Wetenskaplike artikels• Research articles
An exploration of social systems as informative for urban regeneration in Potchefstroom Central Business District
Karen Puren & Gert Meiring 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Peer reviewed and revised It appears that urban growth is one of the most compelling challenges Abstract for cities in the future. The United The future of cities undoubtedly spells change on many levels due to urban growth. Nations (UN) (2014) projected that by One of the mechanisms used in cities to cope with change is urban regeneration. Urban 2050, 66% of the world’s population regeneration has mainly been addressed through economic and planning policies geared towards physical renewal, with hardly any understanding or acknowledgment will be residing in urban areas. of the social dynamics underlying the physical process. Social dynamics are important Rapid urbanisation is even more to consider in urban regeneration, as they form the underlying driving forces of cities. prevalent in developing countries However, little is known about these underlying forces. The aim of this research is to (Yaakup, Zalina & Sulaiman, explore the role of social systems in the Central Business District of Potchefstroom. An 2004: 2). South Africa, for example, ethnographical approach is used to guide the methodology, while qualitative methods has one of the highest urbanisation (observations and interviews) are used to capture data about the social systems that rates in the world (Yari, 2011: 6). are present in the study area, how these social systems interact with one another, and how they can be included in urban regeneration initiatives. The findings suggest It is projected to have an urban the existence of three interactive social systems that reflect pro-social behaviour population percentage of 77% by and cultural relativism which, in turn, create vitality in the study area. Social systems 2050 (UN, 2014). Rapid urbanisation play a multi-levelled role in the study area. Their role can possibly inform urban creates numerous challenges that regeneration by being proactive in terms of attracting new and maintaining existing seem to revolve around a few main social relationships; being creative in terms of adapting and changing the physical interrelated issues such as spatial environment to address needs, and being supportive in order to unlock internal challenges due to development resources such as local knowledge, creativity, commitment, energy and ownership. pressure to provide housing and Keywords: complexity, Potchefstroom Central Business District, social systems, infrastructure (Beall & Fox, 2009; urban planning, urban regeneration, qualitative research Cohen, 2001); environmental challenges such as a decrease in ‘n VERKENNING VAN SOSIALE SISTEME AS INSIGGEWEND VIR urban green space as a result of STEDELIKE VERNUWING IN POTCHEFSTROOM SE SENTRALE SAKEKERN urban sprawl and urban densification Die toekoms van stede voorspel ongetwyfeld veranderings op vele vlakke as gevolg (Nyambod, 2010); economic van verwagte stedelike groei. Een van die meganismes wat aangewend word in stede challenges such as creating ten einde veranderings te kan hanteer, is stedelike regenerasie. Stedelike regenerasie employment opportunities (Grant, is in die verlede hoofsaaklik aangespreek deur ekonomiese en beplanningsbeleide wat 2012: 4), and social challenges due gerig was op fisiese hernuwing, met min begrip of inagneming van die sosiale dinamiek wat die proses onderlê. Sosiale dinamika is belangrik om te oorweeg in stedelike to an increasing agglomeration of regenerasie omrede dit die onderliggende dryfkrag van stede is. Min kennis is egter people, which brings various cultures beskikbaar aangaande hierdie onderliggende kragte. Die doel van hierdie navorsing into closer contact as they share the is om ondersoek in te stel na die rol van sosiale sisteme in die Sentrale Sakekern van same spatial environment (Hendrix, Potchefstroom. ‘n Etnografiese benadering is gebruik om die metodiek te rig, terwyl 2009: 4; Couch & Dennemann, kwalitatiewe metodes (waarnemings en onderhoude) gebruik is om data te versamel 2000: ; Rosado, 1994: 2). Viewed as aangaande die sosiale sisteme wat teenwoordig is in die studiegebied, die aard van die cultural “melting pots” (Carnevale, interaksie tussen hierdie sosiale sisteme en hoe die sisteme in stedelike regenerasie ingesluit kan word. Die bevindinge dui op die teenwoordigheid van drie interafhanklike Cohn, Kent, Maki, Malsawma, sosiale sisteme wat pro-sosiale gedrag en kulturele relativisme reflekteer wat vitaliteit Skolnik & Yin, 2007: 3), cities are in die stedelike ruimte meebring. Sosiale sisteme speel ‘n veelvlakkige rol in die becoming progressively complex studiegebied. Dit kan stedelike regenerasie moontlik rig in terme van die pro-aktiewe rol social phenomena to study. The in die lok van nuwe sosiale interaksie en die behoud van bestaande sosiale interaksie, future of cities undoubtedly spells die kreatiewe rol in die aanpassing en verandering van die fisiese omgewing ten einde change on many levels, leaving behoeftes aan te spreek en ‘n ondersteunende rol ten einde hulpbronne soos plaaslike cities with little option but to adapt kennis, kreatiwiteit, verbondenheid, energie en eienaarskap te ontsluit. and adjust to accommodate these Sleutelwoorde: komplesiteit, Potchefstroom Sentrale Sakekern, sosiale sisteme, challenges. stadsbeplanning, stedelike vernuwing, kwalitatiewe navorsing
Miss Karen Puren, Senior Lecturer, Urban and Regional Planning, School for Geo and Spatial Sciences, North-West University, Private bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa. Phone: (018) 299 2545/084 612 6001, email:
