RICE UNIVERSITY FRIENDS OF FONDREN LIBRARY FONDREN LIBRARY Board of Directors, 1982-83 Founded under the charter of the uni- versity dated May 18, 1891, the library Mr. Thomas D. Smith, President was established in 1913. Its present facility was dedicated November 4, 1949, and re- Mr. John T. Cabaniss, Vice-President, Membership dedicated in 1969 after a substantial addi- Mrs. Victor H. Abadie Jr., Programs tion, both made possible by gifts of Ella F. Sally McQueen Squire, Secretary her children, and the Fondren Fondren, Mr. John F. Heard, Treasurer Foundation and Trust as a tribute to Mr. Walter S. Baker Jr., Immediate Past President Walter William Fondren. The library re- Dr. Samuel M. Carrington, University Librarian (ex-officio) corded its half-millionth volume in 1965; Dr. William E. Gordon, University Provost (ex-officio) its one millionth volume was celebrated April 22, 1979. Dr. Ronald F. Stebbings, Chairman, University Committee on the Library (ex-officio) Virginia Kirkland Innis, Executive Director (ex-officio)

Members at Large

THE FRIENDS OF Mr. John Baird III Ms. Connie Ericson FONDREN LIBRARY Mr. Berry D. Bowen Mr. Frank G. Jones Mrs. David J. Devine Dr. Larry V. Mclntire The Friends of Fondren Library was Mrs. Katherine B. Dobelman Mr. H. Russell Pitman founded in 1950 as an association of library supporters interested in increasing Mr. Karl Doerner Jr. Dr. Bill St. John and making better known the resources of Dr. Wilfred S. Dowden Dr. F. Douglas Tuggle the Fondren Library at Rice University. Mrs. J. Thomas Eubank Mrs. Mary Woodson The Friends, through members' dues and sponsorship of a memorial and honor gift program, secure gifts and bequests and provide funds for the purchase of rare books, manuscripts, and other material which could not otherwise be acquired by the library. COVER: Pen-and-ink drawing of Dr. Salomon Bochner commis- sioned by Alumni Association for Alumni Institute, March 24, 1981.

THE FLYLEAF

Founded October 1950 and published quarterly by The Friends of Fondren Library, Rice University, R O. Box 1892, Houston, Texas 77251, as a record of Fondren Library and Friends' activities, and of the generosity of the library's supporters. Editor, Virginia Innis; Associate Editor, Lauren Brown; Editorial Committee, Sally Squire, Samuel Carrington, Mary Woodson, V W. Topazio

Photographs from Woodson Research Center and by Pamela Morris LETTER TO THE FRIENDS O N

Dear Friends, First Annual Bochner Lecture Van Helden For more than a decade, the members of the Rice Community had the Alvert distinct privilege of knowing and being associated with one of the greatest thinkers of the twentieth century, Salomon Bochner, the first Edgar Odell Salomon Bochner Lovett Professor of Mathematics. As President Norman Hackerman recently remarked. Dr. Bochner was representative of the quintessential

A Lecture About Einstein Salomon Bochner Indeed, Salomon Bochner embodied all of the good qualities innate in mankind. For those of us who had the honor of knowing him, we were 13 most influenced by his love and concern for his fellow man. A gentleman Gifts to the Fondren Library scholar, whose intellectual interests and endeavors transcended traditional academic disciplines, he embraced fully the Greek meaning of philosophos, "the love of wisdom."

Dr. Bochner was a strong supporter and ardent user of the Fondren Library's collections. In recognition of one of Rice's most renowned scholars, President Hackerman established on behalf of the Board of Trustees, Faculty, Staff and Students the "Salomon Bochner Collection in the Sources of Science." Comprised of 139 titles in 245 volumes, this series reproduces in facsimile the key works germane to the understanding of the growth and evolution of science in Western Civilization, from antiquity to the twentieth century. Also, through the generosity of his daughter, Deborah Bochner Kennel, the Fondren's Woodson Research

Center is beneficiary of Dr. Bochner's personal papers, manuscripts and much of his personal library.

It is most fitting, therefore, that this issue of the Flyleaf be dedicated to the memory and contributions of Salomon Bochner. His position in the world of mathematics and history of science is without peer, and his absence leaves a void in our lives which cannot be filled.

Samuel M. Carrington, Jr. University Librarian FIRST ANNUAL BOCHNER LECTURE

Albert Van Heldcn

One of the last contributions Salomon Bochner made to SCIENTIA sponsors functions such as colloquia, formal

the intellectual life at Rice University was the foundation of lectures, and, in the future, symposia. All four current an interdisciplinary institute forthe history of ideas. In defin- members have given colloquia in the past few months, and

ing its role on the Rice campus, he had in mind the German in February, SCIENTIA co-sponsored with the Rice English word wissenschafi, which embraces studies in the humanities Medieval Club a very successful talk by Alfred David as well as the sciences. Since wissenschafi is not easily (English) of Indiana University, entitled "The End of the translated, however, Bochner opted for a Latin word scientia Miller's Nose: Directions in the History of Physical

(literally "knowledge") as the title for the new institute. This Stereotypes." appellation he thought sufficiently flexible to accommodate It had been Bochner's aim to have one formal public lec-

scholarly activities in various fields related to the history of ture each year, and in September 1981, Clifford Truesdell

ideas. of Johns Hopkins University delivered the first such lecture. At the time of Bochner's death, in May 1982, SCIENTIA In memory of Salomon Bochner, SCIENTIA and Rice had five members: Bochner himself; Albert Van Helden University have now instituted an annual "Bochner Lecture."

(history), whose field is the history of science; R. O. Wells Professor I. Bernard Cohen, Victor S. Thomas Professor of

(mathematics), whose specialties are several complex the history of science at Harvard, was invited to deliver the

variables and mathematical physics; Jane Chance (English), first Bochner Lecture, and on February 23, 1983, he spoke an expert in medieval literature; and Mark Kulstad on "The Newtonian Revolution in Science" to a full house

(philosophy), a Leibnitz scholar. Also, the first off-campus in Sewall Hall. Fellow, Loyd Swenson (history) of the University of Houston, This lecture was chosen as an appropriate occasion for the a Rice alumnus, had been appointed. Under the directorship presentation of a gift to the library in memory of Salomon of Raymond Wells, the four current members of the institute Bochner. As a tribute to Bochner's contributions to the in-

made a small change in the name of the organization, so that tellectual life of Rice University, President Hackerman

now it is entitled "SCIENTIA: an Institute for the History presented Samuel Carrington, University Librarian, with three of Science and Culture founded by Salomon Bochner." Dur- symbolic volumes in the series, "The Sources of Science," ing the current academic year the membership will be ex- reprints of science classics from the past. This series will

panded to at least six. The appointment of several more strengthen Fondren's holdings in the history of science.

