André Swanström

Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland A chapter in the psychohistory of intolerance

During the reign of Alexander I encounters between Jews and Chris­ tians in Finland were rare and sporadic. Jews were prohibited from set­ tling permanently in Finland, and the few Jews who came to Finland quickly converted to Christianity and assimilated into the surround­ ing society. The enlightened Finnish establishment generally displayed a benevolent attitude towards the Jews, but there seemed to be no way of circumventing the anti-Jewish legislation. The cultural and intellec­ tual milieu in Åbo and a few other important towns helped the con­ verted Jews to integrate. The situation changed, however, when a new monarch ascended the throne in Russia. Finnish autonomy within the Russian empire was an ambiguous concept, and the policies of the ruler naturally had an enormous impact on the Grand Duchy of Finland. Nicholas I ascended to the throne in 1825 and his reign had serious consequences for the Jews in Finland and elsewhere in his vast empire. Czar Nicholas I did not share the enlightened opinions and values of his predecessor and the spirit of the Enlightenment was swept aside. In Finnish-Jewish collective memory, as well as in the collective memory of Eastern European Jewry in general, Nicholas I is remembered for his ruthless conscription of Jewish men into mili­ tary service in cantonist units. For an individual cantonist1, the period

1 The term is derived from the German word Kanton, an enlistment dis­ trict. See Petrovsky-Shtern 2009, 90. Originally the cantonist units had

81 82 André Swanström Stanislawski 2 Stanislawski everyday life in Russian society started toresemble astateofsiege. started society inRussian life everyday disciplineand orderintocamp the usualurban had beentransformed concepts,according tomilitary that found andthusforeign observers able problem insociety. hisentire Hewantedtostandardize empire solutionsany for conceiv­ by faithinmilitary autocratic characterized and legislation dictatedfrom above. The thinkingof Iwas Nicholas training.military through decrees these initiatives All came imperial subjectsthrough thelives and ofhisJewish education and modernize communities empire.Jewish intheRussian wantedto The Czar reform reign ofNicholas Ihad tumultuous consequencesthetraditional for ent of the czar’s in respect in his empire. of the Jews general policy The in Finland. ofhistroubledfor theJews ramifications mind the psychohistorical ofNicholas’causes policieswithregard inorder to theJews grasp study.not beentheobjectofserious studythepsychological Iwill Jews, have reasons butthedeeperpsychological behindhiscruelty emperorNicholas asanevil andapersecutorofthe Iisportrayed family, hiscommunity andhisreligion. history Intraditional Jewish waslongmany enoughtouproot cases thepooryoungster from his was as long as service of military not served in the Russian army. intheRussian not served thereign ofAlexander I the During were service. nolonger exempted from had military traditionally Jews For thisprocess ofRussia ofstandardization meantthatthey theJews The dilemma of the Finnish Jews wasjustamicroscopicFinnish Jews compon­ The dilemmaofthe Petrovsky 2009,90–93. -Shtern these young boys, 125, oralmost7percent, converted toChristianity. See 1827, empire over the Russian fromall Irkutsk to St. Petersburg. of In the drafts their mother and the emperor their father”. Cantonist units were found “once arrived, they the… children acquired new ‘parents’: was thearmy Shtern, army, intheRussian on theJews theforemost expert that writes orphans’been establishedasmilitary detachments. Yohanan Petrovsky - 1828 and1829, joinedtheranks. cantonists some 1862 Jewish Of 1983, 14–15. 25 years, in of time which a period 2

Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 83 25 4 Even though Nicholas I shared these prejudices he prejudices these I shared though Nicholas Even 3 1983, 184. 1983, 14. In other European countriesIn other European the inclusion of the Jews in the draft . Each local Jewish­ a cer deliver community was supposed to 1827. was an emancipatory concern. In France, Prussia and Austria Jews were Jews and Austria were Prussia In France, was an emancipatory concern. the opportunityThey had ­ of becom society. excludedno longer from the In Russia, their militarying equal citizens completing by service. totallyNicholaswas with concerned not was I situation as different the their duties towards he stressed Instead, the rights subjects. of his Jews The reward servingfor any obtain not did a as rights state. years in the czar’s army. The duration of military service was the same army. in the czar’s years A majority of the within the Russianfor all empire. ethnic groups but for the Jews the and did not protest, apathetic subjects were czar’s In the collective of the draftintroduction was a part drama. of a larger 3 Stanislawski 4 Stanislawaski czar the military and it clear made had establishment the Jews that on benevolent or not based judgment was This still exempted. were The Jewswere humanitarian prejudice. but rather on considerations whose loyalty seen as physically fanatics, religious or inferior cowards was questionable. nevertheless chose a different approach. He wanted to reform the Jews He wanted to nevertheless approach. chose a different The standardization. and stern discipline, military through training, calling decree for of Jews the conscription August on was published 26 the responsibility, was the of the kahal This tain number of recruits. to the kahal to choose It was up organ of the community. executive When be to recruitsof number the transpired drafted. be to was who that the local Jewish recruit I ordered smaller­ expected Nicholas than be sent to disciplinarying officials should if they failed to battalions the to be ineffective czar proved When this measure fill their quota. the right should be given to stipulated that the local communities These unfortunate Jew any who was caughtarrest without a passport. ­ the community then sent to the army of those pro instead Jews were conscription. tected and wanted to shelter from 84 André Swanström Egyptian desert wasreplaced snow. desert by theSiberian Egyptian talentswhileinexile.extraordinary ofthecantonists, Inthecase the successthrough butalso toachieve his tosurvive was ablenotonly and religion. ofJoseph, story This wasalsoinlinewiththebiblical who culture andmaintaintheirJewish were theiridentity abletodefend ofnarrative where soldiers complemented theJewish by anothertype theirrights. todefend minimal chances This tradition wasgradually fromcame communities the lowest of the Jewish had strata and they army. totheRussian young recruits delivering Jewish These recruits so-called been lostforever. about This narrative tradition alsostories nurtured tonists represented theirson, mourning Jacob andRachel whohad brothers ofJoseph asthecruel portrayed andtheparents­ ofthecan by hisbrothers. in Egypt ery communitiesThe traditional Jewish were Joseph, ofthebiblical tonists ascounterparts whowassoldintoslav­ accounts in Russian,Historical Hebrew, and Yiddish,­ the can portray prominent asone ofthemostterrible, by only thepogroms. rivaled people.the Jewish Among thesecalamities, is draft thecantonist European ofEastern Jewry,memory haunted upon calamity calamity 6 Yerushalmi 5 Petrovsky -Shtern but the scenarios remain fundamentally thesame. remainbut thescenarios fundamentally narratives. asmanifestationsofbiblical experiences The changeactors hasdisplayed toseecurrent atendency collective memory the Jewish inRussia. ofJews in thehistory According to Yosef Haim Yerushalmi, Exile (galut inHebrew andgolus traditions were history. intheacademic studyofJewish alsointegrated and these former cantonists establishedthecore cantonists ofthe nascentJewish and theseformer together withtheirfamilies, inFinland to settledown permanently years later, in1858, soldierswere thedischargedformer given theright role.a central was abolished in cantonist system The With regard to Finnish Jewish identity, regardJewish toFinnish With have thecantonists played khappers, theirlivingby peoplewhoearned kidnappingand 1982, 37; 2011,54. Erll 2009, 2–3. in Yiddish) became themajortheme became in Yiddish) 6

5 These narrative These 1856, and two Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 85

7 Thus the 8 Our Picture. 2012. ). Smolar writes about the history of the cantonists(3/2012). ; Smolar Seela 2012. 2005; 1951; Jacobsson e.g., See, Israeli members of the community were able to obtain glimpses of a members of the community were Israeli but whichimportantwas for the whichthey share, not did narrative, the Israelis in Hebrew was an inclusive­ ges Addressing community. “Our but did it make them feel Picture” like being part? In of ture, we “OurPicture” of the cantonistto penetrate soldiers, behind order the system. which produced to study the man and the mind, have The Cantonists – The Cantonists in Hebrew under the heading The cantonists had maintained their faith in exile, and their descend­ and their exile, their faith in maintained The had cantonists poor The take prideants could achievement in the of their forefathers. forcefully their conscriptedand torn from away Jewish boys, young finally the system had and in found a safe haven overcome families, posi­ and perseverance earned them a secure had work Hard Finland. Community life charac was ­ both spiritually and economically. tion, decadefinal the In ­ the of twen stability. and wealth terizedrelative by of newly groups arrived Jewish immigrants started to tieth century, Newly arrived descendants. of the cantonists’ challenge the hegemony to the cantonistsRussian connection and Israeli Jews no personal had and their story did not feel included therefore and in the narrative few attempts at bridgingwere the there Initially, of the community. descendants) and the cantonists’ (i.e. population the core gap between One significant step in this direction the newly arrived immigrants. article Smolar’s in the community magazine Rony by is represented Hakehila 7 8 Smolar community in Finland. During the following century, the vast major­ During the followingcentury, in Finland. community ity of Jews Finland in their ancestry traced former to these cantonists, and the story identity. of the cantonists was a partcommunity’s of the 86 André Swanström day. nies­­ removed from thecareofhismotherandhewas brought upby nan­ details. andbiographical personality in theirpath, withNicholas’ thoughitdoesnotdealexhaustively even The most recent research by e.g. Richard S. (1995)follows Wortman (1969). twoThese biographiesare thestandard works on I.Nicholas Lincoln(1989)andNicholas by Riasanovsky Bruce raphies written oftheczar.the personality Inthistask, on thebiog ­ mainly Irely system,cantonist we have therefore to probe the factors that shaped connected withhispersonality. Inorderofthe tounderstand therise reflectedoutlook of system themilitaristic I,Nicholas anditwasdeeply wastheproductcantonist czar’s system ofanautocratic The will. The Nicholas I–apsychological portrait Theweleit 10 Theweleit 9 Lincoln ing MissJanedeLyon there were alsotwo noblewomen ofBaltic discipline wasalsoexercised by thenannies. Besides thedemand­ stifling embrace. toleave anddoesnotallowthechild her inhergrip keeps thechild away, orpushesthe child the child aswell asthe “soft mother” who phase. a include mother” disturbances “hard Such who does not accept might leave unable to leavemother and child the child the symbiotic separation-individuation. intherelationship Disturbances between towards evolve phase fromsymbiotic would thechild gradually which child’s personality. Mahler’s thatthere findingsindicate shouldbea for thedevelopment ofthe isbeneficial between motherandchild researchthe psychological ofMargaret Mahler, asoundrelationship and Nicholas didnotreceive any tendercarefrom her. According to according etiquette. tocourt anddemandingmother wasastrict She Nicholas on wasborn June25