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One of the strategies used in these underlying forces in the The value of urban social systems cities to cope with change is urban environment, and the role of does not reside in the components of urban regeneration (Chan & Lee, social systems in terms of urban the system, but rather in the dynamic 2008: 243).1 Robert & Sykes regeneration seems to be unclear interaction that results from the (2005: 17) define urban regeneration in urban planning research. The interplay of the components (Cilliers, as: “A comprehensive and integrated primary aim of the study is to explore 2010: 57). It is from this interplay of vision and action which leads to social systems in a specific context interaction that meanings arise and the resolution of urban problems (Potchefstroom Central Business richness of the system is created. and which seeks to bring about a District), in order to illustrate how Meanings are, in this instance, not lasting improvement in the economic, social systems can inform urban merely a result of characteristics physical, social and environmental regeneration initiatives. While of the system, but rather emerge condition of an area that has been the findings are not necessarily from the characteristics of the subject to change.” In the past, representative of other Central relationships formed within and urban regeneration was mainly Business Districts, the study indicates by a particular complex system. addressed through economic the importance and complexity of Therefore, the elements or and planning policies geared social dynamics in the urban context. constituents of a complex system towards physical renewal, with little Based on the aforementioned, the have no representational meaning understanding or acknowledgement main research question that guided by themselves, but only in terms of of the social dynamics underlying this study is: What is the role of patterns of relationships with other the physical process (Pulselli, social systems with regard to urban elements/constituents. Instead of Ratti & Tiezzi, 2006: 132; Stouten, regeneration? Secondary questions aiming to determine or describe 2005: 4; Tsenkova, 2002: 11). It include: What urban social systems the components/constituents of a is important to consider social are present in a specific research system, a general understanding dynamics in urban regeneration, context? How do these social of such a system is rather gained as they form the underlying driving systems interact with one other? How by understanding the nature of the forces of cities (Lee & Chan, can urban social systems be included relationships that are formed (which 2010: 9; Comunian, 2010: 426). within urban regeneration? form the focus of this article). Social dynamics manifest through people’s interaction and behaviour, Urban social systems form a complex 2. CITIES AS COMPLEX which can either be supportive (e.g., intricate network that drives the social voluntary cleaning and/or protecting SOCIAL SYSTEMS dynamics in a city (Cheng, Masser & areas from crime) (Nel-lo, 2010), or A system is a set of interacting Ottens, 2008: 14). However, people negative and disruptive (e.g., crime and interdependent parts and/ and space cannot be separated and vandalism) (Randolph, 2008). or processes that share mutual when social interaction is considered, This is probably why authors such characteristics in terms of its because space is regarded as as Stouten (2005: 7) and Lee & structure, parts and/or behaviour to more than a neutral backdrop Chan (2010: 252) emphasise that form an integrated whole (Mitchell in which human activities unfold understanding and incorporating & Newman, 2002: 3). While simple (Rose, 1995; Thrift, 2003; Hubbard, social dynamics in urban systems are low maintenance, Kitchin & Valentine, 2004; Hague & regeneration is critical for the singular linear structures with one Jenkins, 2005). In complex urban sustainability of these initiatives. flow line (Bejan & Merkx, 2006: 2), social systems, various interacting ‘parts’ of the social system work According to Yari (2011: 5), e.g., a conversation between two together to construct the platform for acknowledging and including social people, complex systems are high social interaction in a city’s public systems in urban regeneration order, multiple and non-linear spaces (Newman, 2010: 6; Zhang, processes in a country such feedback structures made up of Shengsheng, Fath & Yang, 2011: 14). as South Africa may become numerous interacting parts (Mitchell Social interaction is necessary to increasingly important, because & Newman, 2002: 2). A complex keep public spaces in urban areas challenges of urban growth have social system is a system that alive and vibrant (Holland, Clark, to be addressed within a culturally consists of groups of people related Katz & Peace, 2007). As a result of sensitive environment (Yari, 2011: 5). to one another through persistent social interaction, people’s behaviour However, little is known about relations (Nakagawa & Suwa, 2010: 5) that culminate in a dynamic influences how urban space is 1 The term ‘urban regeneration’ is sometimes flow system of multiple organisations, experienced (McMichael, 2000). conflated with urban reconstruction, urban revitalisation, urban renewal, and urban patterns and hierarchies (Bejan re-development. According to Robert & & Merkx, 2006: 2). Societies are 3. CITIES OF HOPE AND Sykes (2005), these terms represent different complex social systems in which paradigms related to regenerating cities. The CITIES OF FEAR latest paradigm, according to Robert & Sykes cities form subsystems (Mega, (2005: 17), suggests an integrated process that 2000: 5). Cities are “the highest form According to Newman (2010: 15), incorporates physical, environmental, economic of social organisation” (Newman, cities are experienced as cities of and social goals to ensure a sustainable future. For this reason, the term ‘urban regeneration’ is 2010: 17) and thus complex urban fear or cities of hope. Cities of hope used throughout this article. social systems in themselves. foster positive social relationships 28 Karen Puren & Gert Meiring • An exploration of social systems and are characterised by long-term this way, ethnocentrism can disrupt eventually unfolds (Mayer et al., focuses, cooperation and partnership, social cohesion and cause a decline 2004: 409). It is believed that the and the utilisation of opportunities in social interaction; it is, therefore, future of planning is increasingly to improve the physical environment prone to create cities of fear. concerned with mediating different (Devlin & Chaskel, 2010; Newman, interests in terms of envisioning and Cultural relativism, on the other hand, 2010). On the contrary, cities of implementing change (Gallent et al., suggests a more inclusive, more fear disrupt social relationships and 2008: 23) while building consensus open-minded and culturally sensitive create hostile environments that may is viewed as a future priority in point of departure (Wells, 2007: 2). spatial planning (Gallent et al., lead to social decline due to panic, The level of sensitivity and respect 2008: 29). Therefore, the literature fear and mistrust of people (Newman, people have for other cultures support on planning emphasises a