization Many of the techniques pro- representing hundreds of farm- filed in this guide book are ers, gardeners and consumers. common practices in organic For a provincial focus, the farming, including the planting Ecological Farming Association of cover crops, crop rotation of Ontario is a volunteer group and a preventative and target- dedicated to educating farmers ed approach to pest manage- about ecological methods of ment. Comparative studies farming. They are committed have demonstrated that organic to agricultural practices that farming is truly bird-friendly. enhance the health of soil, Research in both Saskatchewan crops, livestock and the farm and Ontario has shown that community through the under- birds prefer organic farms to standing of ecological princi- conventional models. Bird ples. Contact them to meet diversity and species richness other farmers who share this are much higher on Ontario interest. organic farms than on conventional farms, just as bird densities are significantly greater on

25 Birds Can Help Prevent Your Pest Problems

Increasing habitat for birds by putting into practice the techniques mentioned in this guide book can benefit your pest management systems, and ultimately your crop yields.

Birds eat insect pests in vast quantities and provide other

Pest Management and Organics important services. In many cases, as noted below, farmers are reaping the benefits.

• Eastern bluebirds and swallows can control flies in pastures and other grazing areas, reducing the incidence of pink eye in livestock. • Bluebirds and swallows are also welcome participants in the biological control of insects on cherry farms (Brenner, 1991). • American kestrels, great crested flycatchers and other insect-eating birds can help control crop losses by insects such as grasshoppers, weevils and aphids (Ingels, 1992). • Red-tailed hawks, northern harriers, short- and long- eared owls and great horned owls are important rodent controllers. These birds of prey can help control moles and mice, reducing silage and crop losses (Ingels, 1992). • Vesper sparrows forage extensively in fields for grasshoppers, beetles and cutworms, while migratory songbirds consume enormous numbers of insects in farm woodlots and hedgerows (Rodenhouse & Best, 1994.).

26 Grasslands

astures, hayfields, small grain fields and meadows on your farm are examples of agricul- P tural grassland habitat. Take a walk through these areas and you may see grassland birds, which are those that require open, grassy areas during the breeding season. The loggerhead shrike and Henslow’s sparrow, both listed as Endangered in Canada, depend on grassland areas for their survival. Songbirds such as the field sparrow, grasshopper sparrow, eastern meadowlark and bobolink build nests on the ground and raise their young in grasslands. Other birds depend on grassy areas for only a part of their habitat. The red- 27 tailed hawk frequently hunts in grasslands, for example, but breeds elsewhere. Grasslands – A ing techniques that help ensure Disappearing Act adequate habitat for grassland species can have equally positive hanging agricultural effects on farm production. practices have resulted in Cdecreases in the amount Rotational Grazing of land being used for pasture and hayfields. For example, Rotational grazing is gaining while cropland in Ontario has popularity as a management increased by more than technique that helps farmers Grasslands 111,000 hectares (274,000 manage pasture lands and acres) since 1996, pasture helps to increase populations areas have decreased by over of grassland birds. Rotational 237,000 hectares (586,000 grazing involves dividing a pas- acres), and hay and fodder ture into several paddocks with crops by approximately 4,000 fencing. Cattle, horses or hectares (10,000 acres) sheep are then moved among (Statistics Canada, 2001). the paddocks on a pre- Many grassland birds have arranged schedule based on been experiencing serious forage quantity and quality. declines, likely in part as a result of habitat loss. Among Rotationally grazed pastures these species are the logger- attract a greater number and head shrike, Henslow’s spar- variety of birds than continu- row, northern bobwhite, ously grazed pastures and row vesper sparrow and upland crop fields. Some of the rea- sandpiper (Cadman, 2004). sons and ways that rotational grazing benefits birds are out- Farms provide much of the lined below: habitat for grassland birds in Ontario. While regenerating • Rotation schedules can be meadows provide grassland planned so that one pad- habitat for birds, the manage- dock in the rotation is ment techniques in this section grazed early and then acts as a refuge for breeding birds by not being grazed during the grassland bird breeding season (mid-May to mid-July). This grazing 28 system ensures that birds can build a nest, hatch focus on more intensively used eggs and raise their young grassland areas, namely pastures without being disturbed and hayfields. Many of the farm- (Undersander et al., 2000). • Longer intervals between work – livestock eat their grazing periods in active food on the fields and paddocks improve overall deposit manure where it is nesting success. The more needed most. Moving live- time the paddocks can stock between paddocks approximate natural takes less time than feed- undisturbed habitat while ing animals in a confine- still providing forage for ment system. With livestock, the better. rotational grazing, you Finding a balance between only need to operate a Grasslands these two goals depends confinement system dur- on the farm land base and ing the winter, and as a the operation’s needs. result, you spend less Short grazing periods (one money producing livestock to two days) also result in food and less time on a lower levels of trampling tractor harvesting fodder damage. (Undersander et al., 2000). • Leaving a minimum of • Increased Productivity: four inches of growth fol- Rotational grazing has lowing grazing increases been shown to increase bird nesting success by pasture productivity by as helping to hide nests from much as 50% since it predators. This length also favours species with con- speeds the rate of plant tinuously high yield (Kyle, recovery and boosts yield no date). More and higher (Undersander et al., 2000). quality forage has been produced in rotationally Not only does rotational graz- grazed fields than in con- ing help increase local habitat tinuously grazed ones, and diversity and aid in grassland this translates into greater bird conservation, it also pro- milk or meat production. vides many benefits to farmers. Associated environmental ben- Many grassland birds tolerate efits include decreased soil ero- and benefit from the diversity sion and reduced risk of of grass heights created when manure runoff. Other benefits pastures are grazed. Since include: grassland birds select their nesting and foraging habitat • Reduced costs: Grazing based on grass length, this reduces the cost of feed, diversity means that a number 29 fuel, fertilizer, pesticide, of different bird species will be labour and equipment. attracted to the farm. • Time Savings: Rotational grazing lets nature do the Pasture and of both birds and livestock. As Hayfield Species cool season grasses (orchard- grass, timothy, bromegrass, The type of cover that is grown perennial ryegrass) go into dor- in pastures and hayfields, and mancy in the summer months, the resulting management impli- native warm season grasses cations, can have significant (eastern gamagrass, switch- influences on bird populations. grass, Indian grass, little bluestem, big bluestem) are Grasses or Legumes? producing forage through the Grasslands Depending on the species, dry season. Growing warm grassland birds have marked season grasses in some areas preferences for the type of of the pasture or hayfield cover in which they nest and makes delayed grazing or cut- forage. Particularly attractive ting more profitable, and are mixed grass and broadleaf makes a farm operation more herbaceous covers as opposed bird-friendly. By delaying the to the more traditional legume grazing of certain paddocks crops. In one study, fields with and harvesting different areas predominant timothy and red of your hayfields throughout clover cover supported over 15 the season, refuge areas can times more bobolinks than be left for grassland birds. fields with mostly alfalfa cover (Bollinger & Gavin, 1992). Planting warm season grasses Since timothy and red clover ensures that at harvest time are a late-cut hay crop, the forage will be of higher bobolinks likely prefer them quality than cool season grass- because they can complete es left late in the season. their nesting cycles without Indeed, studies have shown being disturbed by a tractor. that substantial increases in This advantage applies to weight gain can be achieved many other grassland birds as for livestock fed on a rotation well. In fact, bobolink abun- of cool and warm season dance is positively related to grasses versus animals fed the abundance of other birds solely on cool season grasses like the grasshopper sparrow, (Moore, 1998). Recent Henslow’s sparrow and upland research on eastern gamagrass sandpiper. has shown that it is highly palatable and has tremendous 30 Warm or Cool Season Grasses? protein regrowth potential Planting both warm and cool (Quail Unlimited, no date). season grasses can facilitate rotation schedules and hay cut- Native warm season grasses ting intervals to the advantage are adapted to local climatic conditions and are therefore may require further research to able to withstand snow pack determine their feasibility for and remain upright in the your operation: spring, providing a diverse, long-lived, easily managed • Delay haying. cover that is attractive to birds. Landowners can help Usually they are more drought- increase the success rate resistant and nutritious late in of nesting birds simply by the season, making the pasture delaying the mowing of or hayfield an all-season pro- hay. Traditional cutting Grasslands ducer. intervals are too short to allow complete nesting Although establishing native cycles for birds. By delay- warm season grasses requires ing spring mowing until dedication and patience - it mid-July to allow birds to takes approximately two years raise their broods, bird before positive benefits begin breeding success will be to take effect - these grasses boosted. Consider dividing can improve farm productivity fields into sections that are and bird habitat in many ways mowed earlier (e.g. hay that are worth considering. for fodder alongside waterways and wetlands) Haying and later in the season. • Avoid nighttime Mowing is central to many mowing. This simple farming operations and is criti- action will reduce injuries cal for the conservation of to birds that are roosting grassland habitats. The timing on the ground at night. and frequency of hay harvest- • Use a flushing bar on ing in traditional agricultural haying equipment. A operations, however, can pose flushing bar warns birds of problems for some nesting approaching equipment birds, often destroying the and helps to move birds nests of species like the hiding in the grass away grasshopper sparrow, savan- from machinery. Flushing nah sparrow, eastern mead- bars are useful for all hay- owlark and Henslow’s sparrow. fields, but are most critical The following techniques can in areas adjacent to wet- help you reach your hay pro- lands where ducks nest. A duction goals while improving study comparing duck 31 bird habitat in your hayfields mortality rates with and (Massachusetts Audubon without the use of a flush- Society, 1998). Some are easy ing bar found that a to implement, while others mower with no bar killed 48% of the female ducks fields is careful observation. If observed. In contrast, the location of bird nests and where a flushing bar was the type of birds using the field used, 100% of the ducks are known, it is possible to observed were flushed approximate when the birds from their nests on fields will have successfully raised (Henkes, no date). their young. Leaving small • Raise mower blades to six patches of unmowed hay inches or more to help where birds are nesting for avoid crushing bird nests. protection and cover is also a Grasslands good option if the techniques The best tool for ensuring noted above are not feasible in grassland bird survival in hay- your operation.