. minuteseach afew Hewasallowedfor to seehismother only 9 On these occasions hismotherinsistedthatheshouldbehave Ontheseoccasions 1989, 50. 1993, 207.

10 Nicholas’ motherwasone ofthehard kind. Strict 1796. AsaninfantNicholas was Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 87

­ Under these circum 14 The childhood of Nicholas fullThe was of childhood of 15 12

gogical qualifications were dubious but he suc­ dubious gogicalwere qualifications raphy Nicholas Riasanovskythe fear Nicholas mentions also raphy 1993, 412, 418. 1969, 24. 1969, 6. 1969, 6–8. 1989, 52–54. How did Nicholas manage to live with all these phobias with all these phobias live to manage Nicholas did How His peda­ 13 . He was afraid of officers, fireworks, thunder, and cannons. and cannons. thunder, fireworks, He was afraid of officers, . 11 ­. Cf. Theweleit Cf. stances Nicholas embarked on a psychological voyage where exter­ where a psychological voyage on embarked stances Nicholas by teachers and later internalized first initiated and self- nal rigor, started his personality to give in the its physical contour imposed, form armor. of a mental ­ phobias with the fire connected phobias Later this list was augmented by Nicholas After was terrified fire the . in 1837 Winterin the Palace great afrom fear of he suffered addition, In and smoke. flames by biog­ In his heights. of blood. 13 Riasanovsky 14 Riasanovsky 15 11 Lincoln 12 Riasanovsky teacher German military stock. Bruce Lincoln emphasizesGerman the military military back stock. ­ the Lincoln underscores biography, In his these women. of ground in which Nicholas importance for the atmosphere women of these Later the importanceraw of military discipline was was raised. Lamsdorf became Nicholas’ I. Count General when M. accentuated, ceeded in instilling a sense of discipline in the obstinate young ceeded in instillingin the obstinate young a sense of discipline Lamsdorf was a rigid and cruel aim was to whose person Nicholas. thus his methods of instruction included the will of his pupil, break corporal punishment. that haunted him? On the surface, he maintained a majestic and per­ that haunted him? On the surface, but this was only a façade behind whichhe could fect calm exterior, to managed He anxiety. and sorrow, depression, feelingshide rage, of curtail maintaining punctu­ the feelings of anxiety by and depression Under the supervi­ and perfect regularity in his routines. order, ality, he grew up with the mentality of a drill instructor of Lamsdorf, sion with military interest. as his foremost exercise 88 André Swanström cists described by cists described Klaus Theweleit. fas­ FreikorpsNicholas theGerman asitwasfor soldiers andearly together. for thesame wasapparently The function oftheuniform personal level. The mainissuebeingaboutkeeping one’s personality -guard’scavalier uniform. bounds. Inhistwenties, dressed ina clumsily hiswife heportrayed to Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, Nicholas’ no knew love ofuniforms thing, uniforms, namely else. rose which above everything According there militarism wasone internalized shallowbutdeeply fessionally thoughtwereand strategic neglected. Intherealm of Nicholas’ pro­ detailed maps, etc. and plans of fortresses whereas real combat skills as uniforms, such attribute emphasisled toanexternal on military Theweleit 18 Theweleit 17 Petrovsky -Shtern 16 Petrovsky -Shtern something holdinghimtogether. Discipline, pain, andtheuniform the belt and cross belt in particular. givefeeling of They thesoldiera in the shapeof the uniform, with himself aboundary dier carries and decided to write nothing. decided towrite sat andpondered theheadingone for andahalfhoursfinally man; there are othernolessuseful andhonorableoccupations”, he thenoble­ justifying service isnot theonly arguing “the military ceed. anessay Nicholas wasgiven theassignmentofwriting When Nicholas’empress tocurtail tried mania, military butshedidnotsuc­ soldiers,at drawing uniforms, maps, military andfortresses. The day and he As was a quite youngskilled boy Nicholas drew every -guardcavalier regiment St. aswell asseveral stars. Andrew Silver forms; atthe age offive oftheIzmailov he owned sixteenuniforms battlesandmaneuvers withthem.diers andorganized Heloved uni­ As soon toplay ashewoke withhislead andporcelain hestarted sol­ As a child NicholasAs achild preferred histoy hisothertoys. soldierstoall Wortman 1995,308–321 . 1989, 223. 2009, 30. 2009, 17