growing 2010: 6). Social interaction consists and establish positive interaction or need for community participation of verbal (e.g., conversations) or non- disrupt social interaction (Carnevale and stakeholder involvement in verbal (actions or body language) et al., 2007: 3). Cultural relativism is a spatial planning initiatives (e.g., interaction that manifests in people’s culturally sensitive frame of reference urban regeneration) (Albrechts, behaviour patterns (Mooney, Knox (Rachels, 1999: 3) that is appropriate 2004). Including people in spatial & Schacht, 2007: 54). Behaviour for a multicultural society and urban planning is important, because influences social cohesion, while environments where people from the successful implementation social cohesion is related to social diverse backgrounds share the same of change is only as good as the sustainability (Berger-Schmitt, space. Cultural relativism provides a support among various stakeholders 2000: 5). Newman’s cities of hope possible frame of reference for a social (Cantrill & Senecah, 2001). Hendrix seem to have greater potential to mindset with regard to social systems (2009: 4) also agrees with this view, create social cohesion and are, and is viewed as a positive and as inclusion unlocks social resources therefore, more likely to be socially insightful platform to observe social such as local knowledge, creativity, sustainable than cities of fear. If the interaction (Wells, 2007: 5). Cultural commitment, energy and ownership, ‘hope’ dimension is experienced more relativism supports strengthening which are key ingredients for the strongly than the ‘fear’ dimension, social interaction and improves social success of urban regeneration. urban regeneration initiatives are relationships and is, therefore, prone to more likely to be successful, as create cities of hope. Formulating urban regeneration people will be more prone to actively initiatives and implementing them Intervention in the urban landscape take part in the process (Newman, without understanding social (such as urban regeneration) without 2010: 23). However, just as planners dynamics or social systems tend to understanding and integrating have to understand space in order alienate people from one another, the underlying social forces may to transform it (Mayer, Van Bueren, as well as from their environment compromise the sustainability of Bots, Van der Voort & Seijdel, (Rauch, 2002 5). Alienation induces cities, because social dynamics 2004: 405), they also have to fear and panic – characteristics of (and, therefore, social systems) understand social dynamics, as these cannot be separated from the Newman’s cities of fear – which is are the underlying forces for creating physical environment in which not conducive for a sustainable social cities of hope or fear. A ‘social social interaction takes place. Urban environment. Acknowledging urban mindset’ is suggested as point of regeneration, widely recognised as regeneration as a social process departure for urban planners in which a coping mechanism to address the (apart from being economically and the people dimension is integrated global decline and deprivation in physically design-oriented in nature) into urban regeneration initiatives in cities (Tsenkova, 2002: 11), seems to will at least alert planners to the order to create cities of hope. need re-thinking and re-focusing on intricate complexities of the social Rosado’s (1994) theories of the role of people, as it has until now systems underlying areas earmarked ethnocentrism and cultural relativism focused much more on economic for regeneration. Incorporating are perhaps useful to understand and physical design (Healy, Davoudi, social systems in urban regeneration social dynamics and interaction in Tavsanoglu, O’Toole & Usher creates a better likelihood to create urban space. Ethnocentrism views 1992: 6; Tsenkova, 2002: 11) than on cities of hope, while by ignoring social systems exclusively (from the the social dimension. social systems planners may perspective of one’s own culture), subconsciously contribute to creating cities of fear. and in a close-minded and culturally 4. URBAN REGENERATION: insensitive way (e.g., regards The literature section implies that PLANNING FOR CITIES OF own culture as superior). While maintaining and incorporating HOPE OR CITIES OF FEAR? ethnocentrism is not necessarily social dynamics, such as the negative in itself, as it creates group Planners and urban designers play a relationships between and among identity and a sense of belonging, it prominent role in urban regeneration, social systems, meanings that arise becomes negative when one group as they guide the implementation of from it and the complexity of the (e.g., one social system) becomes change in landscapes (Gallent, Juntti, systems, need to be understood the reference against which others Kidd & Shaw, 2008) and influence when physical interventions (e.g., are judged or related to. Applied in how the spatial environment urban regeneration initiatives) 29 SSB/TRP/MDM 2015 (67)
social and economic level (Medina, 2013: 372). Potchefstroom is an example of a medium-sized2 city that is a primary regional node and a growth area in the North-West Province (RSA, 2005). According to Statistics South Africa (2012), between the 2007 and 2011 census, the decentralisation of higher order commercial activity in urban centres countrywide has been as much as 29%. In Potchefstroom, the decentralisation of the private sector away from the urban centre has been a problem for the past fifteen years, creating room for informal economic activity (Maxim Planning Solutions & Bigen Africa, 2006). The Southern District Joint Development Forum (SDJDF) stated that decay in medium- Figure 1(a): Study area: Potchefstroom, North-West Province, South Africa sized cities such as Potchefstroom Source: Authors usually occurs in fast and concentrated intervals – potentially making them fertile ground for urban regeneration initiatives. Tlokwe Municipality emphasised the need for social understanding within an economic sphere, as indicated in their mission statement (Maxim Planning Solutions & Bigen Africa, 2006 2), which refers to social understanding as the foundation for economic and physical revitalisation. Exploring social systems in the Central Business District of Potchefstroom may be rewarding to inform future urban regeneration in smaller cities that form potential future growth points where urban regeneration initiatives have not fully been developed.