Fellows is also being discussed. Deborah Bochner Kennel, Professor Bochner's daughter, also

participated in the ceremony.

***

I. Bernard Cohen delivers the first annual Bochner Lecture.

Page 2 The Flyleaf SALOMON BOCHNER

Tlie following is from an article in the Houston Chronicle of November 9, 1969

Ten months after he had retired to join the faculty of Rice University, Dr. Salomon Bochner was summoned back to Princeton University for signal recognition ... an assembly of international scholars brought together for a three-day sym- posium on problems in mathematics as they had been ex- plicated in the writings of Dr. Bochner from 1932 through

1969. [Later] . . . the W.A. Benjamin Company. New York

publishers . . . [issued] a 617-page volume, Selected Mathematical Papers of Salomon Bochner, further honor- ing the man recognized by colleagues as "one of the greatest mathematicians of the twentieth century." The book touches scarcely one-fourth of Bochner's resear- ches. It was assembled by a committee appointed during the symposium to produce a work historically representative of

Bochner's pioneering contributions to mathematics. It is significant that these papers are reprinted without change as they first appeared.

But who is Bochner? He came to Rice to accept the en- dowed Edgar Odell Lovett Chair of Mathematics and became

chairman of the department . . . [after] thirty-five years at Princeton. Dr. Harold W. Kuhn, chairman of mathematics at Princeton [in 1969] said of Bochner, "He is one of the greatest living mathematicians, a man of extreme originality and versatility. He has a profound interest in history and the Dr. Salomon Bochner, during his Rice years. history of mathematics, which is a rare thing in a research

." expert. Above all, he is a great teacher . .

Bom in Cracow, Austria-Hungary [now Poland], on August

20, 1899. Bochner obtained his Ph.D. at twenty-one from the University of Berlin and did continuing graduate studies at Copenhagen, Cambridge and Oxford before becoming a this is good. There are things about the university which are lecturer at the University of Munich in 1926. There he re- old-fashioned and they should continue to be so." Bochner mained until his flight to the United States in 1933. is old-fashioned in approach to his students, with whom he

The scope of his knowledge is catholic rather than con- has no difficulty communicating. An assistant professor has stricted and he is as much a humanist as a scientist, as much been assigned to discuss with any student his personal or philosopher as he is historian. "Mathematics", he insists, "is scholastic problems and Bochner himself is always accessible. not an isolated discipline (but) reaches into other areas of Bochner believes the university has the obligation to pro- knowledge as an integral, skeletal part of these areas for their vide responsible guidance for the student, to lead rather than own benefit." Bochner often functions as a humanist. He was to drive him along the path to knowledge. "There is no short one of seven on the editorial board of Scnbner's Dictionary cut, no instant knowledge. If we attempt to start the student of the History of Ideas ... He is a former member of the fresh from the present, if we deny him the body of knowledge Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton and he was associate of the past, we confuse him. There should be the inculca- editor of McGraw-Hill's Encyclopedia of Science and tion of the ideas of the scholars of antiquity to provide

Technology. perspective. Otherwise, inductive learning is not possible." He walks with authority in many areas and minces no words He points out that today's space achievements were made on what he observes ... He abhors violence in any form possible only through knowledge provided modern science

and particularly in its manifestations on campuses across the by scholars of the past. "The first confirmation of Newton's nation. law relative to movement of the planets came in the twen-

"We are a private university here," he says. "We have no tieth century with our Moon shots, he says. "Then it was

walls, no gates, except the symbolic, decorative gates. The found, for the first time, that man-made satellites did, in-

university has no defense against those who would move in deed, move according to the law of Newton, although in the

and tear it down. And it is a wonderful institution, one that, eighteenth century this law was accepted as presumptive. But

happily, looks back in its traditions to medieval ages — and until now the law was a feigned hypothesis."

The Flyleaf Page In a ceremony preceding the first Bochner Lecture, Librarian Samuel Carrington expressed gratitude to Deborah Bochner Kennel for the donation of her father's papers to the Fondren Library. President Norman Hackerman also announced the Bochner Memorial gift to the library.

Very much a man of the world, Bochner looks to the future

and shudders at the prospects inherent in the population ex- plosion. "Urbanization and the Vietnam crisis may stand as

the two tragedies of the twentieth century when history is made ..."

EDITORS NOTE:

Before his death on May 2. 1982. Dr. Salomon Bochner beloved. Professor William Veech. chairman of the received countless awards and honors, among which was the mathematics department and close associate, told a story prestigious Leroy P. Steele Prize from the American which concerned a banquet attended by distinguished Mathematical Society in 1979. He had been vice-president mathematicians on the occasion of Bochner's seventieth birth- of that group for three years and was a member of the Na- day. After listening to a succession of laudatory speeches, tional Academy of Sciences. At his memorial service held the honoree rose and confided to the assembly that he had

in the chapel at Rice, Dr. William E. Gordon, University but one regret in his life, that he had never ridden the trolley

Provost, said, "What did Sal Bochner contribute to the Univer- car that ran between Princeton and Lawrenceville. New Jersey

sity? He gave himself to the University ... he taught us, in the 1930's! In Dr. Veech's own words. "While not presum-

or reinforced in us, the real joys of the academic life . . . ing to speak for the great man . . . the evident joy of his

Regardless of the .result, he proved that the most serious Rice experience suggests that by today. Bochner's list of

academic work could be savored, could be a pleasure in the missed opportunities has not grown." deep sense ... he gave new meaning to the term 'breadth' The following lecture on Einstein, presented by Dr.

in scholarship." Colleagues and a former student joined in Bochner in March, 1979. offers insight into two remarkable paying homage to a man not only admired but also much human beings.