Loggerhead Shrike Lanius ludovicianus

32 The loggerhead shrike is a predatory songbird that hunts like a small hawk. Unlike hawks, however, shrikes do not have strong talons to hold onto their prey as they eat it. To compensate, these birds ingeniously impale their prey on barbed wire or thorny trees, a practice that has earned them the name ‘butcherbird.’ Impaling prey serves a number of different purposes: holding prey, storing food for later, or attracting a mate by demonstrating a male’s hunting competence.

The loggerhead shrike has a heavy hooked beak, well suited to its hunting habits. From a perch on a utility pole or fencepost, shrikes engage in fast direct flights or swoop down to catch insects, rodents, small snakes or amphibians. Grasslands

The loggerhead shrike is a trim, handsome bird, with a black tail and wings, grey crown and back and white underparts. It has a characteristic black mask that extends above the hooked bill onto the forehead.

The loggerhead shrike was once quite common in agricultural southern Ontario, where it thrived on grazed grasslands with scattered low trees and thorny shrubs. As farming practices changed and more cash crops and confinement livestock systems were emphasized, shrike habitat dwindled. Other possible factors in its decline include pesticides and collisions with motor vehicles. Today, the loggerhead shrike is listed as Endangered. Only two dozen pairs are known to still breed in Ontario. These birds are nesting in areas where shallow soils overlie limestone bedrock, areas which tend to be marginal farmland that is being used as pasture for livestock (Long Point Bird Observatory, 1997). In Ontario, shrikes breed almost entirely in two core areas: the Carden Plain and the Napanee Plain.

The fate of the loggerhead shrike lies mainly in the hands of individual landowners and with positive stewardship efforts. There are several ways in which habitat can be enhanced and managed for loggerhead shrikes (Long Point Bird Observatory, 1997):

• Shrikes are sensitive to disturbances during the breeding season, so leaving a refuge area around nests dur- 33 ing the breeding season is essential. • Leaving brush piles on cleared land provides nesting materials. • Trees, especially hawthorn and red cedars, provide habitat for perching, nesting and impaling prey. These can be planted in prime shrike habitat locations. • Shrikes prefer short grasslands with scattered trees, so ensuring that pastures are grazed enhances their habitat. Rotational grazing helps to maximize the amount of habitat available for shrikes.

Grasslands Case Study: tem in place, the farmers at Rotational Grazing the Bruce Community Pasture now report substan- Bruce Community Pasture tial benefits in productivity, herd health, time savings, lthough the Ontario herd control and water quali- Land CARE funding ty, not to mention bird abun- A program is no longer dance. Not only are the available through Ducks Bruce County farmers able to Unlimited, the positive environ- maintain the weight of their mental results of work done cattle on less acreage in a through the program are still rotational grazing system, apparent. Take the Bruce they also report that forage Community Pasture, for exam- quality is consistently high ple. At this location, Ducks enough at times to exceed Unlimited Canada provided past weight gains on the 60 advice and funding to erect hectares of land previously fencing around a wetland on pastured. In addition, it now the pasture property, effective- takes only half an hour to ly reducing the 60 hectare (150 check on the herd, as acre) pasture to 28 hectares opposed to the hour or more (70 acres). The challenge required when cattle were before the farmers was to spread out over 60 hectares maintain the weight of their of lower quality forage. cattle on 46% less acreage. To achieve this, a mid-intensity To further enhance bird habitat 34 rotational grazing system was at the community pasture, over initiated and three paddocks 40 tree swallow and eastern were created. bluebird nesting boxes have been installed. These insect- With a rotational grazing sys- eating birds have helped reduce the incidence of pink- through with the planning and eye and unrest caused by flies. management of the system. And they play a role in control- They cite the benefits achieved ling mosquitoes that could by farmers at the Bruce carry the West Nile Virus. Community Pasture as proof that the technique really works Project participants advise that for the good of livestock, farm- rotational grazing is a tech- ers’ pocketbooks, birds and nique that requires dedication the environment (Ducks and a willingness on the part Unlimited Canada, no date; of the farmer to follow Wells, 2003). Grasslands Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus

The bobolink’s striking black and white markings, long, clear bur- bling song and aerial displays make it an easily recognizable bird in rural Ontario. This member of the blackbird family is a long-distance traveler, making its way from northern Argentina to breed in Canada and the United States. During migration, bobolinks can be found in large groups in wet meadows.

Bobolinks prefer habitats of medium-height grasslands and favour hayfields and lightly grazed pastures. Bobolinks, like many of the species discussed in this book, once benefited from increased agriculture in Ontario, with hay production providing ready habitat. In fact, range maps show a clear link between agricultural areas and 35 bobolink abundance, and where there is no hay production, there are generally no bobolinks (Cadman et al, 1987).

Recent reports show that bobolink numbers are declining, a phenomenon which may be related to the widespread use of alfalfa as a hay crop, the harvesting of hay early in the season, and the declining acreage of pastures and hayfield in Ontario (Statistics Canada, 2001; Bollinger & Gavin, 1992).

Female bobolinks are drably coloured with brown and buff streaks. They lay four to seven gray eggs that are spotted with red-brown and lavender and which they incubate for 11– 13 days. Bobolink nests are a cup of grass, stems and rootlets on the ground. To help protect the nest site, females behave in a cryptic manner, rarely Grasslands carrying nesting materials and food directly to their nests, but land- ing and then walking through the fields to the nest. Similarly, they travel some distance from the nest before flushing.

Eastern Meadowlark Sturnella magna

Eastern meadowlarks sing the trademark tune of rural Ontario, boisterously calling ‘See-you at school-today’ throughout the spring. Their voices ring out from fenceposts and powerlines wherever grassy meadows, hayfields and pastures are found.

You will recognize an eastern meadowlark from the male’s black v- shaped ‘necklace,’ bright yellow throat and chest, and white outer tail feathers. Its sides and flanks are white with brown streaking.

Meadowlarks are artful builders, creating a domed grass nest with a side door in a depression or scrape on the ground. The nest is delicately woven into the surrounding vegetation. The female lays three to seven white eggs that are heavily spotted with brown and lavender, incubating them for 13-15 days.

36 Upland Sandpiper Bartramia longicauda

Upon hearing the ‘wolf whistle’ song of this species, you may turn around to see who is calling! Look for a graceful bird with long yel- lowish legs, a slender neck, lightly streaked breast and mottled brownish upper parts. Upland sandpipers frequently call from conspicuous fenceposts, and breeding males will sometimes launch into the air to perform a courtship flight. Grasslands Once common in hayfields, grassy wet meadows, pastures and abandoned fields, this bird was commercially hunted for its meat in the late 1880s. Its numbers have recovered somewhat, but are still low (and possibly declining again) in Ontario.

These sandpipers build their grassy nests in depressions within pastures or hayfields. The female lays four pinkish-buff eggs with brown spots, and after an incubation period of 22–27 days, both adults tend the young.

37 Marginal Farmland

armland management is more economically and environmentally sound if it respects the productive Fcapacity of the land base (AAFC, 1996). When land is not suited to intensive row crop agriculture, it should be retired to pasture or natural cover such as woodland or grassland. Some examples of marginal farmland include:

• steeply sloping croplands to compaction, flooding that are vulnerable to soil and erosion; erosion; • any area on the farm that • stony fields that are not is not economically viable profitable to farm; when yield and crop • poorly drained areas of inputs are compared. cropland that habitually 38 cannot be farmed; Marginal farmland that is • fragile shorelines along retired acts as a transitional lakes, ponds and water- area between cropland and courses which are prone other natural areas. Establishing and maintaining steep slopes or areas adjacent native trees, shrubs, wildflow- to wetlands or streams (AAFC, ers and grasses in these mar- 1996). Weighing the environ- ginal areas provides habitat for mental impacts of farming birds. unproductive, erodible, and fragile lands generally results in Deciding to Retire a decision to retire these mar- Your Land ginal areas.

Taking land out of production Retired Farmland is Marginal Farmland is a difficult decision that must for the Birds be weighed against the eco- nomics of the farm operation. Retiring farmland and convert- While it may be hard to justify ing it to wildlife habitat boosts permanently retiring some the diversity of bird life on the marginal areas, the decision farm by increasing habitat may prove to be cost effective. diversity. As a retired area of farmland regenerates, different A cost analysis comparing the bird species will make use of it. average gross production with In the early years, birds that the average fixed costs of a prefer grassland cover will crop on five typical southern inhabit the area, including the Ontario farms found that three eastern meadowlark. Later, of the five farms had sections when scattered trees and of fields in which gross mar- shrubs make their appearance, gins were lower than the fixed the area will appeal to birds cost of farming that piece of such as the brown thrasher, land. In other words, low pro- eastern towhee, black-billed duction sections of a field were cuckoo or field sparrow. actually costing more to be farmed than if they had been Some suggestions for manag- simply abandoned or ing marginal farmlands for bird enhanced for wildlife habitat. habitat are listed below. In such cases, retiring farmland can improve the efficiency of • Consider the soil, sur- the farm operation and allow rounding landscape and farmers to concentrate on geographical range of more productive lands unique habitats such as (Brethour et al., 2001). savanna and tallgrass prairie in Ontario. 39 Alternatively, some lands are Depending on where your simply too fragile to farm. Thin property is located in the or stony soils are not suitable province, managing the for cultivation, nor are lands on land as a grassland may be more advantageous for • Plant a diversity of native native species of birds deciduous and coniferous than reforesting the area. trees on marginal lands to Native grasses such as provide shelter and cover switchgrass and big for birds. Planting groups bluestem provide cover for of trees in a field will help nesting birds. to establish ‘pods’ of • Where retired farmland woody growth that will currently exists as shrubby seed into other areas of re-growth, ensure that the abandoned field and Marginal Farmland native species are the speed natural regenera- most common plants. If tion from field to forest. possible, remove exotic • Create piles of stone and species such as common brush for cover and nest- buckthorn and autumn ing materials for low- olive as they compete with brush nesting songbirds more desirable native such as the gray catbird. species. These types of structures • Where reforestation or are especially useful where forest enhancement is marginal land abuts the goal, plant native woodland habitat (AAFC, trees, shrubs and vines. 1996). Shrubs and vines such as • Provide nesting struc- serviceberry, cherries, tures to enhance suitable elderberry and wild grape nesting habitat. Boxes are well suited to margin- for tree swallows or east- al farmlands and provide ern bluebirds are avail- food for birds such as the able for purchase and eastern towhee. are easy to make.