6. RESEARCH DESIGN Figure 1(b): Study area: Potchefstroom Central Business District Source: Authors 6.1 Research approach The research is based on an interpretive approach that are proposed, because physical Potchefstroom in the North-West acknowledges the fact that realities planning/design cannot be separated Province (see Figure 1a & 1b). and meanings are context bound from the non-visible context (e.g., While metropolitan cities in South (Nagy & Viney, 1994; Willis, social aspects). With this in mind, the Africa tend to focus a great deal 2007: 222). This approach allows empirical section of this article will on urban regeneration, small and for a meaningful and holistic discuss possible methods and tools medium-sized cities tend to ignore it. understanding of embedded to explore social systems in a Central However, small and medium-sized experiences (Klunklin & Greenwood, Business District. cities should not underestimate 2006) that occur spontaneously the urbanisation process (Medina, in their natural settings (Snape & 2013: 14), as they are potential 5. THE STUDY AREA redevelopment hubs (Medina, 2 A medium-sized city is defined as a city with The study was conducted in 2013: 370) that can change the a population of between 50 000 and 500 000 the Central Business District of total face of the city on a physical, (Vey & Forman, 2005: 5). 30 Karen Puren & Gert Meiring • An exploration of social systems
Spencer, 2003: 7). An interpretive 6.2 Methodology data were captured, reflecting on approach is appropriate for this the data in terms of the theory and Characteristics of ethnography were study, because it leaves room for using broad structured categories used to guide the methodology the documentation of the subjective of behaviour, interaction and groups for the study in order to explore nature of real-world phenomena (based on theory) to conduct the nature of a particular social from different viewpoints, as this observations in the area (Maree, phenomenon rather than the approach acknowledges multiple 2007: 85-86). The observations were setting; work with unstructured data; perspectives (Willis, 2007: 193); followed up by interviews. explore one case in detail rather it allows for the uncovering of than numerous cases/settings, and Seventy five (75) semi-structured unanticipated findings, and interpret meanings and functions of acknowledges the contextual face-to-face interviews were human actions by analysing verbal embeddedness of social dynamics conducted in total with individuals data. Using an ethnographical in urban environments. While the from all the social systems identified interpretive perspective is relatively approach, in this instance, allows during the observation phase new in planning, this approach offers for greater flexibility, as it evolves (McBurney & White, 2013: 225). a way to integrate social and cultural contextually in response to the lived Convenience sampling (Idemudia, meanings in the physical realities realities encountered in the research Kgokong & Kolobe, 2013; Ritchie & of space (Davoudi, 2012: 432). field (Bless, Higson-Smith & Sithole, Lewis, 2004: 81), commonly used in Interpreting particular places as 2013: 353; Flick, 2014: 42; Ritchie & qualitative studies, was used due to the context for the application of Lewis, 2004: 1) and has the potential the accessibility and availability of spatial intervention (e.g., urban to generate rich data about social participants. The sampling criteria regeneration initiatives) is important behaviour and the relationship used to select participants included for spatial planning, as planning between social groups (social participants who are inhabitants of theories sometimes tend to develop systems, in this instance) (Babbie, Potchefstroom, who use the CBD concepts devoid of contextual 2014: 312; Mertens, Cram & Chilisa, frequently (5-7 days per week) and references (Allmendinger & Tewdwr- 2013: 160; Wolcott, 2001: 13). who are able to express themselves Jones, 2002: 34). verbally. The participants included 6.3 Data generation males (61%) and females (39%), In this instance, a qualitative with ages varying between 27 and 56 research approach is particularly Observations and interviews were years. A Tswana-speaking translator useful as an inductive, naturalistic3 conducted to generate data about who is fluent in Afrikaans, English, approach to investigate unfamiliar the social systems present in Xhosa, Tswana, Zulu and Sotho research topics (Babbie & the research context; how social was used to ensure that participants Mouton, 2001; Creswell, 1998; systems interact with one another were interviewed in their mother Leedy & Ormrod, 2014), where and with their spatial environment; tongue. All interviews were recorded the focus is on underexplored the behaviour patterns that emerge and transcribed verbatim (Gomm, phenomena in spatial planning from the interaction, and people’s 2008: 210). for which known variables do not perceptions as input for urban exist (Creswell, 2005). Qualitative regeneration (Miles, Huberman & The interviews included broad open- research does not aim to be Saldaña, 2014: 37; Sarantakos, ended probing questions in order to representative of a larger population, 2013: 237). stimulate discussions. The questions as the focus is on obtaining an Non-participant observations were were structured around participants’ in-depth understanding of concepts used to generate data without experience of social relationships within a context, rather than extraneous interference in normal in the study area (with whom they focusing on presenting evidence in everyday contexts (Creswell, 2014: interact; why they interact, and how quantifiable terms and extrapolating 190; O’Leary, 2014: 231; Silverman, they interact) and their experience of it to other contexts. However, it 2011: 233; Maree, 2007: 84; Wolcott, the physical environment. may offer wider lessons and alert 2001: 21). The observations were Interviews were conducted until planners concerning aspects not conducted within the time frame of previously acknowledged. data saturation occurred. Data 07:00-19:00 daily and on various saturation does not rely on statistical spots in the study area over a period power (Bickman & Rog, 2009: 22), of one month. but rather strives to utilise multiple The following guidelines and tools methods of research (in this case, guided the data-capturing process: observations and interviews) in order 3 A research design in which participants making initial anecdotal field notes to establish trustworthiness. As an are studied in their everyday environment of what was seen, heard and increase in sample size (in some (Coolican, 2014: 137); an approach in which the social world is studied in its natural state, experienced by the researcher; instances) may lead to a diminishing undisturbed by the researcher (Punch, 2014: making running records, supported in added value to the research 126; Sarantakos, 2013: 45). It is also used by photographs containing detailed (Robson, 2001: 148), the general as a technique for data generation that is as unobtrusive as possible (Denzin & Lincoln, descriptions of actions, reactions aim of the interviews was rather to 2011: 467). and situations; verbal and non-verbal gain an in-depth understanding of 31 SSB/TRP/MDM 2015 (67) social systems than generate findings human experience that people confidentiality, consequences that are representative of other who also share that experience of the research, and the bias of study areas. would immediately recognise the the researcher as ethical issues. descriptions. Two strategies were These issues must be addressed in 6.4 Data analysis employed to ensure trustworthiness qualitative research and were used of the data, namely triangulation as guidance to conduct this research. 6.4.1 Observations (Bryman, 2012: 717; Creswell, Participants signed informed consent The following steps suggested by 2014: 201) and member checking forms that invited them to take part Sarantakos (2013: 237) and Miles (Gray, 2014: 85; O’Leary, 2014: 132). in the research on a voluntary basis et al. (2014: 37) were used in the Triangulation is commonly used in without remuneration. It provided data-analysis process: grouping ethnographic research to compare information about the overall aim together field notes and photographs and contrast sets of data in order of the research and how it would according to themes and patterns; to enhance the trustworthiness of be conducted; highlighted possible reflecting on data (in terms of the data (Gray, 2014: 186). In this consequences of the research, research questions and aims of the instance, the observations and and ensured confidentiality of study), and capturing behavioural interviews were used to compare the participants. patterns and categories. The themes and contrast data in order to clarify how social systems interact with one or categories were chosen based on 7. FINDINGS AND the settings observed most (Roland, another and with their environment. INTERPRETATION Jansen, Wiertz, Meyer & Noldus, Member checking (Creswell, 2003: 391). 2007: 39) by means of feedback from participants was used to ensure 7.1 Observations 6.4.2 Interviews that the interpretation of the findings The main observations revolve around was correct. the following themes: conflict points; Textual data (transcribed verbatim) visible social systems; social system were analysed by means of thematic 6.6 Ethical aspects interaction, and behaviour patterns. content analysis (Leedy & Ormrod, 2014: 150; Silverman, 2011: 267). Qualitative research is particularly concerned with ethical issues, due to 7.1.1 Main observation 1: Points Open coding was used to allow of interaction themes to emerge spontaneously the complexity of researching private from the data; thereafter, data lives and placing accounts in the Social interaction is not equally were categorised into themes and public arena (Birch, Jessop, Miller distributed throughout the study area, subthemes relevant to the research & Mauthner, 2002: 1). Brinkmann but concentrated in eight primary topic. The following steps guided & Kvale (2008: 266-269) as well as zones of interaction. These conflict the content analysis: selecting Goodwin & Goodwin (2014: 41- 46) points (Maree, 2007: 101) are areas appropriate constructs; selecting outlined informed consent, where intense pedestrian movement, appropriate text (unit of analysis); defining and developing categories; coding of concepts; reflecting on coding/categories in terms of theory/ research questions, and developing themes and subthemes (Denscombe, 2010: 281-282; Gray, 2014: 607- 609). An interim data analysis was conducted to determine whether rich descriptive data had been obtained regarding the phenomenon being explored and to determine whether data saturation had been achieved (Bates, Droste, Cuba & Swingle, 2008: 14).