16 30. parades, OnNicholas Iandmilitary see alsohad implications on a The uniform Lmdr ’s Nicholas way ofeducating Lamsdorf

18 According to Theweleit, thesol­ Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 89

21 Military him­ enabled Nicholas surroundings 20 . Lincoln quotes Alexandra’s own words: “I could not words: own Lincoln quotes Alexandra’s 66–67. 1969, 9. 1989, De Custine 2002, 142. restrain a small cry of pleasure because they [the Semenovskii, Izmailovskii smalla cry restrain because they pleasure of Semenovskii, [the of Guards me of my beloved Regiments] reminded and Preobrazhenskii weeks “these three Alexandra stated further that the Berlin Regiment.” so pleasing did I find this military life”. passed far too quickly for me, The original of discipline and militarismNicholas function was for If we compare Klaus Theweleit’s analysis of the German Freikorps’ Freikorps’ analysisTheweleit’s the German of Klaus compare If we to keep together his fragile and undeveloped personality, but this was but this was his fragile to keep together and undeveloped personality, Empire Russian the entire empire. later extended to keeping together of a besieged integrated in the mental picture and personalitywere passion a special fortress had in mind that Nicholas (it is to be kept and military virtues discipline, severe Duty, for the engineer troops). becamethemselves. ends in 19 19 20 Lincoln soldiers with the personality of Nicholas I, we can we discern a common soldiers with the personality I, of Nicholas militar­ Prussian of adoration Nicholas’ militarism. Prussian variable: princess. a Prussian when he married Charlotte, ism was rewarded 1817 and the bride in place The marriage her name changed took for she foundconsolation Bruceto Lincoln, According Alexandra. to her homesickness when she spent a few with together summer weeks The military Selo watching in Krasnoye militaryNicholas exercises. the made discipline, Prussian which was permeated by environment, princess feel at home. bind him together and repel the threat of fragmentation. According According fragmentation. of the threat and repel together bind him so tightly himself I girded that Nicholas de Custine, to the Marquis thrust up into his chest was pushed his ribs and his stomach for were ­ After the undressing suspense. was thus set in person entire His ward. he was cast and relieved in a state of fatigue. were bowels emperor’s self to experience rare moments of happiness. Parades could make him Parades of happiness. self to experience moments rare to sometimes of enormous lead and inspections parades feel ecstatic, and even closereligious to orgastic moods. 21 Riasanovsky 90 André Swanström ritory, when nottomention attitudeoftheczar thealmostparanoid tolive rationalabout forcing withinalimitedter­ anything theJews order,a conservative astowhetherthere butthequestion arises was agendas.and psychological Nicholas wasadamant aboutdefending ofthePaleto violatetheboundaries seemedtoconceal otherfears I ascendedthethrone in1825. However, theczar’s trying ofJews fear oftheempire,ernments ofthePale. wasnotpart butFinland life counterparts in a thoroughly corrupted reality. corrupted inathoroughly real counterparts -life where Gogol’slaws anddecrees inacountry had their Dead Souls bereplaced bycircumventing couldoften daily of and legaltheory conglomerate andsometimes ofcomplicated conflicting paragraphs, settlement inFinland. Russian empireThe legislation ofthewasa might have been an assumption Jewish of a minuscule permanent tootherdestinations.ling through Finland Inthebackground, there theczar’s whoweresequently toJews travel­ mainly order pertained principle, toreside didnothave theright inFinland, Jews andcon­ to Russia. who wantedto travel from to Jews Finland ing passports In ­ should be careful whengrant that they vincial governors inFinland the end of August Åbo. waspromulgated at service thedecree military on Jewish After in Finland. Sveaborg, They were in stationed mainly Tavastehus, and garrisons intheRussian soldiersarrived cantonist Jewish Gradually empire. oftheRussian andautonomous wasaperipheral part Finland cantonistsThe Finland and 23 22 empire. ofthe toreside had theright inalimitedpart only thatJews ernors St. Petersburg andMoscow, hereminded andconsequently thegov­ citiesof tothecapital asagateway mightuseFinland thatJews afraid The Settlement had alreadyPale of beendefinedbefore Nicholas Samling af Kejserliga Bref 1836,221–222. afKejserliga Samling e.g.See 1983,160–161. Stanislawski