40 Brown Thrasher Toxostoma rufum

Brown thrashers have one of the most extensive vocal repertoires of any North American bird, with an estimated 3,000 various com- binations of musical phrases! Most commonly, you will hear them sing a complex chorus of twice-repeated phrases.

Brown thrashers have vivid reddish-brown upper parts and are white below with dark brown streaks. Their large, curved beak, Marginal Farmland long tail and yellow eye no doubt strike fear into their main prey source – grubs and caterpillars. These birds also toss leaves aside to eat berries and seeds.

Despite the fact that brown thrashers are larger than a robin, they often go unnoticed since they are relatively secretive. They spend most of their time skulking about in thickets, field edges and overgrown pastures, especially those with hawthorns. Thrashers favour abandoned farmland, and often prefer areas away from human habitation. The twig and leaf nests of brown thrashers are usually constructed within the protected confines of hawthorn trees or raspberry bushes for added predator protection.

41 Eastern Towhee Pipilo erythrophthalmus

The eastern towhee can sometimes be heard energetically tossing leaves as it scratches the leaf litter looking for insects and seeds. While this ground-dwelling bird generally prefers dense brush and tangles, the male can be heard singing its signature tune from elevated tree perches. Listen for two accented introductory notes followed by a quavering trill likened to ‘drink your tea-ea-ea.’ Marginal Farmland The eastern towhee is a bird of striking patterns and colours, especially the male with its black back, hood and tail, white belly and rufous sides.

The cup-shaped nest of the eastern towhee is made of leaves, grass, twigs and rootlets, often lined with fine grass or hair and located in a scratched depression. The female lays three to four grayish to creamy-white eggs with brown spots. During egg-laying and incubation, the birds are very secretive. Once the eggs hatch, both the male and female help to raise the young.

Unfortunately, the eastern towhee is a frequent host of the brown- headed cowbird, a nest-parasite described in the following section.

42 Strip Habitat

trip habitat has nothing to do with bareness, and everything to do with vegetative cover! Strip cover Srefers to permanent corridors of vegetation such as fencerows, shelterbelts, windbreaks and grassy roadsides. Farms generally have significant amounts of strip habitat, which are configured in strips along the edges of fields or roadsides. These types of natural or planted corridors have long been recognized as beneficial on farms. Benefits include:

• providing habitat for bird increased productivity) for species that control pests; livestock, which often seek • reducing soil erosion from the shelter provided by water and wind; habitat strips; • moderating soil and air • shading and protecting temperatures, increasing farmhouses, reducing 43 relative humidity and energy bills and acting as reducing rates of evapora- a sound barrier; tion on fields; • providing timber, fruits, • providing refuge (and nuts or maple syrup, depending on the species foraging and nesting in planted; human-dominated landscapes. • increasing the aesthetic The following section focuses value of the farm (Baldwin on maintaining, enhancing and & Johnston, no date). creating habitat for generalist species such as the red-tailed hawk, northern mockingbird, Strip Habitat is Critical gray catbird, eastern towhee, for Birds song sparrow, yellow warbler, Strip cover is extremely valu- indigo bunting and eastern Strip Habitat able habitat for many birds, kingbird. providing food sources, cover, singing perches and nesting Strip Cover Design Tips areas for a variety of species. Farm landscapes that offer • Where strip cover currently strip habitat, particularly exists, try to maintain it. fencerows, have been shown Allow strip cover to to contain more than six times mature, as older strip as many bird species as farm- cover contains greater land without such features plant and animal diversity. (Best, 1983). A study that com- Be aware of tree root sys- pared nest densities in plots of tems when cultivating cropland versus strip cover fields, and try to give trees found only 13 nests per 40 room to survive as healthy hectares in row cropland com- components of the farm. pared to 142 nests per 40 Water trees and shrubs hectares in strip cover (Wooley during drought periods, et al., 1985). Migratory song- and replace dead trees birds also make extensive use with young ones to main- of strip habitat for feeding dur- tain cover. ing their spring and autumn • To reduce nest losses, migrations, and depend on the maintain roadside grassy fruits and seeds found in areas by mowing them fencerows for sustenance early in the spring or late (Friesen, 1994). in August, that is, before or after the breeding sea- Recommendations for strip son (Best, 1983). Vesper cover design and management sparrows, brown thrash- vary depending on which ers, eastern meadowlarks 44 species are desired and what and red-winged blackbirds farm operation benefits are all actively use roadside important. Most of the birds shoulder habitat. that use strip cover are gener- • Connect wildlife habitats alist species, well adapted to when designing a wind- break, shelterbelt or 1983). If you currently fencerow planting. Linking have strip habitat, design wetland areas and wood- your planting to widen it lands with strip cover on and expand natural areas your farm will allow birds on your property. and other wildlife to move • As long as they do not freely between these habi- present safety hazards, tat types. keep old dead trees in • Aim to provide diverse strip habitats. These pro- habitat. A mixture of vide important resting and Strip Habitat herbaceous and woody nesting resources for birds cover is recommended. like the American kestrel, Bird species diversity is eastern screech-owl and highest in strip cover with black-capped chickadee. woody shrubs and trees, • Establish nesting boxes for as opposed to herbaceous birds like the eastern blue- cover (Best, 1983; Brenner, bird along strip cover areas 1991; Shalaway, 1985). to help boost bird habitat • Plant trees that serve the on the farm. dual purpose of providing • Fence livestock out of strip food and shelter. cover. Cattle may trample Raspberry can be used to or feed on the understorey create a living fence, and and ground cover, elimi- provides excellent food nating bird nesting, forag- and cover for birds like the ing and cover sources indigo bunting. Junipers (Friesen, 1994). reduce wind and soil ero- • Control weeds without sion while producing herbicides by using tree berries for hungry migra- shelters, mulches and tory birds. cover crops. Many pesti- • Design strip cover to be as cides kill the insect and/or wide as possible. Work in vegetation species that Michigan suggests that birds depend on for food fencerows should be more and cover, and may have than three metres wide to negative effects on the reduce nest predation birds themselves. (Shalaway, 1985). Herbicides also stunt trees Shelterbelts should be in strip cover, making established eight rows them less healthy and able wide and planted with a to cope with disease or 45 diversity of trees (Yahner, drought. Strip Cover Specifics

• Windbreaks are one to five rows wide. Designed to control erosion, they are generally composed of coniferous species like white cedar or white spruce. • Shelterbelts are five or more rows wide. Their main purpose is to reduce heat loss by wind. They are composed of both deciduous and coniferous trees. • Fencerows are strips of trees and shrubs three to ten metres Strip Habitat wide. They are often composed of deciduous trees, and may be planted or naturally established from adjacent lands. • Roadsides are areas next to the road which may also serve as ditches.

Cowbird Parasitism and Yellow Warblers

The brown-headed cowbird once followed bison herds in west- ern Canada. As the cowbirds’ range expanded eastward into Ontario, they began to inhabit areas where cattle were raised. Perhaps because of their nomadic lifestyle, cowbirds do not build a nest and rear their young. Instead, these birds have evolved as ‘nest parasites,’ laying their eggs in other birds’ nests. From the cowbird’s perspective, this parasitic strategy is a great way to let the host species do all of the work incubating and raising cowbird chicks. Indeed, cowbirds have been so suc- cessful that they now parasitize the nests of over 140 species of birds in North America.

Hosts of cowbird parasitism are generally smaller than the cowbird. The host female expends considerable energy incubating the unusually large egg in her nest, but her work truly begins once the egg hatches. Cowbird eggs generally hatch earlier than their fellow eggs, and the nestlings develop much more quickly than their nestmates. As cowbird chicks grow, they demand significant food resources from their host mothers. They are often fed at the 46 expense of the legitimate offspring, who typically starve or are pushed out of the nest by the young cowbird.

The brown-headed cowbird is now common in Ontario. From elevated perches in strip habitat or along the edge of woodlands, it locates and monitors the nests of potential hosts. Unfortunately, its ‘nesting’ strategy is a contributing factor to the decline of some North American songbirds. It has been estimated that nest parasitism, mainly from the brown-headed cowbird, is the single leading cause of nest failures across a wide range of species, habitats and locations, accounting for 80% of nest losses (Martin, 1993).

Yellow warblers are among the most frequent targets of cowbird parasitism. Unlike many other birds, however, yellow war- Strip Habitat blers can recognize the eggs of brown-headed cowbirds when they find them in their nests. When this happens, the warblers will either abandon their nest or build a new nest on top of the old one and lay a new clutch of eggs. In an attempt to succeed against the persistence of cowbirds, yellow warblers have been known to stack more than five nests on top of one another! With this skill, and the bird’s generalist habitat requirements, it is not surprising that the yellow warbler is one of the most common warblers in North America.

Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea

Upon first glance, the male indigo bunting may appear almost 47 black. When the sunlight diffracts on the bird’s feathers, however, the brilliant blue colour for which the indigo bunting is named will shine forth. In contrast, the female indigo bunting is soft brown overall, with brown streaks on her breast and a whitish throat. The indigo bunting is a tireless singer with a variable song of paired, accented notes likened to ‘fire-fire, where-where, here- here, see-it, see-it’.

Related to grosbeaks, the indigo bunting has a stout dark bill, which it uses to eat grasshoppers, beetles, grubs and weed seeds. It is a true strip habitat or ‘edge’ species, inhabiting orchards, shrubby fields, hedgerows, woodland edges and regenerating forest clearings. Raspberry thickets are one of its favourite haunts. Strip Habitat Raspberry thorns protect its nest while it feeds concealed among the thickets.

Eastern Kingbird Tyrannus tyrannus

Eastern kingbirds look like they are ready for a black tie party. Their upper parts are uniformly dark gray to black and their under parts are bright white. The most distinguishing feature on these birds is the white band on the tip of their black tail. Their upright head feathers give them a somewhat pointy-headed silhouette.

Noisy and conspicuous, the eastern kingbird has been known to attack crows, hawks and humans intruding on its territory. The fearlessness and aggression of this bird doubtless earned it its common name of ‘kingbird.’

In late summer or early fall, eastern kingbirds flock and feed on berries and insects, both of which they deftly snatch while on the wing. They prefer rural areas and woodland edge habitat, and are relatively easy to spot perched on utility wires and fenceposts along roadsides.

48 Woodlands

or birds and other wildlife in southern Ontario, it is vitally important that rural woodlands be main- F tained and restored. To fully appreciate the situation, consider the fact that prior to the arrival of European set- tlers, forests once covered about 90% of the region. The vast majority of these forests have since been cleared for agricultural, residential and urban development. Today less than 0.07% of southern Ontario remains in old growth forests, and in some places even young or mature woodlands are uncommon (FON 2003c; FON, 2003b). Many of the remaining woodlands are isolated patches of forest, vulnerable to roads and other human disturbances that threaten their ability to maintain viable populations of 49 plant and animal species over the long term. Protecting and enhancing the veery, and ovenbird are declin- farm woodlands that remain is ing (Francis & Austen, 1999). key to preserving habitat for many birds. Farmlands near Interior forest species have dif- Ottawa with at least 20% for- ferent needs than generalist est cover have retained about species such as the eastern 90% of the plants and animals kingbird, brown-headed cow- found in large forest ecosys- bird and yellow warbler. These tems, illustrating that agricul- generalists are well served by tural systems and nature the strip and woodland edge Woodlands protection can be compatible habitats that are common in (Middleton & Merriam, 1983). farmland areas. Also well served are many predators, Interior Forest Habitat parasites and competitors that make this habitat unsuitable In rural Ontario, some bird for interior forest species. species are dependent upon relatively large remnant patch- Bigger is Better es of forest. That is because larger patches of forest have Both the regional and on-farm what is called ‘interior’ forest diversity of wildlife species will habitat, that is, habitat that is be maximized if larger patches 100 metres or more from the of woodland habitat are forest edge. Interior forest retained or enhanced. If a farm habitat offers many advan- has a woodlot that is greater tages that are critical for some than 200 metres in diameter, it bird species, including a may already have at least some reduced risk of predation or interior habitat. Even if the nest parasitism, reduced levels woodlot is not sizeable enough of competition, more hos- to have interior habitat, the pitable temperatures and mois- larger it is, the more species it ture conditions, and less will support. Conservation biol- susceptibility to human distur- ogy has shown that one large bances (FON, 2003). As a forest area will support a larger result, birds have much higher diversity of species than two or rates of nest success in larger more smaller forest areas of forests (Friesen, 1994). the same total size. In other Unfortunately, such forests are words, bigger is better! scarce or even absent in parts 50 of southern Ontario, and in The best way to manage these areas many specialist woodlands for birds is to pro- migratory songbirds that tect forests where they exist, depend on interior habitat and enhance them where pos- such as the scarlet tanager, sible. Below are some suggested woodland management thorny shrubs to keep live- techniques to improve bird stock out. Trampling kills habitat: groundcover and saplings, increases the potential for • Expand your woodland by introducing non-native planting around it or seeds, compacts the soil planting to connect it to and exposes root systems. adjacent woodlands. • Leave snags in the forest - Forest edges that are standing dead trees are densely vegetated provide homes for the northern Woodlands greater protection to the flicker, pileated wood- forest interior and may pecker, black-capped contribute to higher nest- chickadee and white- ing success (Martin, 1993). breasted nuthatch. They • Plant native trees and con- also serve as perches for trol invasive exotic species birds of prey and food such as autumn olive, sources for insect-eating common buckthorn, and birds. More than 50 bird tree of heaven. These and mammal species in species can invade and Ontario depend on cavity compete with the native trees for nesting, roosting, vegetation upon which feeding, storing food or birds and other wildlife finding cover. For every depend. hectare of forest, a mini- • Aim to increase interior mum of 12 small snags habitat in your woodland. (less than 50 centimetres If you own a tract of for- in diameter) and six large est with a field or gap in snags (more than 50 cen- it, consider reforesting or timetres in diameter) is retiring this field. Round recommended (Lompart et or square designs have al., 1997). more interior forest than • Resist the urge to ‘tidy up’ do long, narrow wood- the woodlot. Brush piles, land strips. Where possi- dead logs and fallen ble, work with woody material on the neighbours to protect forest floor provide impor- larger blocks of forest. tant habitat for birds. • Place roads and paths as Ruffed grouse use logs to close to the edge as possi- stand on for drumming rit- ble (or outside) to maxi- uals; other birds roost and 51 mize the interior nest in brush piles; and undisturbed area of the the insects living in forest (Harker et al. 1993). decomposing material are • Fence woodlands or use food for ovenbirds, wood thrush, wrens and tions play an important role in nuthatches (MVCA, 1993). reducing soil erosion and the • Feed the birds by main- water cycle. They can also be taining or planting nut or considered ‘nurse’ crops for ‘mast’ producing trees forest regeneration if they are such as hickory, oak, cher- allowed to undergo succession ry, butternut, maple and to a diverse mature forest of beech. mixed hardwood and conifer • If the woodland is being species. Giving this regenera- harvested, consult a pro- tion process a helping hand Woodlands fessional forest ecologist can be a general objective in and use a selection har- managing a plantation. It can vesting system where offer increased farm income mature trees are selected from marketable wood prod- based on size, spacing and ucts, while enhancing habitat income potential. Harvest for birds. in the winter or late summer to minimize distur- One approach to speeding up bance during the critical forest regeneration is to create nesting and breeding peri- canopy gaps where sunlight ods (AAFC, 1996). It is rec- can reach the forest floor. Cut ommended that logging openings in about two to five operations maintain five to percent of the plantation in ten percent of older, addition to trees taken in regu- mature trees. lar thinnings. Gaps six to ten metres in diameter will create Naturalizing Tree growing conditions favourable Plantations to the natural regeneration of species such as ash, maple and Many farm woodlands are beech. If gaps are cut in the plantations consisting of even- vicinity of a stand of these aged trees of one or two species, seeding may take species. Plantations are often place naturally. Otherwise, it not favoured by many bird may be necessary to plant the species since they can lack gap areas with suitable trees desirable native habitat fea- (Lompart et al., 1997). tures and diversity. Nonetheless, conifer planta-

52 Woodlands

Scarlet Tanager Piranga olivacea

In Central and South America there are over 200 brightly coloured tanager species, but here in Ontario, the only nesting tanager is the scarlet version of this vast bird clan. Preferring extensive mature woodlands, scarlet tanagers feed and nest in the tallest reaches of the forest.

Despite their brilliant red plumage, scarlet tanagers are surprisingly difficult to see as they dart and flit in the canopy in search of insect prey. During poor weather conditions when insects move lower in elevation, you may be lucky enough to see a tanager at eye level. Look for the black wings and tail and pale bill of the male and female birds. Breeding males have brilliant red bodies whereas non-breeding males and females are olive coloured above and yellow below. Listen for them in large patches of deciduous or mixed forest cover. They sing a series of four to five whistled phrases, like a robin, but raspier - as if the robin had a sore throat.

Scarlet tanagers need interior forest habitat. They are very sensitive to the phenomenon known as forest fragmentation (when forests are cut up into smaller, more isolated patches by roads, urbanization, agriculture, etc.). They are one of the migratory bird species most sensitive to losses of forest cover in southern Ontario (Cadman, 1999; Villard, 1999). 53 Red-eyed Vireo Vireo olivaceus

Chances are you have heard a red-eyed vireo singing in the canopy or understorey of a woodland before. Male red-eyed vireos sing continuously through the day in the spring and summer, long after most other songbirds have finished their courtship performances. The woodlands seem to ring with their repetitive phrases, ‘Here I am! Where are you? Over here! Here I am!’ Indeed, red-eyed vireos are capable of delivering more than 20,000 songs per day! Woodlands

Red-eyed vireos are best identified by their white eyebrow topped by their gray crown, olive green upper parts, white or pale gray underparts and lack of wing bars.

One of the most common and widespread birds in Ontario, red- eyed vireos are found in high concentrations in large deciduous woodlands with a shrubby understorey. Red-eyed vireos will inhabit smaller forests than the scarlet tanager and will even nest in well wooded residential areas, with up to approximately one pair per half hectare in ideal habitat (Villard, 1999).