6.5 Trustworthiness Truth value is viewed as the most important criterion for the assessment of qualitative research (David & Sutton, 2011: 114). Sandelowski (1986) and Gray (2014: 175) suggest that a qualitative study is credible when it presents such accurate Figure 2: Conflict points for social interaction descriptions or interpretation of Source: Authors
32 Karen Puren & Gert Meiring • An exploration of social systems a concentration of various activities, and vigorous social interaction can be observed.
7.1.2 Main observation 2: Visible social systems Three clusters identified as social systems were visible in the study area. The first cluster (Social System One) is prominent during fixed time sets. This formal social system consists of structured groups that seem to have a vested interest in the area and include businesses (formal and informal); employees, and those who deliver some kind of service (people who deliver goods, those who supply transport, e.g., taxi drivers, and other servicemen such as cleaners Figure 3: Interaction within and between social systems and security/safety officials, e.g., policemen and traffic officials). Source: Authors The second cluster (Social System emerged as internal and external informal friendly nature of interaction Two) is observed as an informal interaction. Internal social interaction contributes to a vibrant urban space. social system that consists of occurs on two levels, namely social unstructured groups of people who Interaction within the Unrelated interaction within a social system seem to be familiar with one another Social System is nearly absent, (meaning between groups in the and the physical environment. except for the occasional greeting same cluster/social system) and Although the size of groups in this and short conversations. Individuals social interaction between the social social system varies in terms of the enter, move and leave the area systems. External interaction is number of people, groups remain without recognising others. small (three to six people). This social observed as interaction between the social systems and the physical system is more difficult to observe ii. Internal social interaction (spatial and built) environment. than the formal social system, between social systems because it is not routine based and does not always consist of the same i. Internal social interaction Social interaction between the people, although groups frequently within social systems Formal, Structured System visit the study area (daily/weekly). Within the Formal Social System, (System 1) and the Informal, Unstructured System (System 2) A third cluster (Social System Three) groups socially interact in a persistent is observed as continuous and forms a group of unrelated individuals manner that can be described persistent. It culminates in a high who barely interact with one another as formal, structured, forced and socially, and very little interaction predictable (based on a routine). (intense) level of interaction. The takes place with other social systems. Social interaction takes place nature of the relationship is informal, These individuals (or small groups of between employers and employees; social, and reflects familiarity as people) are not recognised by others; employees and employees; employers greeting; informal conversations take do not readily make eye contact; and employers; servicemen and place without necessarily exchanging move fast, and take the shortest employers; servicemen and goods/services. route to a particular destination. employees, and servicemen. Social interaction between the 7.1.3 Main observation 3: Interaction between groups within Formal, Structured Social System Interaction between the Informal Social System is (System 1) and the Unrelated Social social systems observed as intense, non-routine System (System 3) is much more formal than the aforementioned. The social interaction observed based, voluntary and friendly The relationship observed can between the three clusters (Formal social interaction. These groups Social System, Informal Social are observed as groups that have be described as symbiotic and System, and Unrelated Social System) no vested interest in the area, harmonious, as these two systems culminates in an intricate network of but interact for the sake of social are co-dependent (e.g., businesses non-linear flows of interaction (see interaction. Individuals and small offer goods in exchange for money). Figure 3). The network of social groups of participants within this Interaction takes place for short systems together forms a complex system stay visible in the same periods, in which members of urban social system. Interaction area for various timeframes. The system 3 (public) leave directly 33 SSB/TRP/MDM 2015 (67) after, for example, a transaction was and pedestrians. At the time of the different people (and different social completed/service was delivered. observations, the built environment systems) found in cultural relativism, showed signs of urban decay illustrates the inclusive nature of Social interaction between the Informal, (see Figure 4), such as a lack of participants in the study area, which, Unstructured Social System (System 2) maintenance (presence of litter and in return, creates a highly accessible and the Unrelated System (System 3) broken sidewalks), vandalism (broken social space. Social awareness is less evident, nearly absent, as these windows and graffiti), and a visible or consciousness, which refers to two systems do not seem to have consciousness of crime (illustrated by the awareness of the people in the anything in common. A typical example target-hardening security measures, of this low level of interaction is, for area, the people around them and such as fencing on building roofs, instance, where an individual of the their hardships or joy (Brinkmann & bars in front of windows, Closed Unrelated Social System enters the Kvale, 2008: 113) is illustrated by the Circuit Television Cameras, and area with private transport, buys goods strong consciousness of the social alarm systems). The physical space and exits the area, without any other atmosphere in the study area. has almost no greenery (trees level of interaction. and shrubs). iii. External interaction between Specific patterns of interaction social systems and the between social systems and the spatial/built environment physical environment are relevant in While an extensive description of how terms of the role of urban systems people interact with their spatial/built and urban regeneration, and include environment (physical space) falls the following: interaction with the outside the scope of this paper, a physical environment by the different brief description of the physical space social systems present in the study and how social systems interact with area illustrates adaptive use by the study area is appropriate, as the erecting canopies/umbrellas for physical environment is important in shade and arranging crates/boxes people-place relationships (Relph, in a semi-circle in order to create 1976; Hay, 1998; Smaldone, Harris & seating space in public spaces; Sanyal, 2005). personalisation by hanging colourful flags in front of shops, bringing The spatial environment of the personal objects (e.g., potplants/ study area is characterised by baskets) to be put on display tables mixed land uses (with a dominating (informal sector) and outside shops formal and informal business sector) (formal sector); territoriality/ownership and various modes of transport, by picking up litter in the area including private transport, bicycles, Figure 5: Examples of social and loud arguing with people who motorcycles, public transport (taxis) interaction (pro-social vandalise the area, and functional behaviour) use by taking part in the activities and Source: Images taken by authors using the utilities the space