Page 4 The Flyleaf -

A LECTURE ABOUT EINSTEIN

Albert Einstein 1 was universally lionized during his When late in 1933 he was sailing from Europe for perma- lifetime, perhaps more so than any scientist in modem times. nent residence here, at the pilot stop in New York harbor

It is hard to describe the storm that broke loose around him two trustees of the Institute took him off the steamer in a in Berlin, where I also lived, after World Warl, in late 1919, tugboat for quick processing in the port. when his theory of relativity began to be talked about, Finally, during World War II, at a war bond rally in Kan- everywhere, anywhere, anytime, in academic halls and in sas in 1944. a manuscript copy of Einstein's 1905 paper on beer halls. The waves of the storm spread quickly all over special relativity was sold for six million dollars and deposited the world. Newspapers talked about him and reported on his in the Library of Congress. movements for years on end. Why Einstein should have received such public attention

Nothing detracted from his standing. In Berlin it was taken and esteem is, I think, an intriguing problem in mass for granted that his mannerisms were all publicity devices. psychology. After all. Einstein did not write a treatise like

His wearing long hair was jocularly ascribed to a competi- Darwin's Origin of Species- which, as I remember it, the tion against the similarly coiffed playwright Gerhard Haupt- contemporary New York Times called a book in a century mann, 1912 Nobel Prize winner for plays on social themes. or, if this be too controversial, like Newton's Principia (that

Around 1926 an older mathematician who had observed him is. Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), the like over many years remarked to me that Einstein was his own of which has not been created before or since. For instance, best and most watchful publicity agent. But none of this was the Principia predicted that some day a projectile would be intended to impugn his greatness, nor did it affect the adula- launched with a sufficiently high velocity to make it an earth tion of him. satellite. This was seriously spoken of in the eighteenth cen-

In this country the New York Times began to report on him tury, even though it came true only in the middle of the twen- in 1920. tieth century. I do not think that there is anything like this

In 1926, Mrs. Josepha Wheeler, daughter of the eminent in the writings of Einstein. In a splendid paper of 1916 Eins- American astronomer Simon Newcomb, solicited from Ein- tein recognized the existence of stimulated emission that stein, then in Berlin, a statement about her father's work to decades later became a pillar of the theory of lasers. But the be deposited with his papers in the Library of Congress. Eins- paper had no predictive features. tein did respond with a statement, praising Newcomb's work Newton also wrote a book called Opticks which, accor- towards explaining deviations of planetary orbits from their ding to Marjorie Hope Nicolson, inspired sages and poets elliptical Keplenan paths due to gravitational interference through the length of the eighteenth century and beyond.-1 from other planets.- Einstein wrote nothing of the kind. The Opticks is based on In 1929 Einstein wrote a paper on Unified Field Theory, the resolution of white light into the visible spectrum from one of several attempts, none of enduring outcome, to force red to violet, together with related experiments. Newton per- all physics into the mathematicophysical mold of his theory formed all his experimental feats himself, as did other great of gravitation. As I remember it, the American newsmen in physicists after him. Maxwell, for instance, however emi-

Berlin burned up the transatlantic cables transmitting the en- nent a theoretician, was also the first professor of Experimen- tire text of the paper to the United States, intricate formulas tal Physics at Cambridge University. But Einstein never per- and all. This account is from my memory. But it is a formed an experiment in his life. Einstein spent twenty-two documented fact that a trustee of Wesleyan University pur- years at the Institute for Advanced Study, but he never formed chased the manuscript directly for deposit at the Olin Library a school of modem physics, whereas Niels Bohr directed such at Wesleyan. a school of world renown.

Abraham Flexner, the first director of the Institute for Ad- Einstein never coined an original name for anything. He vanced Study in Princeton, liked to regale young people with created the elementary particle "photon," calling it a "quan- stories of his exploits. I was sometimes present, being a tum of light." The beguiling name photon was coined by member not of his Institute but of Princeton University. somebody else. Even his "principle of relativity" was not his Sometime in 1934 he told us how he persuaded the Bamberger by name, but Poincare's. Heisenberg, at the age of twenty- Family of Newark, New Jersey, to come across with a dona- four or twenty-five, proclaimed an "Uncertainty Principle" tion to found the Institute. It was in 1932, and nobody was that scared the daylights out of some philosophers. Einstein willing to make money commitments. Finally the patriarch never came up with anything so suggestive. I know only one of the clan blurted out: give us Einstein and you can have aphorism of his worth remembering: "As far as the laws of your Institute. mathematics refer to reality they are not certain, and as far

And I do remember that probably late in 1931 , newspapers as they are certain they do not refer to reality." Interesting in Germany reported that henceforth Einstein would be as it may be, it does not have half the punch of the cognate dividing his time between his position in Berlin and a lush saying that "mathematics is the field of knowledge in which academic sinecure in Princeton, U.S.A. nobody knows what it is that he is talking about," which I

think is due to Bertrand Russell.

The Flyleaf Page 5 An awareness of the fact that Einstein was, after all, a pro- with reporting on the bad state of health of the Dulong-Petit

duct of a period is beginning to seep through. The National Law about specific heat, with Jeans presenting the patient's Academy of Sciences in Washington, D.C., has recently past history in the nineteenth century when ministered to by

decided to erect an out-of-doors monument to Einstein. I have Maxwell and Boltzmann. and Einstein explaining the fancy

no quarrel with this at all. Einstein became not only an remedy, quanta and all, prescribed by himself in 1907. It

American citizen, but also an American property. After World leaps at the reader of the Proceedings of the Congress that

War II many immigrant celebrities started dashing about all luminaries like Lorentz, Poincare, Planck, Nernst, and W.

over Europe, usually ending up in Switzerland, where at that Wien were profoundly impressed with Einstein, and were time they could get creature comforts approximating those so indulgent with him. He talked a great deal, and butted

in the United States. Einstein, however, stayed put in in at will. And the luminaries beamed at him, at whatever

Princeton, officially at any rate, and the community, in all he said. In return, Einstein was quite deferential in letters

its strata, was very appreciative of this. When he died in the to them (less so in letters about them).

Princeton Hospital, right at home, a blanket of sadness spread Poincare died soon after, which made it the easier for Ein-

over the town. Thus a monument to him is well deserved. stein to outshine the others within a decade, shining them

But the prospectus of the Academy soliciting contributions out of existence, as it were. In a way, they did it to

towards the erection of the monument is surprisingly cir- themselves. Only two years after the Congress, in 1913,

cumspect. It bills him as the greatest theoretical physicist of Planck, speaking for the German delegation to the Congress,

the twentieth century, as if shunning a comparison with a told some Prussian authorities that Einstein was a physicist nineteenth-century physicist like Maxwell, or with a in a century, and must be brought to Berlin. He was made twentieth-century scientist other than a physicist — say a Sig- both a salaried member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences

mund Freud, who would be formidable competition indeed. with the privilege of lecturing at the University (the two buildings are. or were, close by) and the director of a separate Still, with all possible qualifications duly noted, Einstein research Institute of Physics whose creation was hastened by was a person of really great impact, not only on physics but his appointment. All this at the age of barely thirty-five, in also on philosophy, as even a schematic presentation of his the spring days of 1914 before the outbreak of World War achievements ought to put beyond doubt. I, even before Einstein was ready to present his piece de Einstein's span of high creativity extended from 1900 till resistance, the theory of General Relativity and Gravitation, 1920, when he was forty-one. or, if one wants to include which, incidentally, as some rumor had it. Planck abhorred. the Bose-Einstein statistics, till 1924 when he was forty-five. Einstein did indeed lecture at the university, making it a This seems typically to be the approximate productive span platform for the propagation of the faith in relativity and for persons of his caliber. Maxwell died at forty-eight, and himself. I attended such a lecture in 1919, sixty years ago. Riemann, but for whom there would be no Einstein gravita- and I vividly remember part of what he said, and certainly tion, at less than forty. Gauss managed to lay the foundation how he said it. From time to time, in any lecture or debate, for Riemann's pre-Einstein memoir when he was approaching he would look up above the audience, as if actually comm- fifty. Newton published his Principia at forty-five, and his muning with the powers above, but letting the audience be contemporary Spinoza died at forty-five. Galileo crested at witness to it. the age of forty-six with his Starry Messenger, which created In content, what I remember most about the lecture was the telescopic depth of the universe. His contemporary Johan- a sharp upgrading of the stature of Michael Faraday. nes Kepler terminated his high creativity with his third Nowadays there is a Newton-Faraday-Maxwell axis, and I planetary law at about forty-seven, and Galileo's and Kepler's think that Einstein contributed greatly to its creation. contemporary William Shakespeare retired from London to At the beginning of the century Faraday was not included in such Stratford at Forty-eight. Before Shakespeare, Giordano Bruno an exalted company. Even in the late 1930s an Oxford don. was incarcerated by the Inquisition at the age of forty-four, a humanist visiting the Institute for Advanced Study at and long before him Thomas Aquinas amassed a shelf of Princeton, told me how enlightening it was for him to leam writings amidst an active career in church policy before dy- in Princeton of the great esteem that Faraday enjoyed in the ing at the age of forty -eight or -nine. There were notable ex- U.S.A. Einstein in his lecture gave ceptions though: Miguel de Cervantes, a contemporary of Faraday much credit for the creation of the electromagnetic field, even if the lines Shakespeare, was already fifty-eight when the publication of of force in the field had the material quality of strings or even Don Quixote plunged him into immortality. Also, Immanuel cables for him. Kant of Konigsberg was about fifty-eight when the publica- tion of the Critique of Pure Reason made him a successor- But now for Einstein's real achievements. some would say the successor— to Plato of Athens. In 1905, at twenty-six. he published, in one and the same

Einstein's creative span from 1900 till 1920 is neatly divided volume of the Annalen der Physik, three papers, each now

in two halves by the First Solvay Congress of 1911. These enshrined in fame. In the first paper he introduced, but for Congresses, founded by the manufacturer of sodium carbonate the name, the universal photon as an elementary particle much

Ernest Solvay, meeting in Brussels, and having about twenty- as it is understood today. Its only rival was the electron, five participants each, are resplendent with famous names, which, although long known, had been institutionalized as

and the first was particularly star-studded. Einstein, at thirty- a kind of elementary particle in our present-day sense about

two, was the youngest participant, and James Jeans, at thirty- ten years before. The most notable point of the paper is that four, the next youngest. These two "juniors" were charged Einstein satisfactorily explained the way in which these two

Page 6 The Flyleaf rivals interact in the so-called photoelectric effect. It was this ly the question of synchronicity, that made him into the

paper that brought Einstein the Nobel Prize in 192 1 ; at least, philosopher he has become, except that it suited his

no other achievement is singled out in the citation. Using philosophical temper to feature not "verifiability" but the technique of this paper. Einstein began in 1907 to repair "falsifiability," as a criterion for the validity of any theory. the Dulong-Petit law. He carried the repair only halfway. that is.

Einstein himself pointing out an imperfection. Debye and Formally, special relativity is an alternate to Newtonian others completed the job. mechanics, but different from it. It contains a positive cons-

In the second paper of the same volume of the Annalen, tant c, and Newtonian mechanics arises as a limiting case and in some follow-up papers, Einstein gave a satisfactory by letting c go to infinity. By pedigree, however, special theoretical account of Brownian motion, which is the ran- relativity was an outgrowth of and even a part of elec- dom motion of particles suspended in liquids. The magnitude trodynamics. Lorentz and Poincare so viewed it, and they of this achievement is not dimmed by the fact that, in- included the problem of synchronicity somewhere in their 4 dependently of Einstein. Marian Smoluchowski in Cracow context, as a problem of physics. But Einstein was the first did something similar at the same time, and that subsequent to make it clearly into a problem of knowledge in general. theories of Brownian motion, some quite elaborate, were on I find that Einstein always thought in this manner. This was a different level of mathematical expertise. his modus operandi throughout his entire career, scientific

The third paper in the volume was the noisily celebrated and other, usually for the good, but not always. It made him

special theory of relativity -universally celebrated, that is, extremely apt to be successful for the present, but less en- till 1953, when Edmund Whittaker, in a masterful history during as a prophet. We will return to this distinction later. of physics, rudely stripped the paper of celebrity and reduc- Einstein was what I venture to call an "essentialist." He ed it in rank to a glorified footnote to what Whittaker called had the drive and capacity to single out. in any scientific situa-

"the theory of relativity of Poincare and Lorentz", but in the tion under purview, what is really essential to the context,

matter of general relativity and gravitation he left Einstein's not only neutrally, but also in the hierarchical order of its

standing intact, offering, in fact, an excellent sketch of the components, and in its scope. theory. The anguish of Einstein partisans notwithstanding, Einstein arrived at the universal photon in this way. The

most physicists are tending to acknowledge that Whittaker name photon was introduced much later, by G. N. Lewis

is not entirely wrong, at least in the sense that there were in 1926. As I have already stated, Einstein himself spoke

several originators of the theory and that Einstein was a of a "quantum of light," because he sifted its existence out relative late-comer. of Planck's quantum theoretic explanation of black body radia-

For my part, I do assign to Einstein an outstanding share tion. In fact, in the 1916 paper mentioned before, by

in the discovery of special relativity, because Einstein's paper penetrating through to essentials, Einstein even gave the contained a philosophical blockbuster that had a very salutary simplest proof yet known for Planck's radiation formula from

effect when it exploded, somewhat belatedly in 1919, on the Planck's own premises.

agora of philosophers and bystanders. It was the philosophical Or. consider the famous formula E = mc-. It was actually

question of what it means to say that two events at different found by Poincare, but presented by him without derivation

locations in space are synchronous, and how one "verifies" or explanation. Einstein, however, after proving it, gave it

this, the matter of verification being of course the heart of the universal interpretation that if a physical system, any

the question. system, loses energy, then it also loses inertial mass. The 2 Surprisingly, philosophers did not resent the intrusion on- amount of that loss is E/c , with the implied suggestion to to their turf by a professional outsider. Many of them were a later generation that, conversely, by atomic or nuclear

exhilarated, on the Continent at any rate. None dared to spurn disintegration of mass a corresponding amount of energy can

it, "lightweight" as it was when compared to customary be liberated. This is precisely what happens in atomic fission