23 The Jewish the ­ Settlement comprised western gov Pale of 1827, told the pro little before the czar ­ it took very 22 was The czar

Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 91 I would argue that in the case I would 25 Those who dream of living on the other side of a on living of who dream Those 24 . Falk connects his reasoning to the research of research the to reasoning his connects Falk 144–145. . “From a psychohistorical viewpoint, the diffuse borders the diffuse borders a psychohistorical viewpoint, “From 157. 1989a, 1989b, of ancient empires compare strikinglycompare with the generallyof ancient empires -defined and well It is possible that, states. nation strictly-day of present defined borders the whole become on have beings human civilizations, of advance the with so that a rigid system of compartmentali­ and compulsive, obsessive more has been imposed on borders) with national maps zation (drawing precise of human behav­ other field and any travel, diplomacy, politics, geography, Behind such rigidity lies the fear of loss ior which borders. has to do with Disputes -being. that is the fear of loss of the self and non of boundaries, arise parts borders in different over world of the to armed­ and lead con country’s is It one’s of meaning emotional the that clear or flicts war. even give To boundaries. own one’s of that with fused is unconsciously, borders, ­ narcis a great is to some military occupied by however force, up territory, not only for needed are military Borders security:sistic loss and injury … to overcome unconsciouslythey needed for are the feeling of being there, the panic of the symbiotic boundaries.” loss of ego William G. Niederland and Paul Friedman: “They the that two suggest Friedman: NiederlandPaul and WilliamG. unconsciouslycountries symbolize sides of a border the two on early may for a man crossing an international border Thus, figures. parental also mean a search It may the incest barrier mean crossing into the mother. for a bounteous early mother who will unconditionally and embrace accept immigrants in of a new Migrants and a new in search place job, the child. for sky-jackers the hospitable land which heading of a newsearch country, will grant very them asylum fantasies which are have similar to the early the mother.” infantile wishes concerning Falk 24 Falk Falk 25 Falk he thought of allhe thought possible ways in which the Jews might try to cir­ Falk has written about Avner The psychohistorian his orders. cumvent is an there to Falk, According of borders. the crossing and borders Falk writes enormous psychological significance to a border. attached to connected that strictly are borders national drawn and guarded behavior and a fear of loss of self and ones and compulsive obsessive boundaries. own border in a foreign country in a foreign border might actually be harboring an oedipal for and symbiosis in a state mother longing union with an accepting bliss. overflowing of incestuous and 92 André Swanström to Christianity who had been baptized asLutherans. whohad beenbaptized to Christianity Vyborg converts had numberofJewish welcomed asofarunsurpassed of theauthorities. these years, During of parish Lutheran theGerman when theconversions ofFinland were brought totheattentionDuchy relations -Christian in the Grand was inaugurated of Jewish era A new St.right of was to gain residence infinal goal of theseJews Petersburg. seemedtohave beenthatthe authorities oftheRussian the conclusion converted to Christianity. eventually Jews Even in the Vyborg case, presence establishedJewish in Vyborg,a gradually where many ofthe heartland. totheRussian Finland However, there about isinformation dissolution seemstohave inthebackground. loomed ominously borders shouldbeguardedintrusion. againstJewish fear ofegoThe atthesametime, panicking but nevertheless ordered theczar thatthe bordersgraphical withaniron fist. Majesticanddressed inuniform, one.geographical The emperor guarded and both psychological geo­ wereSettlement thusasmuch conceptwere apsychological asthey a theruler, for unbearable was probably and theborders ofthePale of equated,symbolically presence thethoughtofaJewish incapitals himself.were of the czar symbols As the emperor and empire were citiesSt. inthecapital appearing Petersburg andMoscow. These cities outlook ofNicholas. ofJews afraid Heseemstohave beenespecially solution oftheself. Empire andego intheabsolutist were intertwined ofhisown weakof theboundaries self, would which lead tothedis­ the border ofthePale connectedoftheloss wasapparently tohisfear oftheemperor. experiences childhood crossing oftheJews Hisfear connected problems withpsychological ably resulting from theearly guarded bordersof Nicholas wasprob Ithemaintainingofstrictly ­ 26 It is hard to determine the volume of Jewish transit traffic via traffic It ishard transit thevolume todetermine ofJewish tized on Augusttized 15th 1828 andrenamed AlexanderMartin Wulff; Marcus DavidArnhold, bap­ Reneau;renamed Johann Carl Mayer Wulff, 22nd on January baptized The converts wereSalomo, Marcus on baptized November 1828 whileretaining hisname; Salomon Hermann 26 The converts The 11th 1827, Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 93 1829 and renamed Andreas Johann Johann Andreas 1830 and renamed and renamed Hermann Simon1828 and renamed Previous research has accused Nicholas I of trying Nicholas has accused research to Previous 27 and renamed Moritz; Ezechiel Nathan Luric, baptized 11th March on Ezechiel Luric, Nathan Moritz; and renamed baptized July on 18th Slegon Löwenstimm, Eduard; 1830 and renamed Wilhelm Schai and Julius Markuk 1830 and renamed Slegon; Johann 13th both baptized August on Kuie, German Vyborg See of archives church respectively. Andreas, Julius and parish. Samling af Kejserliga 1837, 300. Bref Fürst; Dawid Samuel Kohn, baptized and renamed in December 1828 SamuelDawid Kohn, Fürst; baptized 10th December on Garfunkel, Mur Kohn; Gottlieb David Fürst, baptized on November 4th baptized November on Fürst, enlightened ideas to the clergy in Åbo, where pastors around the around pastors where clergythe to ideas enlightened in Åbo, ). (1746–1830 Wahl Gottfried baptized August parish rector by were his doctorate in received was born and he had in Germany Wahl to baptizeready the Jews Wahl even was Why Theology Åbo. from purelythan other probablythey he that though suspected have might by simi­ been influenced He might have convert? to spiritual reasons lar­ turn century of the Jews society in bourgeois welcomed after having willingness baptize to the Wahl’s of The consequences baptized them. The diocesan chapters of noti­ were Finland Jews materialized. soon Jews that the fact of 1830 that theyNovember should be aware fied in Christianityto converting social and economical gain to were order in advantages. forcibly convert Jews to Christianity. The warningthe dio­ issued to forcibly Jews convert to Christianity. Jewswere cesan chapters portrays the czar in a totally light. different be included not supposed to and they were Jews, supposed to remain a distinct they should remain Instead, in the Christian community. the czar wanted to On the other hand, group. ethnic and religious modernize but the education Jews the and military through service, separate As a Jews should nevertheless separate their status. retain they should be standardized as possible and be inte­ as much group, this but empire, the within variousthe gratedamong groups ethnic form of inclusion in the duties imposed entailed merely an increase There their rights. in increase the Jewson corresponding and not any 27 94 André Swanström to Joseph Stalin enjoyedto Joseph Stalin expression. and exploited this paternalistic an increase inthepotentialpoints, where thelawcouldbebreached. them,for andanincrease inrestrictions meant imposedon theJews togaintheirway intodomains thatwere inaccessible trying stantly picious attitudetowards theJews: were heassumedthat they con­ ereign’s thatNicholas Ihad sus­ anextremely andshows will clearly 31 -Laferriere 30 Rancour 29 28 batiushka). (czar In Russia, referred father” peoplecommonly as totheczar “little asThe czar “Little Father” Senate about aukaseoftheGoverning legislation.Russian Finnish provincial governors were The informed empire, were authorities reminded shouldfollow thatthey theFinnish social andeconomicaladvantages. toexploit thesepossibilitiesinorder togain werethat theJews trying were possibilitiestoconvert toChristianity, wasafraid buttheczar “little father”. Naturally were“little father”? thechildren ofthis Who “little Nicholas Iwasnoexception on thispoint, andpeoplespoke ofhimas were only. non openfor -Jews guilds. intocertain Jews shouldnotbeadmitted toguilds, Jews which Even though Finland had an autonomousEven position though Finland in the Russian Laferriere 1995,153. Laferriere the Peoples”, Father”, “Wise Father”,“Beloved andsoforth”.- Rancour Union), (andtherestRussia oftheSoviet wascalled “Father”, “Father of Stalin, thetsarsindegree heenslaved whofaroutstripped towhich Peter theGreat was “Father oftheFatherland” Otechestva”). (“Otets Iosif father” as to by monarchistic“little thenaively peasantry (“Batiushka”). ample, referred been affectionately had century since the seventeenth According-Laferriere, toDanielRancour czars,“the Russian ex­ for Bref 1837,400–401. afKejserliga Samling the great, Senate. anditshouldnotbeconfused withtheFinnish founded Senate wastheexecutive by body oftheczar The Governing Peter 30 Autocratic Russian rulers from Autocraticrulers Peter Russian theGreat 1995, 152. 29 The ukaseisanexpression­ ofthesov 28 regarding theadmission of 31 ­

Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 95 . This 220. The laws and ukases, which limited ukases, and laws The 33 In Finland often people an repeated 32 1999, 154. ation to remain good and loyal subjects and their wish that “little subjects and their wish that and loyal good to remain ­ation Among his “real children” Nicholas favored the young officers in the Cadet officers in the the young favored Nicholas children” “real his Among the fol­ he gave When Corps fell of the Novgorod ill, director the Corps. “My My feelings for children! beloved you speech to the cadets: lowing that I me children Forgive … you to part make it hard and my love from I will … to talk with you to thank you, to you, to come am in no condition as honorable, always good, as be my darlings … my friends, forpray you, always and the be useful to yourselves … to me were as dedicated as you 2012, Friedman ” and both with truth and dignity. fatherland … apocryphal quotation, according to which was supposed to Nicholas according apocryphal quotation, said that Finlandhave that had was the only in his empire province mainly thereflects This quotation Finns’ not caused worries. any him aspir then with it was How children. real as his them regard would father” ­ In a psychohistor as well? “little their father” Nicholas Was the Jews? Russian the and his children and “littleicalinterpretation of father” Finnish Jews can definitely in comparison with be seen as stepchildren Russian children. “real” czar’s the 33 32 Siltala all the ethnic Russians, but did the same apply to Nicholas’ subjects the same apply but did to Nicholas’ all the ethnic Russians, “LittleFinns Jews?or such Poles, as backgrounds ethnic other from some and fist, a father who ruled was with an iron his empire father” They certainly were of his subjects of stepchildren. in the position them as regard ”little in insecurity father” live to forced – did were him or even obtain from could they favor gain some children, his real they left of his or were at the mercies him, from and acceptance love to cruelwhims and subjected ukases? For and draconian legislation was a clear I and his RussianNicholas subjects there of a strict model sub­ to the czar’s but with regard children, father and his beloved Many ambiguous. jects of other nationalitymore was the situation but a fatherly as Finns Nicholas they whom regarded feared, figure at the same time they with­ to please him and appease him wanted his authority. out questioning 96 André Swanström not try tofindennoblementorpleasure intheirsuffering.not try Yohanan did notremain –theJews passive did andthey czar or theRussian ious oppressors exampletheRomans, –for Inquisition, theSpanish Jews, however, wassomething different. suffering Inthe face ofvar­ 34 ennobling intheirmind, ofpleasure. form amasochistic father”, oftheir ted tothewill something “little became andsuffering people. asasuffering oftheRussians identity Russianssubmit ­ The children (i.e. theJews). aboutthe writes -Laferriere DanielRancour ukases,capricious ofthestep­ theexperience butthisdidnot affect were andthey will hisstern atthemerciesalso supposedtoobey ofhis his “real” children (i.e. well, very theethnicRussians) either. They were to himself.have themtooclose father” Ofcourse “little didnottreat supposed torespect him, theirfatherandobey buthedidnotwantto in acolddraft, farfrom oftheinnerchambers. thewarmth They were the czar, totheouterdoor banishedsomewhere close beingmentally ordinate position inthefamily. hadThey agiven place inthehouseof father, beaware tobeconstantly oftheirsub­ buthewantedtheJews theJews. for the case wastheirstep­ theczar level Onapsychological father’s” theirstatusas “little deserve real children, butthiswasnot wereand they toprove and offered theirqualifications opportunities distance. could advance to prominent Finns positions in the empire father’s”be seenas “little intention ofkeepinghisstepchildren at a constrained theirpossibilitiesofconverting toChristianity, clearly can oftheJews,the rights restrictedthemtothePale and ofSettlement Laferriere 1995,47. -Laferriere Rancour whohasdone wrong,zen but a father who punishesadisobedientchild.” alientoRussians: utterly “For punishesaciti­ usitisnot the lawwhich father tsar”to as “little (“tsar’ batiushka”) by Russians. rule of law is The come punishmentfrom figure thepaternal ofthetsar, referred traditionally Chaadaev. According toChaadaev, come toexpect,”Russians wel even ­ philosopher quotes the Russian Petr -Laferriere Rancour Iakovlevich jargon. sideoftheczar’swas adisplay andloving ofthebenevolent paternalistic 34 For the Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 97 insinööri­­-