offers, e.g., buying/selling, washing cars/ taxis, and using temporary seating The particular research context can spaces to relax and socialise. be defined as a socially sensitive context, in which the three social 7.1.4 Main observation 4: systems observed closely interact Behaviour patterns with one another, as well as with the physical space (spatial/built Eight interactive collective behaviour environment). Any intervention patterns emerged from grouping the that implies physical change in this themes observed in the study area area without acknowledging the (at conflict points), summarised in interactions observed may impact on Table 1. how these intricate networks operate. All the behaviour patterns observed The observations served as a (except for the antisocial pattern) platform to explore the social systems reflect pro-social behaviour identified from within in order to (behaviour that promotes good social understand and interpret their role in relations and stimulates further relation to urban regeneration. social behaviour – see Figure 5) that is characteristic of the presence of 7.2 Interviews cultural relativism (Rachels, 1999: 6) Figure 4: Examples of urban decay and social awareness (Rosado, The following themes and subthemes Source: Images taken by authors 1994: 2). The openness to accept emerged from the interview data. 34 Karen Puren & Gert Meiring • An exploration of social systems
Table 1: Behaviour patterns
Behaviour pattern (codes) Behaviour Supportive example Owners of informal stalls show off stalls/goods to sell to other business owners as well as Pride Acting with confidence to people they seem to know and who are not necessarily interested in buying goods. Actively and vigorously taking part in Groups of people having loud, intense conversations, attracting more people after a while Intellectual stimulation conversations/activities to join in the discussion. Owners/workers at informal stalls argue with others who try to occupy the space/part of Territoriality Arguing and brawling the space they normally use. Harmony Friendly cooperation with people People sitting together in circles socialising, eating together and sharing food. Owners/employers from informal businesses would constantly clean up around them, Ownership Acting responsibly throwing litter into the dustbins and commenting on people littering. People greeting other people by name and taking interest in other’s well-being; people Social drive Informal voluntary social interaction sitting in circles and socialising without any other purpose than socialising. Joy Laughing, singing and dancing People in the area who spontaneously start to dance e.g., music playing in taxis. Reserved behaviour – without Only one social system could be observed behaving in this way. People walking at a fast Antisocial socialising pace without distraction, e.g., making eye contact or greeting other people.
Source: Authors
Main theme 1: Social system never any conflict in the area ...”, at our stalls and most of the time interaction while another participant supported we lose track of time ...” Another this by saying: “We sometimes greet participant stated: “Once you start Strong social interaction that emerges each other from a distance, we like speaking to the people in the rank, continuously and spontaneously in the yelling (smiling) for each other ...” you will find them very interesting.” study area manifests as a prominent Another participant exclaimed very One participant explained: “We and central theme. Interaction is fittingly: “If you’re not friendly here, scream at each other because it experienced as positive social you are not welcome here.” means that we feel secure and interaction, as supported by the comfortable in the area and talking is following subthemes. Subtheme 3: Cooperativeness the way to show it.” Subtheme 1: Material Cooperativeness is expressed Subtheme 5: Non-discriminating supportiveness by the non-competitiveness that exists between participants It seems that the different social Participants from the various social involved in commercial activities. systems, apart from being very systems experience their relationship Non-competitiveness is defined accommodating with one another, as ‘helping’ and ‘supporting’ with as the inclusion of other social are also open to accepting regard to material needs. One systems without the threat of newcomers in the area. People participant described this as follows: self-losing or destruction (Bates of different backgrounds are “This one time I fell short of a few et al., 2008: 2). In this study area, welcomed and accommodated Rand for my taxi fare, and this one the social systems perceive one in a non-judgemental way. One lady offered to give the fare that another as uncompetitive and this is participant emphasises this by I needed.” This was confirmed conducive to sustaining the economic saying: “I am so happy to see by another participant who said: advantages of the area in future. A different cultures coming to this “I sometimes need some tape participant gave the following account area”, while another supports this to strengthen my stall’s roof and of the uncompetitive attitude that by stating: “We are people from everyone is very keen on giving me reigns: “When I can’t help some different backgrounds that come some, in fact I have this one friend people with fruits and vegetables, together here and communicate, that gives me tape on a daily basis.” I always show them to my friend’s and every person’s reason for This material support is perceived to stall or even shop.” This attitude coming here is different, but it have reciprocal benefits in future, as enhances economic relationships, makes no difference to us.” This stated by a participant who said: “I like as one participant stated: “I always shows a high level of awareness helping the other people in the rank show people to other stalls because of different social systems, and (with a smile), because someday I am another time someone will show emphasises participants’ strong going to need some help.” them here...” awareness of social interaction in the area. One participant stated: Subtheme 2: Friendliness Subtheme 4: Sociability “I am very happy and aware that It seems that social systems interact Sociability is present due to the open the people here talk to each other with one another in a friendly manner and easy communication that takes and we are usually very aware of in this area and conflict is limited. place among the social systems. One newcomers in the area.” This was confirmed by a participant participant gave a description of this who stated: “All the people are very communication with the following friendly in the area; there is almost remark: “We sometimes sit and talk 35 SSB/TRP/MDM 2015 (67)