"heavy" stuff like ethics, aesthetics, mind-and-body. existence or thermonuclear fusion. Because of this universal interpreta-

of God, transcendental knowledge, etc. Some of them might tion, which was heavily emphasized in the so-called Smyth even sneak Einstein's question into their so-called "Introduc- Report, 5 the formula has been firmly attached to Einstein,

tion" to philosophy, a grab-bag of what a budding philosopher irrespective of its origin in Poincare, who had stated it in ought to become familiar with. Einstein's kind of question an electrodynamic context. was not quite unprecedented. Immanuel Kant once asked Even Einstein's gravitation theory, his most original crea-

whether it is meaningful to say that a treasure is buried in tion ever, was not independent of an essentialist provenance,

the Sahara in a location inaccessible to humans. But these in Einstein's own pedigree for it, at any rate. He packaged

were marginal questions in exotic settings. Nothing can be it inside something he called general theory of relativity, this

more common than wanting to know whether two events in in turn was an essentialist elaboration of something called

different cities have occurred at the same time, however, and, special theory of relativity, which was designed to feature

if they have, wanting to establish this in a manner that will the fact that light velocity is maximal and constant. And this

stand up in court. special theory in turn was an essentialist shell in which to

I can cite a witness to the impact of the question. It is Sir house something that had been created by Poincare. a prin- Karl Popper, widely known for his book T7ie Open Society ciple of relativity, expressly so named by him. This princi-

and Its Enemies. I remember reading in an autobiographical ple had its debut right in this country, on September 24. 1904.

account of his that it was Einstein's special relativity, especial- when Poincare presented it at a Congress of Arts and Sciences

TheFMea/Page7 assembled at the World Exposition in St. Louis. As if this Aristotle proposed a theory in which each body in the route were not devious enough, on the road from the princi- universe has its natural place, and if it is not located in it, ple of relativity to gravitation Einstein built a major way sta- it seeks to reach it. There was no effective rival theory till tion called the Principle of Equivalence, and a secondary one, the end of the sixteenth century, although dissatisfaction with a Principle of Covariance, both mandatory stopovers; the Aristotle's theory had been on the increase since the late Mid- stopover at Equivalence involved an eerie plunge in the so- dle Ages. In the early seventeenth century Galileo offered called Einstein Elevator. a satisfactory explanation, but only for terrestrial events. His

All this sounds very involved. Nevertheless, the magnitude paths of falling bodies were even parallel, as if the earth were of Einstein's achievement is such that it can be savored from flat. At the same time Kepler was seeking to explain gravi- outside without entering into a maze of technicalities at all. ty's cosmic manifestations. With his powerful intuition he

Gravitation is the oldest and most ubiquitous phenomenon, half-guessed the three planetary laws, but an underlying ra- and it is always accessible to observation. Objects are fall- tionale eluded him. Newton then found one. on a comprehen- ing and moving all the time and in all places. But explaining sive scale. gravitation has always been a forbidding problem. Even to- The simplicity and grandeur of Newton's theory fascinated day the innermost structure of gravitation is more arcane than lay intellectuals like Voltaire and unemotional philosophers anything else in physics, and if you overhear a physicist say like Kant. But professionals in astronomy and mechanics had that something is only probably so. then more likely than cause to view it soberly, even disenchantedly. When trying not he is talking about gravitation, or something involving to regulate the motions of planets, moons, and comets by gravitation. Thus, some physicists say incessantly that there the new theory, they encountered difficulty after difficulty. "probably" are gravitons (elementary corpuscular particles of As soon as one difficulty was seemingly over, a new one gravitational force), as if by saying this often enough the demanded attention. Therefore there were no discouraging gravitons would indeed show up suddenly. side-glances at Einstein when -after some attempts by others -he started from the very roots, building up something

very different, even if it was in close proximity to Newton's ideas. From our retrospect, the working mathematics needed for

any mathematically controlled theory of gravitation was in

Newton's time still in its infancy, and there was only one

space form available in which to create it, the Euclidean. That

was all that Newton had to work with, and he made the most

of it. Euclidean space happens to be infinite by well-intuited mathematical notions of infinitude. But this does not mean,

as some philosopher-historians volubly proclaim, that Newton was intellectually motivated by a metaphysico-theological

drive for infinitude of space. Even the fact that Newton view- ed his Euclidean space as "absolute" has no such implication for me. If closed Riemannian space had been mathematical-

ly accessible to Newton and he had used such a space in- stead of the standard Euclidean type, then philosopher- historians would have undoubtedly adjusted his alleged metaphysico-theological drive accordingly.

From motives that nobody can fathom, after 191 1 (and even earlier) Einstein was driven to erect a theory of gravitation of his own, a genuinely new one. By chance and cir-

cumstances he fell in with a body of elaborate mathematics

that had come into being long after Newton, in the course

of the nineteenth century. As if by a predestined harmony,

it was highly fit to articulate Einstein's desiderata from physics

and give suitable responses to them. It was the so-called

Riemannian geometry, that is, the multidimensional differen-

tial geometry mainly of Riemann. but indispensably also of Christoffel, Beltrami. Ricci. and Levi-Civita. The mathemati- cian Marcel Grossmann. an old acquaintance of Einstein's

and a faculty colleague at Zurich, was Einstein's mentor and

even co-author in a few papers. But the final theory, and

above all the inspiration, drive, and passion of purpose, were

wholly Einstein's. At any rate, there are no reports of Grossmann having had the sense of a brush with immortali-

ty followed by failure due to Einstein's ill-will. Einstein did A youthful Salomon Bochner, taken at Princeton.

Page 8 The Flyleaf exhaust his store of mathematical knowledge, but any Einstein changed all this by abolishing the traditional physicist has the privilege of doing so with any mathemati- presumption that the universe is the infinite Euclidean space cian. Einstein was after big game, and he applied whatever or a finite portion of it. Instead he approached the outlook hunting laws were legitimate. of Riemann that almost any topological manifold should be When mathematicians became aware of this activity in a eligible to begin with. A compact manifold, for instance, highly charged mathematical area, their curiosity was aroused, offers a neat compromise between finite and infinite, and and David Hilbert, the greatest among them, set out to rob Einstein gave attention to the simplest such case, namely,