54 55 are a precious commodity a precious are

ound the world, and are especially important on ound the world, and are

ar resh water resources water resh the farm. Recent events such as prolonged droughts, the farm. Recent events such as prolonged

low water levels in the Great Lakes and water quality issues low water levels in the Great concerns tragedy have brought about like the Walkerton Humans in rural fore. water quality and quantity to the towns depend on farmers to be good stewards and areas par- So do livestock, wildlife and birds, of water resources. farmers water, on ground ticularly waterfowl. Often reliant of stewardship of the need for careful aware especially are the wetlands, ponds, tile drainage outlets, lakes, streams and drainage channels on their properties. F

Water resources Water resources

If It Isn’t Broken… the natural productivity of these systems (AAFC, 1996). Water resources and the lands that surround them provide Two additional techniques, cre- incredibly productive habitat ating buffer strips and restricting for birds like the least bittern, livestock access to waterways, osprey, great blue heron and a are described below. Each pro- variety of waterfowl. These vides an effective way of man- aquatic systems also provide aging water quality and quantity ready sources of water for irri- for the benefit of humans, live- gation and other on-farm stock and birds. tasks. The best way to protect their quality and quantity for Buffer Strips humans and birds alike is to leave them alone. This means Buffer strips are living filters avoiding, wherever possible, that separate natural areas either draining, damming or from intensive agricultural cultivating near wetlands, activity. They are strips of land streams, and other water bod- maintained in permanent veg- ies. It also means managing etation, designed to intercept the surrounding landscape agricultural runoff, including 56 wisely so that functioning sys- pesticides, nutrients and ani- tems are not impaired. mal wastes. Buffer strips are Integrated pest management generally established in areas and conservation tillage, for adjacent to water sources that example, can help maintain provide low yields and are difficult to farm due to slopes, ero- tion. Less sediment in sion, or high soil moisture con- streams and wetlands tent. (AAFC, 1997). Buffer means a healthier aquatic strips are common sense con- ecosystem. On the land, servation, and can provide a slower water movement host of associated benefits that reduces the erosion of fer- counteract serious environ- tile topsoil and creates mental problems: fewer gullies (CTIC, 2002). • Biodiversity loss. Buffer • Water pollution. Buffer strips of grass, shrubs and Water resources strips slow the flow of trees provide nesting water. When water is cover, travel corridors and slowed, soil particles carry- food sources for a variety ing pollutants like phos- of wildlife. Birds are often phorus are trapped. Some found in buffer strips, pollutants can then be which act as habitat hide- assimilated by plants. aways for nesting water- Slower water also means fowl as well as hunting increased infiltration of grounds for marshland dissolved pollutants into birds like great blue the soil. Rainwater herons. trapped in buffer strips helps to dilute pollutants Buffers for What? before they reach waterways (CTIC, 2002). While farm run-off is best con- • Flooding. Tree roots and trolled at the source by good vegetation in buffers cropland management includ- reduce floodwater velocity ing conservation tillage, buffer and erosive force, prevent- strips provide one last line of ing the erosion of valuable defence. Because buffer strips cropland during storm are a management technique events. Roots also hold that is often used to accom- stream bank soils in place plish a number of purposes, a while vegetation blocks corresponding number of stream debris from enter- designs or types of buffers ing cropland (LandOwner exists. Below are some of the Resource Center, 2000). most common types of buffer • Erosion and sedimenta- strips (LandOwner Resource tion. Properly designed Center, 2000): buffer strips enhance 57 sheet flow of water over Filter Strips an area of vegetation, The workhorses of the buffer slowing water velocity and strips, these bands of grass are encouraging sedimenta- generally planted beside a crop or livestock area to help filter Shallow Water Buffers sediments, nutrients and pesti- Placed primarily around wet- cides in runoff before they reach land areas such as ponds, wetlands, streams or ponds. swamps or wet spots in fields, these buffer plantings Grassed Waterways are designed more for habi- These are strips of grass in crop- tat than filtration, although land that are positioned in areas they perform many of the where water concentrates as it same functions as do the runs off a field. Used primarily types of buffer strips previ- Water resources to control gully erosion, grassed ously mentioned. waterways can be designed or combined to work with filter Birds Benefit from Buffers strips (LandOwner Resource Center, 2000). In agricultural areas dominated by row crops, buffer strips are a wel- Riparian Buffers come haven for species such as Trees, shrubs and grasses that mallards, common yellowthroats, line the edge of a stream or song sparrows and red-winged river are called riparian buffers. blackbirds. Some considerations These buffer strips contain for enhancing buffer strips for more woody species than filter birds are noted below. strips. As a result, riparian buffers have an increased abili- Buffer Strip Plant Species ty to mitigate streambank ero- The plant species included in a sion, shade waterways for fish, buffer strip will vary depending and provide cover for birds and on the purpose of the buffer. other wildlife that breed, feed The table below compares the or live near water. benefits of grass, shrub or tree species in buffer plantings.

Relative effectiveness of different vegetation types for providing specific benefits in buffer strips. Benefit Vegetation type Grass Shrub Tree Stabilize bank erosion Low High High Filter Sediment High Low Low Filter nutrients, pesticides, microbes Sediment-bound High Low Low Wildlife Habitat 58 Range/pasture/prairie wildlife High Medium Low Forest wildlife Low Medium High Economic products Medium Low Medium Visual diversity Low Medium High Flood protection Low Medium High

(Dosskey et al 1997) Note that the bird species metres can provide some ben- using a buffer strip will vary efit, wider buffers are better. depending on the vegetation For maximum wildlife benefit, planted. If grassland birds are buffers should be 50 metres your focus, aim to plant native wide or more (AAFC, 1996). warm season grasses. Their Significantly more migratory ability to withstand drought songbirds have been found in conditions and their low buffers that are wider than 25 requirements for maintenance metres than in those that are make them the ideal cover for narrower, due to the lower Water resources filter strips and grassed water- frequency of disturbance ways as well as a suitable com- (Croonquist & Brooks, 1993). ponent of riparian buffer strips. Many species of birds, notably ducks, nest in areas up to one To maximize the utility of your kilometre from a stream, buffer strip for birds in general, marsh or wetland, and mal- focus on planting the widest, lards commonly nest up to most species-diverse buffer 300 metres from wetland that you can afford. While edges. grasses trap sediments and pollutants, woody vegetation can remove nitrates from sub- surface ground water flowing beyond the reach of grass roots (CTIC, 2002). The general rule in species selection for buffer strips is that the more natural the buffer strip – the more native plants there are – the less maintenance it will require (Livestock Manure Pollution and Prevention Project, 2000). Livestock and Waterways Habitat Width Don’t Mix Wider buffer strips are more attractive to birds. Research For years, pasture managers also indicates a positive rela- selected grazing areas that tionship between the diversity included a creek or river as a of bird species and the width water source for livestock 59 of vegetation strips adjacent (McCormack, 1998). Direct to water bodies (Stauffer & access was an inexpensive Best, 1980). While even a few means of providing water for the animals. Concerns about • disturb or destroy impor- water quality and wildlife habi- tant bird and wildlife habitat, however, are calling this tat adjacent to waterways. practice into question. Depending on the grazing intensity and the physical char- The Multiple Benefits acteristics of the site, the of Exclusion impact of allowing livestock to access water from streams, Excluding livestock from water- ponds and wetlands can range ways can result in many bene- Water resources from small to very significant. fits, including improved herd Generally, livestock have detri- health, healthier bank vegeta- mental impacts on the water tion, reduced erosion, reduced quality and bank vegetation of drain maintenance costs, a waterway, and excluding improved drinking water quali- them from water sources is ty and better bird habitat becoming a common land (DUC, no date). These benefits stewardship technique (AAFC, will be felt both on the farm 1996). In a waterway, unre- and beyond. As streams or stricted livestock can: creeks flow across private and public lands on their way to • contract foot rot, masti- larger rivers or lakes, actions tis and waterborne dis- that affect them at any point eases by wallowing in will have an impact on all the water and muck; life downstream. • increase the costs of drain maintenance and dredg- For example, sedimentation ing to farmers through from erosion is the primary trampling and subsequent threat to fish in many Ontario erosion; waterways. Sediments from • trample the banks of farming activities can smother waterways causing erosion fish eggs and alter the amount and sedimentation that of light reaching aquatic negatively affect water plants. While conservation quality and the aquatic tillage and buffer strips help to ecosystem; limit the impacts of erosion • compact the soil along the from farm fields, excluding banks of waterways, livestock from waterways fur- killing vegetation; ther reduces sedimentation 60 • deposit manure in or near downstream. Healthy aquatic waterways, causing water ecosystems, in turn, can help pollution and threatening to support healthy bird popula- the health of humans and tions, providing food for great livestock downstream; blue herons, ospreys, belted kingfishers and spotted sand- species are good choices for pipers. living fences and for bird habitat, as they provide food, cover Exclusion Fencing and nesting spaces for many birds. Living fences physically The multiple benefits of live- and visually protect stream, stock exclusion are prompting pond and wetland bank vege- many Ontario farmers to fence tation and limit stream cross- their ponds, streams and wet- ings, making these sites more lands and to provide alternate suitable for marsh birds, nest- Water resources watering sources for their ing waterfowl and other herds. The most cost-effective species sensitive to distur- and common method of fenc- bance. ing a waterway is to erect a two-strand electric fence Alternate Watering Systems around the waterway. A recent study by OMAF shows Once cattle are excluded from that high-tensile electric fenc- a waterway, an alternate ing is one quarter the cost of watering system is required. nine strand page wire and one Alternate watering systems third the cost of double strand provide improved water quality barbed wire (DUC, no date). and quantity for livestock. If One strand of wire placed 75 they are given clean and readi- centimetres (30 inches) from ly available water, livestock will the soil will control cows, year- consume their required water ling heifers and horses, but intake and be more productive two strands, one at 45 cen- (McCormack, 1998). Many timetres (18 inches) and one at options are available for these 90 centimetres (36 inches), are systems, including solar pow- often used (DUC no date). ered pumps that also supply power to remote electric fenc- Creating living fences along ing, gravity-fed ram pumps or waterways is another method nose-pumps that are operated of restricting livestock access. by the cattle themselves. Densely planted trees and shrubs will, in time, effectively fence an area and provide cover and habitat for birds (AAFC, 1997). Complementing a living fence with a temporary 61 fence while plants become established is essential to ensuring plant survival. Raspberry and hawthorn Water resources

Common Yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas

This masked songster is a common visitor to wetlands across Ontario. The common yellowthroat belongs to the wood-warbler family. While its bright colouration seems in line with its kin, its preference for wet overgrown meadows and cattail marshes sets it apart from other wood-warblers.