Subtheme 6: Emotional security observations of pro-social behaviour my home”. This enhances the idea and stability that manifests in cultural relativism that some participants link certain The daily routines, in which and a high level of social awareness. subjective feelings with the area, participants engage, and which making the physical area part of their Central theme 2: Participant’s consist of predictable actions, lives. Another participant reacted as interaction with the physical follows: “... the area is known and activities and movement patterns, environment seem to give a strong sense of familiar, why do we want to change security and stability to participants A second central theme that was it?” Ownership is widely experienced. in the area, and they developed identified and supported by the One participant declared: “I over time. These relationships observations is the strong interaction sometimes come in earlier to of participants with the physical and interactions are fixed and clean around my stall”. I asked the environment. Specific subthemes established. One participant stated: participant to elaborate and s/he were identified from the content “We always do the same things stated: “I do not want to make food analysis in order to understand the here”, and later he explained this by in a dirty place and I like that other adding “we like it because we always role of urban social systems with people like coming here.” know what to get and where to go”. regard to the physical environment. Another participant said: “... even the Subtheme 3: Pride pattern that we walk in the area is Subtheme 1: Flexibility and adaptivity the same on a daily basis, we like it Pride is a positive phenomenon in because everything is as we like it.” Flexibility to adapt to the physical this context, because the participants This creates the idea that the area space develops as a direct take joy in being proud. This was could be sensitive and volatile for consequence of the dissatisfaction expressed by participants who were interventions that impose change with the support that the physical keen to speak about the area and without acknowledging these routines environment provides for the offered to show the researcher and that underlie the participants’ feeling activities in the area, for example translator around the area. During one of security and stability. for the activities of the informal interview, the participant exclaimed: “I traders. Participants learned to adapt am very proud of the area, because Subtheme 7: Respect for others the physical environment to their this area is the income for most of personal or communal needs. One A general respect towards each other the people here ...” Pride seems to participant stated that: “... this area underpins the interaction between the extend beyond the physical space is not very nice to do business, so different social systems. A participant to represent the actual livelihood for we usually put our own stalls as we emphasised this by saying: “We like some of the people who interact here. each other, there is a great spirit of like it.” Another participant stated: “I like the area, but I adapt the stalls as One participant supported this by respect towards us and this gives us introducing the community in the area the feeling to respect others.” Another I like it, because the area is not very by saying: “... the people here are participant stated: “I usually think nice ...”, because (as s/he explains proud of the area...” everyone is okay, I have respect for later) “... there are no facilities for the everyone ...” The theme of respect was needs I have, in particular roofs for Subtheme 4: Limited choices prominent throughout the interviews our stalls, so I bring my own plastic to and a fundamental characteristic of cover my stall”. This also applies to The interaction with the study area how participants interact. the communal needs. One participant is mostly viewed as mandatory. The stated: “We like eating in the food participants interact with the area, A general feeling of emotional, yards we built for the people.” This because alternatives are limited due material and social support seems confirmed this subtheme, as the to transportation constraints and to exist among the social systems majority of the participants expressed because vendors find customers present in this area. This is reflected comfort with adapting the area for there. This is supported by by the friendly, cooperative and their own or communal needs. accommodating nature of the participants stating the following: “.. relationships that foster respect Subtheme 2: Ownership .there is no other taxi rank coming and create a comfortable, at-ease from Ikageng in Potchefstroom” and Participants displayed a feeling feeling towards one another. Open “I always have to come here because of ownership of the physical communication flourishes in these it’s where I do my shopping ...”, or “I environment. Ownership can be relationships. At the same time, these get the most customers for my shop defined as subjective possession and especially the known established taken by someone who does not here in this area ...” and “This is the daily routines help secure this have the legal right (Bates et al., only rank where the taxi association community in how they perceive and 2008: 2). Participants stated the supports us picking up passengers.” interact with one another. following: “... this is our place; we When listening to these answers, The inside view on social interaction usually do as we wish”. Another one comes to understand that the gained from the interviews with person stated: “I visit the area so participants do not really have a seventy-five participants supports the much, that I sometimes feel like it’s choice but to use this area. 36 Karen Puren & Gert Meiring • An exploration of social systems
Subtheme 5: Relaxation by saying: “... my child fell the other 8. DISCUSSION: THE ROLE day over a pipe that stuck out of The participants experience the area OF SOCIAL SYSTEMS IN the ground, and he broke his arm.” as one that supports relaxation and URBAN REGENERATION Another participant stated the social activities. One participant problem as follows: “I am always The exploration of the social systems stated: “I like making fire in this area afraid of letting my children off the in the Central Business District of to ‘braai’ with friends ...” Another two taxi alone ...” Potchefstroom revealed that social participants stated: “... we usually like systems play an active and prominent going to the food stalls and eating (2) A participant raised the role in the study area. This role is a vetkoeks with friends” and “... after community’s feeling of unsafety due pro-active role in terms of initiating work I come here to relax and forget to the absence of traffic regulation in social interaction and fostering about the worries of the world ...” the area: “We never know where to existing social relationships; a creative These answers clearly reveal that walk and where to sit, the taxis drive role in terms of adaptation and/or the urban environment is seen as like animals ...” This creates an unsafe changing the physical environment, conducive to social interaction. area, as pedestrians are exposed to and a supportive role in terms of traffic on a continuous basis. Another urban regeneration initiatives. Subtheme 6: Dissatisfaction with participant stated: “... the taxis do not The first role (pro-active role) the physical environment look where they drive, I am afraid is realised by creating a social Dissatisfaction with the physical to walk over the road.” This makes environment that is accessible space is expressed with regard to it clear that the community feels and stable; generates vitality, maintenance, lack of urban greenery very unsafe in terms of the physical and strengthens social identity. and safety issues. environment, due to the lack of Social accessibility is created by infrastructure for pedestrians. With regard to maintenance, a attracting social interaction within participant stated: “I never use the (3) Crime in the area is a problem, and between various social groups toilets as it is always broken.” Another especially since the physical (social systems) on a continuous participant said: “... the area around environment does not enhance basis through pro-social behaviour the toilets always smells, because optimal safety. One participant stated: patterns. Social accessibility is the sewage flows through the rank.” “... I never even walk alone here, further enhanced by means of the This shows that the lack of proper because they will rob you ...” Another apparent cultural relativism in which infrastructure causes problems with participant stated: “I always have to people (participants) interact with health in the area. put my handbag in a black garbage other people/systems in an open, bag to hide it ...” This confirms social non-discriminating and cooperative Dissatisfaction was noted