Einstein of his prey. In defense, or rather counter-attack, Ein- the case of a sphere. Also, it is not necessary to elect one stein tore the center piece out of his kill, left the denuded fixed space and adhere to it. One may envisage a family of carcass for mathematicians to argue over, dashed off into the spaces and examine how observational and speculative data promising field of cosmology, and very quickly inaugurated are compatible with all of them or some of them. As a con- a novel kind of cosmological speculation of which he became sequence, even the problem whether the universe had an the father or godfather for the rest of the century. This was origin in time, in a cosmically meaningful gauge of time, a glorious evasive tactic, and it was Einstein's all- or has been in an eternal state of existence, appeared in a overshadowing enterprise, uniquely his, although mathemati- very new light. All in all, as I remember it. one felt one was cians hesitated to follow Einstein, and even physicists were finally free after centuries of constriction in a straitjacket of skeptical. I heard it said that Niels Bohr warned his followers presumptions. to stay out of cosmology until problems of microphysics have Of course, curved spaces were introduced in the nineteenth been solved. This is like saying that one sould defer space century, long before Einstein. However, the renowned hyper- exploration until urban slums have been cleared. bolic space of Bolyai-Lobachevsky is topologically not dif- Again, the effect of these developments on philosophy was ferent from Euclidean space and made no immediate impres- incalculable. Since Giordano Bruno in the sixteenth century, sion on physics, or even on mathematics. But the elliptic space the space problem involved in astronomy and cosmology was of Riemann did draw a quick response. Soon after Riemann's philosophically beset by an utterly sterile yes-or-no question: memoir became known in English, Simon Newcomb, whom whether space is finite or infinite and also what infinitude I have previously mentioned, in an 1877 paper in the of space means cognitively. Some philosophers of science prestigious Crelle Journal speculated on how elliptic and even are clinging to this question even today. Aristotle was naively projective space would be detectable by human or condemned for finitude, and Bruno was even more naively astronomical experience. Also, in 1900 an astronomer, Karl hailed for infinitude. Those in the know, the true cognoscenti, Schwarzchild, went into greater quantitative detail. Yet these were mostly hedging. Copernicus hedged— and this was one papers were of no enduring consequence, because they dealt of his finest features; and so did Galileo, from indecision. with the same physics as before, only in different spatial

Kepler inclined towards finitude, but less from siding with frameworks. But in 1916 the same Schwarzschild, in response

Aristotle than from disapproving of Bruno, whose brand of to the latest work of Einstein, constructed a relativistic space-

infinitude he considered astrophysically reckless, and right- time model whose importance is such that Schwarzschild's ly so. Descartes created his own wrinkle and hedged by mak- name, I think, currendy occurs in cosmology more frequently ing his so-called extension (extenions, etendue) neither finite than Einstein's. Regrettably, he died soon after, at the age

nor infinite but indefinite, which, in its inventiveness, went of forty-three. back right to Anaximander. Newton in the Principia was fully A similar early contribution to relativity was made by hedging, avoiding a decision throughout the three editions. Willem de Sitter. In addition to scoring specific achievements, When the rector Richard Bentley in a pesky letter tried to he also wrote in 1932 a small general book called Kosmos.

force Newton's hand by making him agree that a universe In it he makes a statement that should be emblazoned on all

of finite matter might suffer gravitational collapse, Newton books in physics or astronomy. It is the statement that "In-

hemmed and hawed and counter-suggested that such a finity is not a physical, but a mathematical concept." That

universe might remain stable by arranging itself in what is is, whenever you state in exact science that some physical

nowadays called gravitational clustering. And Immanuel Kant magnitude is infinite, then, without exception, you refer to

weaseled out of the situation some of the time by devising a quantity in an appropriate mathematical skeleton of the

an antinomy that if the world is infinite it is finite, and if physical context. Without a mathematical skeleton, however

finite infinite. Among medieval schoolmen such antinomies primitive it be, no such statement can be made. This in itself must have been quite common. Any trained schoolman could does away with many a version of the query whether the

probably make up one on any contrariety offered. Kant universe is finite or infinite. himself used several. To my surprise. Ludwig Wittgenstein was quite conven- In comparison to Einstein's gravitation, Newton's appears

it to that Einstein "over- tional in this matter. The logical space of his Tractarus is, to be simplistic. But is wrong say

by parenthetic remark, infinite. Commentators notwithstan- threw" Newton. Einstein used mathematical resources, inaccessible to ding, this infinitude serves no purpose, but is the standard readied by others, that would have been philosophical presumption since Giordano Bruno. Newton in his wildest dreams. Newton was still so ingenuous

Th

Poisson's one-component-object by a more elaborate object it, shining brilliantly forth into the twentieth century that came of ten components. afterwards, but not being able to see into it himself, as if

Einstein's advance over Newton was evolutionary, and the light that he threw into it flashed back at him. blinding nothing but evolutionary. He overthrew Newton as little as his vision. In this sense Einstein was a person of the present, did birds overthrow reptiles out of whom they evolved. In of the lived present and the escapist present, and it was this fact, reptiles continue to flourish alongside birds, as does that made him, especially in this country, a smash hit of the

Newton's gravitation alongside Einstein's, for instance, in all 1920s. engineering mechanics and physics in our time. The theory But he was not a prophet; he did not have the passion and and production of high velocity particles prerequires special vision, selflessness and calling, to be one. Between 1925 and relativity, but particle accelerators in which they are generated 1927, a crew of post-teenagers, headed by Heisenberg. are architecturally built on Newtonian engineering mechanics Schrodinger, and Dirac, seized the helm of the ship of quan- exclusively. As Niels Bohr put it in general terms: "No more tum theory, set out into uncharted waters, and, to the amaze- is it likely that the fundamental concepts of the classical ment of many, started making discovery after discovery, not theories will ever become superfluous for the description of only of islands, but even of continents, and of new naviga- physical experience." tional principals too. This was the so-called new quantum

Einstein did not overthrow Maxwell either. In fact, it can theory. Mathematically, the "classical" equations of be argued that special relativity was an apex achievement mechanics and electrodynamics that had emerged from the evolving almost rectilinearly out of Maxwell's elec- work of Newton. Euler, Lagrange, and Maxwell were radical- tromagnetism, and all but completed it. ly re-interpreted, and the effect on the open mind was com-

Nor can it be maintained that Einstein was superior to Max- pelling and irresistible. well in an overall sense. It is true that, except for his study Einstein, amazingly, resisted and remained aloof. He soon of the ring of Saturn, Maxwell did not contribute directly became antagonistic to the new discoveries, and gradually to the study of gravitation in which Newton and Einstein ex- more rejectionist. He could not or would not perceive that celled. But he did perform the extraordinary feat, to which a momentous development in a new phase of modernity was there is no parallel, of fusing optics with electromagnetism. in the making. He refused to legitimize it, in whole or in Optics, Aristotle's he optike, was the most venerable body any part, and stuck to his refusal to the end. pleas by per- of knowledge there was, and everybody who was somebody, sonal friends notwithstanding. There were no overt public

literally everybody, felt bound to have an outlook on it — demonstrations, no excommunications of heretics, just a hard

physical, philosophical, even inspirational - in late antiquity, standoff, and an agreement to disagree reluctantly maintained. the Middle Ages, the seventeenth century, the eighteenth cen- There were debates, though, Einstein, being unbeatable tury, etc. Electromagnetism, however, William Gilbert not- in debates, scored on points, sometimes markedly. And like withstanding, was an upstart field; the Leyden jar was the a medieval schoolman, he was content with this kind of vic- perennial toy for adults. Yet Maxwell fused these two fields tory and the applause of his retinue. But, before the God of

into one, or, at any rate, consummated their fusion. In the Physics, his were illusory victories. The new quantum theory

process he created, with posthumous assistance from Hertz was couched in a new idiom, subdivided into dialects. Its

and others, the awe-inspiring electromagnetic spectrum from grammar is not yet settled, even today, to the satisfaction

end to end, from frequency to frequency °°. To appraise of all the faithful. This bespeaks strength, not feebleness.