Male common yellowthroats visit preferred singing perches in rotation and fiercely guard them from other males. From these spots, they sing their distinctive ‘witchity-witchity-witchity-witch’ song.

Common yellowthroats do, indeed, have a yellow throat, as well as a yellow breast and undertail coverts. Males also have a black mask with a white upper border. Their olive-green upper parts and dingy white belly contrast with their bright yellow throat. Female yellowthroats do not have the distinctive mask, but do have a white belly and may show a faint eye ring.

Common yellowthroats nest on or near the ground among emergent aquatic vegetation such as cattails and eat insects, including 62 dragonflies and beetles, and spiders. Their nesting habits and food and cover preferences make them direct beneficiaries of buffer strips. American Woodcock Scolopax minor

These chunky little birds put on a springtime show that is worth the wait! In early evening, where open grassy areas abut wetlands, you may find an American woodcock wrapped up in his courtship displays. These birds strut or turn on the spot, stopping every quarter turn or so to call a loud ‘peeent’ in a nasal voice. After a number of vocalizations, the woodcock twitters through the air in a circular flight display, and then plummets to the ground, zigzag- Water resources ging like a falling leaf. It is the woodcock’s rounded wings that make the noises you hear as the bird flies up and falls down in its display.

Other than during the breeding season American woodcocks are shy and inconspicuous birds. Their camouflaged plumage helps keep them well hidden in the moist woodlands and damp thickets adjacent to grassy areas where they live.

The woodcock’s long sturdy bill helps it to probe in soft soil for earthworms and insect larvae and to pinch snails, millipedes and seeds from plant material. The American woodcock has short legs and a short neck, and unusually large, dark eyes. Its most distinctive field marks are the light coloured bars on its otherwise black crown. These are arranged perpendicular to the direction of its bill, a feature that helps to distinguish it from the common snipe, which has facial and head stripes parallel to its bill. In addition, the woodcock’s brown or buff breast colourations differ from the snipe’s whiter breast plumage.

63 Monitoring for Success

onitoring the numbers and species of birds seen at the farm will help you to realize the M impact of the farm management techniques included in this book on bird populations.

Joining a local nature group is a great way to share and learn from like-minded people. Ontario Nature’s Nature Network represents over 130 member groups across the province, and can help you join or organize a group in your area. Local nature groups often sponsor bird appreciation activities, and can help you get involved in bird monitoring programs that focus on your farm or that have a continent- wide scale. Some of the activities open to volunteers 64 include the annual Christmas Bird Count, the Ontario Nest Record Scheme, Project Feeder Watch and the Ontario Breeding Bird Atlas. Christmas Bird Count Volunteers fill out a data card for each nest they find and he Christmas Bird monitor, and data is submitted Count (CBC) is coordi- to the Royal Ontario Museum, Tnated by Bird Studies which coordinates this pro- Canada in partnership with the gram. Data gathered may be Audubon Society. The yearly used to study breeding bird birding events that take place distributions, clutch size and for this monitoring program hatchling success, the impacts are organized by individual of brown-headed cowbirds Monitoring for Success field naturalist groups or pri- and nest predators, as well as vate individuals. Local rivalries changes in nesting dates. and the long history of this sur- Among important data gath- vey have made the CBC one of ered are egg laying dates, the biggest social and sporting which can then be used to events in the birding world. help identify safe periods for Now in its second century, the management activities such as CBC draws over 50,000 coun- harvesting hay or timber. ters from across Canada, the Farmers with bird nests in their United States and Latin fields are ideal observers for America for a one day event this program. within a two-week window during the Christmas season. Project FeederWatch During that one day, all of the birds seen in a 24 kilometre Project FeederWatch involves diameter circle are identified, thousands of ordinary people counted and recorded. The in the business of observing results of each group’s count their winter bird feeders and are then compiled and added recording the results in the to the CBC database. Each interest of science. The pro- counter’s findings, rated on a gram is active continent-wide birds-per-person-hour scale, and is managed by Bird Studies can then be compared to find- Canada and the Cornell ings from as far back as 1900 Laboratory of Ornithology with to determine trends in bird additional support from the numbers and distributions. Canadian Nature Federation and National Audubon Society. Ontario Nest Record On two consecutive days every Scheme two weeks between November and April, observers take note 65 As the name suggests, this of weather conditions and program tracks the health of mark down the greatest num- Ontario’s bird populations by bers of each species seen at maintaining records of nesting one time at the feeder. The success and nest distribution. information collected helps to track changes in the abun- project to gather data on the dance and distribution of bird distribution and abundance of species that use feeders in the bird species breeding in winter. For a $25 registration Ontario. Data for the second fee, participants receive a atlas is being collected over a poster of common winter five year period, from 2001 – birds, a bird calendar, the Bird - 2005. Volunteers look for evi- Watch Canada newsletter, and dence of breeding and abun- instructions about the pro- dance for as many species as gram. Project FeederWatch is a possible. The data provide Monitoring for Success great way to learn more about information on the distribution the birds that visit your bird of birds throughout the feeder and your farm through- province, including range out the winter. expansions and population changes since the first atlas Ontario Breeding Bird Atlas was conducted in 1981-1985.

The second Ontario Breeding Bird Atlas is a volunteer-based Visit: birdsontario.org

66 67 is designed to put

his section of the guide book that act as landowners in touch with organizations envi- clearinghouses for conservation information,

onmental farming techniques as well as networking onmental farming techniques as r

resources. Some of the organizations listed may offer Some of the organizations listed may resources. to assist individual farmers in the imple- financial programs in the book. Funding mentation of the techniques noted It is year to year. eligibility vary from and project programs that contact be made prior to planning a recommended which financial assistance is required. for project T

Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance Ontario Nature Phone: 1-800-267-4088 Ontario Nature protects and restores or 613-562-3447 nature through research, education and Fax: 613-562-3371 conservation action. Ontario Nature Email: [email protected] champions woodlands, wetlands and www.naturecanada.ca Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance wildlife, and preserves essential habitat through its own system of nature Bird Studies Canada reserves. It is a charitable organization Bird Studies Canada (BSC) is recognized representing 30,000 members and over as a leading conservation organization 140 member groups across the dedicated to advancing the under- province, connecting individuals and standing, appreciation and conservation communities to nature. of wild birds and their habitats in Canada and elsewhere. BSC coordinates Contact Ontario Nature to network programs on regional, national and with local naturalist groups, to find international scales, including many of out more about protecting bird habi- the bird monitoring programs men- tat through conservation easements tioned in this guide book. BSC is also and land donations, or to inquire one of the Canadian BirdLife about the (2001-2005) Ontario International co-partners and is involved Breeding Bird Atlas. in a global effort to protect essential bird habitat through the delivery of the Ontario Nature Canadian Important Bird Areas 366 Adelaide St. West, Suite 201 Program. Contact BSC to find out more Toronto, ON about Project Feeder Watch, the Ontario M5V 1R9 Nest Record Scheme and the Christmas 1-800-440-2366 or (416) 444-8419 Bird Count, or to find out more about E-mail: [email protected] birds and bird conservation in your area. Website: www.ontarionature.org Bird Studies Canada Nature Canada P.O. Box 160 Nature Canada is the national voice of Port Rowan, ON naturalists in Canada. It represents more N0E 1M0 than forty thousand individual members 1-888-448-BIRD and supporters in every province and E-mail: [email protected] territory, together with over one hun- Website: www.bsc-eoc.org dred affiliated organizations, including local and provincial naturalist groups. Canadian Organic Growers Nature Canada’s mission is to protect Canadian Organic Growers (COG) is a nature, its diversity and the processes national information network for organ- that sustain it. As the Canadian BirdLife ic farmers, gardeners and consumers. International co-partner with Bird COG’s mission is to be a leading organic Studies Canada, Nature Canada is information and networking resource involved in a global effort to improve for Canada, promoting the methods the quality of life for birds, other wildlife and techniques of organic growing and people. Together they have identi- along with the associated environmen- fied a network of Important Bird Areas tal, health and social benefits. across the country, and are working to 68 safeguard these essential sites for Canadian Organic Growers Canada’s birds. National Office 323 Chapel Street 85 Albert St, Suite 900 Ottawa, Ontario Ottawa, Ontario K1N 7Z2 K1P 6A4 Tel: 613-216-0741 Toll-free: 1-888-375-7383 ational spaces in the province. Through Fax: 613-236-0743 the development and delivery of pro- Email: office-at-cog.ca grams to restore and manage Ontario’s Website: www.cog.ca water resources, Conservation Authorities are closely linked to local Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance Canadian Wildlife Federation stewardship activities. Some of the proj- The Canadian Wildlife Federation (CWF) ects likely to be supported by a local is dedicated to fostering awareness and Conservation Authority include restrict- appreciation of our natural world. By ing livestock from waterways, and spreading knowledge of human impacts planting buffer strips and strip habitat. on the environment, sponsoring Conservation Authorities serve individ- research, promoting the sustainable use ual landowners, providing stewardship of natural resources, recommending leg- advice and, in some cases, funds related islative changes, and cooperating with to waterway protection and restoration. like-minded partners, CWF encourages a future in which Canadians live in har- Individual Conservation Authorities mony with nature. develop programs to protect the urban and rural lands that form part of the Canadian Wildlife Federation watershed under their jurisdiction. To 350 Michael Cowpland Drive find out if there is a funding program Kanata, ON related to an ecological farm manage- K2M 2W1 ment technique noted in this book, con- 1-800-563-WILD tact Conservation Ontario and have Email: [email protected] them put you in touch with your local Website: www.cwf-fcf.org Conservation Authority.