about problems such as crime. Probing was manner. Social stability is created the lack of physical infrastructure done, because CCTV cameras were by means of the constant and elements (shade, play spaces for spotted during the observation stage, persistent presence of social systems children). One participant stated: “I and the reaction was as follows: “... in the study area, which implies always have to bring my umbrella they put cameras in this rank, but it maintaining the social systems over for shade ...” The need for trees or does not work anymore because the time. Vitality (a healthy capacity for sheds was emphasised with another municipality does not fix it.” vigorous activity) is generated by participant stating: ”There are no unlocking positive social energy trees, because they use it for fire, but The interaction with the physical through pride, intellectual stimulation, we need trees ...” Mothers quickly environment seems to be much less harmonious relationships (by means stated that there are no play spaces supportive than that of the social of friendliness, cooperativeness and for children. One participant stated: “I environment. This is reflected in the support), internal social drive (high do not like the area because there is forced way in which participants sociability) and joy. Lastly, the role of no safe way for my children to play in have to adapt physical spaces and social systems towards strengthening the rank.” The dissatisfaction confirms facilities to accommodate their needs social identity is realised through the need for urban interventions such and daily activities, and the fact that territoriality and ownership in the study as urban regeneration. little choice is provided in terms of area. Territoriality and ownership have alternative spaces to conduct daily Another theme identified was the the potential to create a sense of activities, for example socialising and issue of safety and the dissatisfaction belonging among people who share eating. Positive interactions such with the way in which the physical the same space, which, in return as pride, ownership and relaxation area fails to support the safety of supports social identity. seem to follow more from the fact the community. This concern was that participants make the best of The second role (creative role) emphasised by means of three what they have available and from is realised through aesthetic and issues that were raised: safety for the strong social dynamics than a functional adaptation and/or change children, traffic, and crime. positive relation with the physical of the physical space. Aesthetic (1) Female participants raised the environment. This is emphasised by adaptation is used to personalise the issue of unsafe spaces for children. the general dissatisfaction with the spatial/built environment according One participant reacted passionately physical environment in this context. to personal taste/preferences. 37 SSB/TRP/MDM 2015 (67)
Functional adaptation is applied by and it creates safe public spaces. 9. INTEGRATING URBAN creating facilities where these are Secondly, the prolonged involvement SOCIAL SYSTEMS IN lacking (e.g., temporary canopies of social systems in the study creates URBAN REGENERATION for shade, crates/boxes for public familiarity with the intricacies of how INITIATIVES: seating). New public spaces and social dynamics in the area operate. RECOMMENDATIONS facilities are self-created/constructed, This local knowledge is a resource for example, outside restaurant areas used to support the formulation and The study first and foremost (food yards and braai areas) where implementation of urban regeneration recommends that urban regeneration such facilities are needed, but there initiatives as social systems initiatives should be based on an is no space to accommodate these. understand the needs, desires and understanding of the dynamics Adaptation, self-creation and change aspirations of people on the ground. (social interaction and behaviour) in terms of the physical space (spatial In this sense, social systems have of the social systems present and built environment) enable a greater capacity to anticipate in the context marked for urban the social systems present to find whether urban regeneration initiatives regeneration. Social systems should creative solutions for needs that exist will be successful or not. If social be pro-actively integrated in the in the study area. systems are integrated into the urban regeneration process. A three urban regeneration process, they stage strategy for integrating social The third role of social systems form custodians of the physical systems in urban regeneration is (supportive) suggests that social environment (as illustrated by suggested in Table 2. systems are important role players ownership, pride and territoriality in urban regeneration. In terms of that already exist in the area) and, their supportive role, social systems 10. CONCLUSION therefore, ideal co-partners in act as catalysts for socio-economic An exploration of urban social maintaining the area. functions; have the capacity to help systems in the Potchefstroom formulate and implement urban The multiple roles of social systems Central Business District resulted regeneration initiatives as they (especially the formal structured in the identification of three urban understand the context for which the system and the informal unstructured social systems that form a complex, urban regeneration proposals are system) in the study area suggest non-linear network of internal social intended, and act as custodians of that these systems are important interaction (within and between the space by maintaining the area. in sustaining the area socially, as social systems), as well as external With regard to being catalysts for well as economically and physically. interaction with the physical space. socio-economic activities, social Urban planners who wish to facilitate Social interaction reveals pro-social systems attract and maintain social successful change in the urban behaviour that fosters and sustains interaction, which creates vibrant environment, by means of urban existing social relationships while public urban spaces. Vitality is regeneration, should take cognisance attracting social interaction. The a much-needed ingredient for of urban social systems and the pro-social behaviour manifests in sustaining economic activities social dynamics that drive them. a high level of social awareness
Table 2: Three-stage integration of urban social systems in urban regeneration
Project stage Aim Steps toward achieving aim
Identify social systems in a particular setting.
Stage 1: Understanding social dynamics in a Identify behavioural patterns in terms of pro- or anti-social behaviour. Pre-project stage particular setting in terms of social (prior to plan interaction and behaviour. Identify levels and intensity of interaction in terms of cultural relativism or ethnocentrism. formulation)
Determine the role(s) of social systems for use as resources in urban regeneration.
Develop focus groups/community groups to discuss interventions on a regular basis
Stage 2: Involving social systems in a pro-active Involve social system members/groups for physical design/construction during Plan formulation and continuous manner. implementation. Implementation Use special community projects as part of the implementation to develop ownership and territoriality.
Develop a feedback system to evaluate the process followed. Stage 3: Providing feedback and monitoring the Post-project Establish an urban regeneration community forum (URCF) to monitor the success/ experience sustainability of the urban regeneration stage (after of the urban regeneration process. process. implementation) Establish a maintenance forum (part of the aforementioned URCF).
Source: Authors
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