37 In addition to this, there was always there for a way to this, In addition 35 2009, 43–44. ­ The Jewish alladults (in con soldiers in were Sveaborg 36 2000, 29-31. fied with living on the island. The garrison waslong period for a on the island. fied with living National Archives of Finland, Venäläiset sotilasasiakirjat, Sotilas­ sotilasasiakirjat, Venäläiset Finland, of Archives National ­ ordinary ingenu through situation their own Jews to actively improve ity work. and hard -Shtern 35 Petrovsky 36 Halén 37 The ofexpulsion Jews from Sveaborg One example of Jews actively trying was conditions their to improve the struggle of Finnish Jews for the fortress the right on island to live undergoing at least 42 Jewish soldiers were 1830’s, In the of Sveaborg. to the compared can be This figure their military service in Sveaborg. which soldiers during was 4000-5000 of the garrison, total strength that period. -Shtern writeseven that suffering though Petrovsky by many was seen Jews sins of the for a divine punishment as great and the disobedience always was there hope – maybe a ray of God would Jewishpeople, the of the people and the repentance through decrees severe annul his and finally alleviatesuf­ the of righteous men, and prayers intercession ferings of his people. trast to Jewish minors in the cantonist battalions), and they were in theyand were trast to Jewishcantonist the in minors battalions), It is not known Jewish recruits. than the younger a better situation for certain what kind of sufferings the Jewish soldiers of Sveaborg they Apparently were arriving the island. though before on gone had satis­ Helsinki, important capital, actual than the center more a population The Jewishsoldiers and crafts ­ which the mainland. is situated on their families living had to the military attached who were units, men, they and away, move want to not did island, the on them with together from that they away should move order personal I’s despite Nicholas they where from on the mainland, Sveaborgaccommodation and find island. boat to the rowing by should daily commute 98 André Swanström 38 highly courteous words courteous hisastonishment over thefacthighly thattheczar’s ence between AltfaterandEngel went on, andAltfaterexpressed in toSveaborg. awhilemoved back families had after The correspond­ Jews, for typical keepingatavern”.activity especially Apparently the shouldnotengagetrading sothatthey inillegal “strict surveillance had and that they been placed under employed factory at the brick inorder familieshadtobe been senttoSandhamn that two Jewish Isaev, anddemandedanexplanation. Isaev’s predecessor had beentold Colonel Engel wrote tothecommander ofthe3rd and hasnotbeenmoved”. grounds hasbeenallowed tolive Hatskaleva inthefortress “the Jewess ron Meyer Blah, BelkaHatskaleva”. Altfaterwantedtoknow on what of the lives of the private the wife fortress inside fortresses”. that Altfaterhad this General beeninformed “in expressed hishighestwill: familiestostay toallowJewish innocase theEmperor hadhim thatHisMajesty on 3 company,Engineering LieutenantColonel Engel, andreminded Altfater, General Artillery wrotetothecommander oftheSveaborg this remote location. On 2 oftheempire, part eral ofcommand butthechain reached even totheimplementation oftheorder.urgency ­ wasaperiph Finland 1845, inEurope gave butthedisturbances in1848apparently added empire, intheRussian fortresses ofvarious the walls wasissuedin order,The original familiesfrom Jewish forbade livingwithin which Nicholas Iintheface oftherevolutions of1848in Western Europe. in can be seen against the background of the anxiety displayed beseenagainstthebackground oftheanxiety by1848 can The forced moving of Jewish families from Sveaborg to Sandhamn familiesfromSveaborgforced to The ofJewish moving 1848. hallinnon arkisto, siirrettävät juutalaiset perheet 14647Santahaminan National Archives ofFinland, Venäläiset sotilasasiakirjat, Sotilasinsinööri­ 1848. hallinnon arkisto, siirrettävät juutalaiset perheet 14647Santahaminan 38 July July A few days later, days Afew on 5July, Lieutenant 1848, thecommandant ofSveaborg, rd military working squad­ 3rd military January January