Canadian Wildlife Service Conservation Ontario The Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) is P.O. Box 11 Canada’s national wildlife agency, 120 Bayview Parkway handling wildlife issues that are the Newmarket, ON responsibility of the federal government. L3Y 4W3 CWS is involved in the protection of E-mail: [email protected] migratory birds, wildlife habitat, endan- Website: www.conservation- gered species, and research on national- ontario.on.ca ly important wildlife issues, among other program areas. Ducks Unlimited Canada Ducks Unlimited Canada conserves, Canadian Wildlife Service – Environment restores and manages wetlands and Canada associated habitats for North America’s 351 St. Joseph Boulevard waterfowl and other wildlife. As a Hull, QC result, this organization is active in rural K1A 0H3 Ontario and, in the past, has offered (819) 997-1095 funding programs such as Ontario Land Email: [email protected] Care and the Rural Conservation Club Website: www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca Program. These funding initiatives featured partnerships with local farmers Conservation Ontario and community pasture managers to Local Conservation Authority Programs implement ecological agricultural man- 69 Members of Ontario’s 36 Conservation agement techniques. Their past experi- Authorities are working individually to ence in ecological farming techniques ensure clean water, prevent flooding, makes Ducks Unlimited staff a valuable reduce erosion, preserve wildlife, and resource for advice and help with con- provide local conservation and recre- servation initiatives on farms, as are the organization’s wetland related publica- Hunters tions and profiles of past projects. Ducks P.O. Box 2800 Unlimited does provide some financial Peterborough, ON assistance for agricultural projects, par- K9J 8L5 ticularly those involved in wetland (705) 748-6324 Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance management. Email: [email protected] Website: www.ofah.org Ducks Unlimited Canada 566 Welham Road Ontario Ministry of Agriculture Barrie, ON and Food and Agriculture L4N 8Z2 and Agri-Food Canada (705) 721-4444 These agencies maintain exhaustive Email: [email protected] information databases on their web- Website: www.ducks.ca sites, and it is well worth a browse through for additional information, spe- Environmental Farm Plan cialist contact information and ideas Incentive Fund about ecological farm management The Environmental Farm Plan is a volun- techniques. While the majority of fund- tary educational program for farmers ing from these organizations is adminis- and their families. Currently, over tered through other programs like the 26,000 farm families have been EFP, funding may be available for indi- engaged in the EFP program, which is vidual farmland enhancement projects. delivered locally by the Ontario Soil Crop and Improvement Association on behalf Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural of the Ontario Farm Environmental Affairs Coalition. The EFP program involves 1 Stone Road West workshops to help participants work Guelph, ON N1G 4Y2 through the process of conducting an Telephone: (519) 826-3100 environmental risk assessment and Toll Free:1-888-466-2372 developing an EFP. Once a plan has Toll Free:1-877-424-1300 been prepared, the program offers Local: (519) 826-4047 financial incentives to assist farmers Email: [email protected] making positive environmental changes http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca and implementing new management practices. (See OSCIA, p.71.) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Sir John Carling Building Ontario Federation of 930 Carling Ave Anglers and Hunters Ottawa, Ontario Local Habitat Restoration Programs K1A 0C7 Individual Ontario Federation of Anglers Telephone: 613-759-1000 and Hunters (OFAH) club members partici- Fax: 613-759-7977 pate in any number of local and provincial- Email: [email protected] ly significant habitat restoration projects. http://www.agr.gc.ca Members of the OFAH have been planting trees, creating stream buffers, installing Ontario Ministry wood duck nesting boxes and protecting of Natural Resources wetlands and woodlands to provide better If a farm woodlot is four hectares (10 70 habitat for wildlife. Locally based clubs acres) or more in size, tax savings may sometimes have funds to disperse for habi- be gained by enrolling that land in the tat enhancement. For more information Managed Forest Tax Incentive Program, about current funding opportunities, administered by the Ministry of Natural contact: Resources. Other funding programs may Ontario Federation of Anglers and be available through the MNR for fish and wildlife habitat enhancement. The Ontario Stewardship LandOwner Resource Centre is a unique The Ministry of Natural Resources' extension service of the MNR and pro- Ontario Stewardship program is a vides a suite of publications relating to community-based initiative that brings restoration and land management, together landowners, associations, Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance many of which are directly applicable to resource agencies and individuals who farmland. share an interest in responsible land care and sustainable resource use. The pro- MNR Southern Region gram advocates stewardship as a tool 300 Water Street, for land management. 4th Floor, South Tower, P.O. Box 7000 Participants in the program are encour- Peterborough, ON aged to work together to develop an K9J 8M5 ecosystem-approach for improving local (705) 755-2000 stewardship and to create collaborative Website: www.mnr.gov.on.ca resource management tools. Local stewardship councils can assist in ecological LandOwner Resource Centre farm management and can link farmers P.O. Box 599, 5524 Dickinson Street to other information sources for assis- Mantiock, ON tance with farm enhancement initiatives. K4M 1A5 (613) 692-2390 To become involved in the program, 1-800-387-5304 contact your local stewardship council E-mail: [email protected] or visit our website at: Website: www.lrconline.com www.ontariostewardship.com

Ontario Soil and Crop Improvement Mitch R. Baldwin MSc. Association (OSCIA) Provincial Stewardship Coordinator, The Ontario Soil and Crop Improvement Ontario Stewardship Program Association (OSCIA) is dedicated to Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources communicating and facilitating respon- Southern Region Office sible, economic management of soil, 300 Water Street 4th floor, South Tower water, air and crops. Their membership Peterborough, Ontario, Canada represents virtually all commodity P.O. Box 7000 groups across the province and is a cred- K9J 8M5 ible, active grassroots voice on agricul- Phone: 705-755-3278 tural issues. OSCIA has 55 local Email: [email protected] county/district branches across the www.ontariostewardship.org province and is a significant presence in all the major agricultural areas of Society for Ecological Restoration Ontario. Up-to-date information about invasive exotic species and native plants is available Ontario Soil and Crop Improvement from the Society for Ecological Restoration, Association by mail or through their website. 1 Stone Road W. Guelph, ON SER Ontario Chapter N1G 4Y2 (519) 888-4567 ext. 5616 (519) 826-4124 Email: [email protected] 71 1-800-265-9751 Website: www.serontario.org E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.ontariosoilcrop.org Tallgrass Ontario This organization’s strength lies in its focus on native tallgrass prairies in Ontario. If you are interested in finding Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. No out more about warm season native date. Best management practices: Field grasses, or would like to find out crop production. Agriculture and Agri- whether restoring an old field on your Food Canada, Ontario Ministry of property to a prairie ecosystem is suit- Agriculture and Food. Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance able for your land, contact Tallgrass Ontario. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. 1994. Best management practices: Tallgrass Ontario Water management. Agriculture and 659 Exeter Road Agri-Food Canada, Ontario Ministry of London, ON Agriculture and Food. N5Y 2R7 (519) 873-4631 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. E-mail: [email protected] 1996. Best management practices: Fish Website: www.tallgrassontario.org and wildlife habitat management. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Wildlife Habitat Canada Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Wetland Habitat Fund Food. Water quality and erosion projects, including buffer strips, native vegetation Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. planting and restricted livestock access 1996b. Best management practices: may be funded by the Wetland Habitat Integrated pest management. Fund (WHF). This fund provides private Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, landowners with financial assistance for Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and projects that improve the ecological Food. integrity of wetland habitats. The WHF is directly supported by Wildlife Habitat Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Canada. The fund program favours proj- 1997. Best management practices: No- ects that address local wetland and till, making it work. Agriculture and wildlife habitat issues, such as those ini- Agri-Food Canada, Ontario Ministry of tiated by farmers. Habitat projects that Agriculture and Food. conform to WHF’s criteria may be eligi- ble for funds up to a maximum of 50% American Bird Conservancy. 2003. of the project cost or $5,000 (whichever Domestic cat predation on birds and is less). To apply, contact the Program other wildlife. Cats Indoors! Campaign. Manager to determine the WHF repre- On-Line. URL: www.abcbirds.org sentative in your area, or visit http://www.wetlandfund.com/whfcon- Austen, M.J.W., M.D. Cadman, R.D. tacts.htm. James. 1994. Ontario birds at risk: Status and conservation needs. Don 1750 Courtwood Crescent, Suite 310 Mills, ON: Federation of Ontario Ottawa, ON Naturalists, Long Point Bird Observatory. K2C 2B5 Phone: (613) 722-2090 Baldwin, C.S., E.F. Johnston. No date. Toll-free: 1-800-669-7919 Windbreaks on the farm. Ontario Fax: (613) 722-3318 Ministry of Agriculture and Food Website: http://www.whc.org Publication 527. 72 References Best, L.B. 1983. Bird use of fencerows: Implications of contemporary fencerow AG Care. No date. Agriculture and pes- management practices. Wildlife Society ticides facts: Trends in pesticide use in Bulletin 11: 343-347. Ontario. Guelph, ON: AG Care. Best, L.B. 1990. Sustaining wildlife populations in agroecosystems. Leopold Transactions of the North American Centre for Sustainable Agriculture Wildlife and Natural Resources Newsletter 2 (4): 4-7. Conference 50: 142-156.