its importance one need only consider what would be left For instance, analysis was a new idiom for mathematically

of laboratory physics, red-shift cosmology, and radio- controlled science. It suddenly sprang up close to 1600. and

astronomy if it were not available. To offset this achieve- immediately came up with Kepler's remarkable planetary

ment Newton at least wrote his two tremendous works, the laws. But it went through the pangs of birth, childhood, and Principia and the Opticks, on which Voltaire could compose adolescence for over two centuries before reaching the

a beguiling commentary. Einstein wrote nothing to induce adulthood of rigor and consistency in the nineteenth century,

Arthur Koestler to include him among his sleepwalkers. and at first it had many more vulnerabilities than anything Any survey of Einstein's scientific career, however sketchy, that Einstein could adduce against the innovations of his day. must also take into account activities in his later years, after One can only pity a twentieth-century student of Kepler bent

the high creativity had exhausted itself, but the glory and the on making twentieth-century sense out of the ramblings of presence remained. His scientific later years lasted at least Kepler's New Astronomy. Yet the achievements of Kepler three decades, beginning not later than 1925, although he are here to stay. Einstein should have known that a debate

Page 10 The Flyleaf or two will not topple something destined to stay, but. alas, added discontinuities were somehow felt to be undesirable,

he did not. Whether he could not or would not know it is even if ineluctable, and continuity remained the paramount hard to determine, and does not make a great difference wish and expectation, even more intensely than in the eigh- anyway. teenth century. In fact, academics have been wont to pro- There were specific findings to which Einstein and a small claim that the nineteenth century was the century of continui-

band of other physicists were dialectically opposed, as some ty . Although Darwin's continuist evolution had to be salvaged

still are. The primary one is Heisenberg's Uncertainty Prin- from immobilizing rigidity by an injection of potent muta- ciple taken in conjunction with Bom's probability doctrine. tionist discontinuity, overall continuity nonetheless remained

It states that in the case of an elementary particle, say an elec- paramount. Bernhard Riemann. one of the gentlest of men,

tron, its position and its momentum (that is, velocity) can- in a paper of 1860 inaugurated thought patterns and even

not be, both of them, observed with sharp precision at the words of violence that only twentieth century technology was

same time. If. say, the position has been fixed absolutely, able to follow up. He did not have "shock wave" in his

then the momentum is entirely random; joint approximations vocabulary, but he had "compression wave" (Ver- of the two have thresholds beyond which they cannot be im- dichtungswelle) and "compression thrust" (Verdichtungsstoss);

proved, every threshold involving Planck's constant of ac- yet the world around him took little notice of his anticipa-

tion; and if one of the two has been observed to fall within tion. Karl Marx envisaged a violent socioeconomic upheaval,

a certain range, then the value of the other has possibilities that is, discontinuity, to come. But it was sociopolitically 8 that are given by associated probability distributions. predetermined and bound to be followed by a future free of

These assertions about limitations of microphysical obser- such discontinuies. And Marx bitterly fought anarchists, that vability produced in Einstein and a handful of other physicists is. advocates of political discontinuity as a way of life. an emotional reaction as if a sacrament hallowing the con- But as the twentieth century wanes, discontinuities are cepts of space and time had been defiled. Also, pragmatically gradually advancing to a level equal in day-to-day impor-

Einstein must have instantly perceived that this was the end tance to that of continuities. They are becoming severally of his dream of a Unified Field Theory on his terms, although and jointly a way of life and thought throughout, and not only for years on end he would go through the motions of trying in select areas. Einstein had no qualms about imputing to to find one; and it was perhaps this that he would not ever elementary particles two co-existent aspects, a continuous forgive. While only some scientists balked, many more undulatory aspect and a discontinuous corpuscular aspect. philosophers were dismayed. Until 1927. when Heisenberg And he had no objection to, but productively cooperated in proclaimed his Uncertainty Principle, professional the large nineteenth-century statistical theory of matter that philosophers took little notice of quantum theory, of the "old" takes into account the difficulties of truly precise observa- theory and even the "new" one. But this apparent contraven- tions and the mathematical inconvenience of dealing rigorous- tion of the customary presumption of determinism in the laws ly with a mechanical system of many particles. But he balk- and prescriptions of physics took them by very unpleasant ed more than half of his academic life at the Bom-Heisenberg

surprise and jolted them into attention. It was one thing say. statistical theory, because its statistical aspect is not marginally to oppose Hegelianism to Kantianism, old or "neo-"; but it approximative but centrally legislative.

was quite another thing to call nineteenth century determinism And yet, already decades before Bom-Heisenberg, the into question. An Einstein could afford just to stand aside American philosopher Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914)

and pout. The philosophers could not. They had to get into perceived, from pure thinking as it were, the possibility of

the scrimmage and try to explain things to themselves and an "absolute chance," that is, of genuine indeterminancy as others. For instance. Popper wrote a lengthy article about opposed to an indeterminancy arising merely from "ig-

it. and the distinguished philosopher Ernst Cassirer, author norance", be the ignorance genuine or presumptive. Pierce

of a string of important works, added one last book to his even installed the minor Greek goddes Tyche (chance) to be 9 list, to deal with determinism and indeterminism in physics. in charge of this "Tychism".

From what I have seen, these philosophers' cogitations have Niels Bohr, only six years younger than Einstein, propos- not been overly illuminating so far. ed to come to grips with the perplexities of twentieth-century

From my viewpoint, their lack of success does not reflect physics by the use of a new rule of comprehension, a tricky

on the new physics or the struggling philosophers, nor does one. He called it the principle of complementarity. By this

it justify Einstein's aloofness. The new quantum theory is principle there are near-contradictory aspects in the process

finally a creation of the twentieth century proper. It expresses of verifying phenomena. Yet, however contradictory, the

the vicissitudes and anxieties, the fears and uncertainties of aspects complement each other. If an experiment illumines

our age much more faithfully than did the old theory, and one aspect it necessarily obscures the other. On translating

professional philosophy will have to find the drive and the from experimentation to cogitation it follows that there are 10 idiom by which and in which to articulate this. theories that are both contradictory and complementary. As The nineteenth century knew a great deal about discon- if to corroborate this, there are physicists who find that

tinuities, and it spiced the naivete of the eighteenth century relativity theory and quantum theory are of this kind. by inserting "additives" of discontinuities, some good-sized,

into its philosophemes about continuity all around. But these

T/ieRyfea/Pagell .