Bollinger, E.K. and T.A. Gavin. 1992. Cheskey. E. 1995. Towards conserving Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance Ecology and conservation of eastern the birds of Ontario. Don Mills, ON: bobolink populations. Pages 497-505 in Federation of Ontario Naturalists. J. Hagan and D. Johnston (eds). Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Conservation Technology Information Migrant Landbirds. Washington: Center. 2002. Economic benefits with Smithsonian Institution Press. environmental protection: No-till and conservation buffers in the Midwest. Brenner, L. 1991. Organic agriculture is Indiana: CTIC. for the birds! Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides 11 (4): 20-22. Cowan, W.F. 1982. Waterfowl production on zero tillage farms. Wildlife Brethour, C., A. Mussell and K. Society Bulletin. 10 (4): 305-308. Stiefelmeyer. 2001. Retiring marginally profitable sections of agricultural fields Croonquist, M.J. and R.P. Brooks. 1993. in Ontario economically justified. Effects of habitat disturbance on bird Guelph, ON: George Morris Centre. communities in riparian corridors. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation Brewer, L.W. et al. 1988. Effects of 48 (1): 65-70. methyl parathion in ducks and duck broods. Environmental Toxicological Daigle, J.M. and D. Havinga. 1996. Chemistry 7: 375-379. Restoring nature’s place. Schomberg, Ontario: Ecological Outlook Publishing. Cadman, M.D., P.F.J. Eagles, and F.M. Helleiner. 1987. Atlas of the breeding Dosskey, M.G., R.C. Shultz, and T.M. birds of Ontario. Waterloo, ON: Isenhart. 1997. How to design a riparian University of Waterloo Press. buffer for agricultural land. Agroforestry Notes 4 (Jan.): 1-4. Rocky Mountain Cadman, M. 1999. Conserving what’s Station, NB: USDA Forest Service. left of southern Ontario’s forest birds. Pp. 24-28. In Kettle, A. (ed.) Southern Ducks Unlimited Canada. No date. Ontario Woodlands: The Conservation Project profile: Bruce Community Challenge. Don Mills, ON: Federation of Pasture. Agricultural Conservation Ontario Naturalists. Partnerships 6: 1-2. Ducks Unlimited Canada. Cadman, M. 2004. Highs and Lows. ON Nature, 44:1, p. 13. Ducks Unlimited Canada. 1997. Rural wetlands in Ontario: A guide for Canadian Wildlife Service. 1997. landowners. Resident Canada geese in agricultural southern Ontario. Ontario: Environment Duebbert, H.F. and H.A. Kantrad. 1987. Canada. Use of no-till winter wheat by nesting ducks in North Dakota. Journal of Soil Canadian Wildlife Service. 2002. CWS and Water Conservation 42: 50-53. 73 Factsheet: Pesticides and wild birds. On- Line. URL: www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca Federation of Ontario Naturalists. 2003. Southern Ontario woodlands: Forest Castrale, J.S. 1985. Responses of fragmentation. Don Mills, ON. wildlife to various tillage conditions. Federation of Ontario Naturalists. Ingels, C. 1992. Birds of prey assist farm- 2003b. Southern Ontario woodlands: ers. Sustainable Agriculture 5 (1): Fall. Introducing old growth, the ultimate Jahn, L.R., E.W. Schenck. 1991. What forest. Don Mills, ON. sustainable agriculture means for fish and wildlife. Journal of Soil and Water Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance Federation of Ontario Naturalists. Conservation, July-August: 251-254. 2003c. Southern Ontario woodlands: Making the connection between wood- Kyle, J. Personal communication. lands and water. Don Mills, ON. (OMAF)

Fluetsch, K.M. and D.W. Sparling. 1994. LandOwner Resource Center. 1999. Avian nesting success and diversity in Extension notes: Management options conventionally and organically managed for abandoned farm fields. Ontario: apple orchards. Environmental Queen’s Printer. Toxicology and Chemistry 13: 1651- 1659. LandOwner Resource Center. 2000. Extension notes: Buffers protect the Foy, M. no date. Less tillage means more environment. Ontario: Queen’s Printer. wildlife… both on and off farm. Leopold, A. 1966. A sand county Wisconsin: Dept. of Natural Resources. almanac, with essays on conservation from Round River. New York: Ballantine Francis, C. and M. Austen. 1999. Effects Books. of forest fragmentation on woodland birds in southern Ontario. Pp.41 in A. Livestock Manure Pollution Prevention Kettle (ed). Southern Ontario Project. 2000. Buffer action improving Woodlands: The Conservation water quality. Ontario: Ontario Farm Challenge. Federation of Ontario Environmental Coalition. Naturalists Conference Casebook. Don Mills, ON: Federation of Ontario Lompart, C., J. Riley and J. Fieldhouse. Naturalists. 1997. Woodlands for nature: Managing your woodland for wildlife and nature Freeman, K.E. and D.A. Kirk. 2001. Birds appreciation. Don Mills, ON: Federation on organic and conventional farms in of Ontario Naturalists. Ontario: Partitioning effects of habitat and practices on species composition Long Point Bird Observatory. 1997. A and abundance. Biological Conservation landowner’s resource guide: 101: 337-350. Endangered loggerhead shrikes and other grassland birds. Port Rowan, ON: Friesen, L. 1994. A literature review on Long Point Bird Observatory. wildlife habitats in agricultural landscapes. Green Plan Research Sub- Maitland Valley Conservation Authority. Program. COESA Report No.: 1993. Agro-ecological farm planning RES/MAN-009/94. project.

Harker, D., S. Evans, M. Evans and K. Martin, T.E. 1993. Nest predation and Harker. 1993. Landscape restoration nest sites: New perspective on old pat- handbook. Boca Raton: Lewis terns. BioScience 43: 523 – 532. 74 Publishers. Massachusetts Audubon Society. Henkes, R. no date. Making hayfields 1998. Conserving grassland birds: safer for wildlife. The Conservator: Managing agricultural lands including Ducks Unlimited. hayfields, crop fields and pastures for grassland birds. Lincoln MA: Center for Biological Conservation, tural fields. Field Crop Advisory Team Massachusetts Audubon Society. (CAT) Alerts. Michigan State University Middleton, J. and G. Merriam. 1983. Extension Service. East Lansing, MI. 16 Distribution of woodland species in October. farmland woods. Journal of Applied Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance Ecology 20: 625-644 Riley, J. and Mohr, 1994. Biodiversity and Natural Heritage Strategies for Moore, P. 1998. Increasing quail num- Southern Ontario’s Settled Landscapes. bers through warm season grasses. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Natural Virginia Forest Landowner Update 12: 2. Resources. Virginia Dept. of Game and Inland Fisheries. Robinson, A.Y. 1991. Sustainable agriculture: The wildlife connection. Northern Prairie Wildlife Research American Journal of Alternative Center. Management of agricultural Agriculture 6 (4): 161-167. landscapes for the conservation of neotropical migratory birds. On-Line. Rodenhouse, N.L. and L.B. Best. 1994. URL: Foraging patterns of Vesper Sparrows http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/ot (Pooecetes gramineus) breeding in crop- hrdata/landscap/strategy.htm land. American Midland Naturalist 131: 196-206. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 1994. Extension Notes: The benefits of Saskatchewan Wetland Conservation windbreaks. Ontario: LandOwner Corporation. 2002. A land managers Resource Centre. guide to grassland birds of Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan: Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Houghton Boston Printers. Food. 2001. Organic Farming in Ontario Factsheet. On-Line. URL: Saunders, D.A., R.J. Hobbs, and C.R. www.gov.on.ca/omaf/english/crops/fact Margules. 1991. Biological conse- s/98-029.htm quences of ecosystem fragmentation: A review. Conservation Biology 5: 18-32. Ontario Soil and Crop Improvement Association. 2002. Wildlife wise. Shalaway, S.D. 1985. Fencerow man- Ontario: Ontario Soil and Crop agement for nesting birds in Michigan. Improvement Association, Ontario Wildlife Society Bulletin 13: 302-306. Ministry of Natural Resources. Shutler, D., A. Mullie and R.G. Clark. Palmer, W.E. and W.M. Lane, 1999. 2000. Bird communities of prairie Benefits of no-till soybean production to uplands and wetlands in relation to bobwhite quail. In J.E. Hook (ed.) farming practices in Saskatchewan. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Conservation Biology 14:1441-1451. Southern Conservation Tillage Conference for Sustainable Agriculture. Simberloff, D. and M. Tebo. 1994. Tifton, GA. 6-8 July, 1999. Corridors for conservation: Do habitat- connecting corridors really help birds? Quail Unlimited. No date. Native habitat Living Bird: Winter issue pp.9-13. restoration factsheet: The eradication of 75 tall fescue. Missouri: Quail Unlimited. Statistics Canada. 2001. Census of agriculture: Ontario farm data, 1991, 1996, Renner, K., F.D. Menalled and D. Landis. 2001. On-Line. URL: 1998. Ground beetles and northern www.gov.on.ca/OMAFRA/english/stats/c field crickets eat weed seeds in agricul- ensus/summary.html Stauffer, D.F., and L.B. Best. 1980. Habitat selection by birds of riparian communities: Evaluating effects of habitat alterations. Journal of Wildlife Management 44: 1-15. Getting Help – Sources of Information and Assistance

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