This sort of thinking was outside Einstein's horizon. Before sion of the nineteenth century there were Freud, Einstein,

World War I certain intellectual circles hopefully expected Spengler. Their counterparts in the twentieth century proper that a common language of communication, a true Esperan- were Kafka, Heisenberg, Godel. Overwhelming as the nine- to, would cure many if not all ills of the world; and Ein- teenth century is in this confrontation — and it was an over- stein's heart was arrested in this expectation. But it is a vain whelming century indeed - the twentieth century does have expectation. In our century there is a built-in possibility for a very distinctive composition and orientation of its own, a ambiguity and uncertainty that cannot be eliminated. Godel's radically different one. How the twenty-first century will com- theorem, when boldly transferred from Logic to Life, already pare with the two preceding ones will be for the twenty-first points to this, whether Gdel himself would approve of such to decide. a transferor not. Suppose the United States and Russia would agree, in the purest of intentions, to draw up a detailed com- prehensive document of coexistence in the most precise NOTES language possible. By Godel's theorem no precaution of wor- ding can prevent situations from arising about which it could 1 Albert Einstein was born March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Ger- not be decided whether they are or are not subsumable under many, and died April 15, 1955. in Princeton. New Jersey. He the provisions of the document. An equally bold transfer of was cremated and his ashes were scattered, except for the brain, which has been preserved. the principal of complementarity suggests that subsumabili- After an irregular attendance at high schools in Munich, Ger- ty in all cases could be insured by composing the treaty in many, and Aurau, Switzerland, he was enrolled at the reputed two versions, English and Russian, but at a price: The price Zurich Institute of Technology ETH (Eidgenbssische Technische is that in some instances conflicting interpretations might Hochschule) from July 1896 till August 1900, graduating from its Division IV with a diploma for teaching mathematics and arise, either outright contradictory, or differing so much in physics. After temporary teaching jobs he became on June 23. degrees of clarity as to amount to a contradiction. Albert Ein- 1902. a clerk at the Patent Office in Bern, from which position stein, physicist sans pared , could not or would not see what he resigned October 15. 1909. to become an associate professor was quintessential in the workaday doings of a younger (Extraordinarius) at the University of Zurich. Until joining his generations of physicists all around him. university, while still with the Patent Office, he was also a Privat- dozent at the University of Bern. He left the University of Zurich Bertrand Russell, with whom Einstein was in rapport, was in the summer of 1911, to become professor at the German not far different from him. Russell's great disciple Ludwig University of Prague. He stayed only one year, 191 1/1912, leav- Wittgenstein did have a sense of something new in the off- ing to become full professor (Ordinarius) at the ETH, upon the ing. His Tractatus was done at the same time as Einstein's recommendations of Marie Curie and Henri Poincare. This stay was also brief, and from April 1, 1914. till the middle of March work on General Relativity, and fits snugly into the outgo- 1933 he was a salaried member of the Prussian Academy of ing phase of the extended nineteenth century. After that, Wit- Sciences in Berlin. In October 1933 he reached his final academic tgenstein began to grope for something radically different, destination. He joined the Institute for Advanced Study at towards entering into the twentieth century proper, as I see Princeton. New Jersey, as one of its faculty members. Becom- ing resident in it; this is shown by the difference of style in his Philosophical a Emeritus 1946. These data are taken from Max Fliickiger, Albert Einstein Investigations, and in the Brown and Blue Books before. But in Bern (Bern. 1974), and the comprehensive biography of Ein- he could not make it. His intellectual resources were too stein; Ronald W. Clark, Einstein, the Life and Times (New York limited and too exhausted for such a radical reorientation. and Cleveland; World Publishing Company, 1971). Kafka and other existentialists, with the Sigmund Freud Some data in the text have been taken from the bibliography in A. Schilpp. Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist (Evanston. of around 1930 among them, did show an awareness of a P. 111., 1949); from Jagdish Mehra, The Solvay Conferances on rising Discontent in Civilization, but they were too continuity- Physics (Dordrecht and Boston. 1975); and from A. Eucken. Die bound, too conditioned and too overwhelmed by the past ef- Tlieorie der Strahlung und der Quanlen (Halle. 1914), which fusions of Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche, to is detailed report on the First Solvay Conference. recognize the twentieth-century novelty of it all. 2. Science 49 (1929): 248-249. Einstein observes that, Even Arnold Toynbee, when he tried to extrapolate from whatever Newcomb achieved, he could of course not explain the irregularity of the perihelion of Mercury because only General the past into the future, did not have things in focus. Too Relativity could cope with this anomaly. In an assessment of much eschatological mysticism clouded his vision. But his Newcomb's achievements this was an odd observation to make, rival prognosticator Oswald Spengler. author of Vie Decline since Newcomb died in 1909. years before there was a theory of the West, clearly described the woes of our "imperial of General Relativity. Newton could not have explained it either. presidency," for instance, and he clearly foresaw the oncom- 3. Marjorie Hope Nicolson. Newton Demands the Muse: Newton's Eighteenth-Century ing struggle between the West - which he calls the Faus- "Opticks" and the Poets (Princeton 1946). See also the "Preface" by I. Bernard Cohen in the edition tian culture — and a resurgent Russia. What is more, he in- of the Opticks by Dover Publications (New York. 1952). This sisted before that in it will 1918 the end be not the Lenins edition also has a valuable introduction by Sir Edmund Whittaker. but the Solzhenitsyns that will oppose us. (continued on page 20) The contrast between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries can be epitomized by a changing of the guard in Central

Europe, and 1 mean Central Europe literally. In the exten-

Pagel2TheFZy!ea/ 3

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Notes on A Lecture About Einstein (continued from page 12)

4. Died at age forty-five.

5. H.D. Smyth, Atomic Energy for Military Power (Washington. D.C., 1945). This book, a best-seller, was, in ef- fect, a government publication.

6. W. de Sitter, Kosmos (Cambridge, Mass., 1932). p. 1 13. 7. Niels Bohr Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature (Cambridge, 1934), p. 16.

8. Ibid.

9. Salomon Bochner, "Mathematical Reflections." The American Mathematical Monthly 81 (1974): 827-857, especial- ly p. 850.

10. Bohr, Atomic Theory, pp. 1-20.

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