squadron, Captain “kindly 1845 “kindly Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 99 , that the 1848, August August 40 , the matter was forwarded the matter was ­ com to the regional 1848, 39 July why the Jewish families still were allowed to stay on on to stay allowed the Jewish1848 why families still were . The Jews on the list were privatewere 1st classThe Jewson the list Blah Meier 1848. 16 National Archives of Finland, Venäläiset sotilasasiakirjat, Sotilasinsinööri­ sotilasasiakirjat, Venäläiset of Finland, Archives National 14647 Santahaminan juutalaiset perheet siirrettävät hallinnon arkisto, 1848. Sotilasinsinööri­ sotilasasiakirjat, Venäläiset of Finland, Archives National 14647 Santahaminan juutalaiset perheet siirrettävät hallinnon arkisto, 1848. On 16 last Jewish family had been transferred from Sveaborg to Sandhamn. last Jewish Sveaborg family to Sandhamn. been transferred from had The Jewish other four initially had families who main­ the to moved so rent in Helsinki, the able to afford not been Helsinki had land in they been transferred to Sandhamn. too had mander of the engineer troops, Major General Brandt, who ordered the who ordered Major General Brandt, mander of the engineer troops, Letters exchanged were Sveaborg. from Jewishremoved be to families the pos­ who investigated ranking military lower between bureaucrats, The on sibility for the families accommodation Sandhamn. of finding for seven Jewish was room families and that they was that there result boat with six oars for their daily a rowing transportcould be allowed still it was unclear correspondence in frenetic a Despite Sveaborg. to August Sveaborg. Captain Isaev reported finallyon 20 Sveaborg. 39 40 orders had been disobeyed. Engel replied that he had made a list of the a list of made he had that replied Engel been disobeyed. had orders Jews fortress in the on the lived who people four and that of five out craftsmen necessarylist were who were that the fifth and man was a therefore, fortification at the same time, also a shoemaker but worker strictunder All Jewsthe surveilwere ­ too. him, needed squadron the to punish them severely if they engaged promised lance and Engel by Isaev and dated The list was compiled activities. prohibited in any July (bricklayer), private 1st class Leiba­ (bricklayer and squad Pribshtein (bricklayer), private 2nd class (carpenter Meerovich Girsh and glass tailor), ron privateclass 2nd Beniamin Baranovich­ (blacksmithappren cutter), tice) and private 2nd class Leiba Zuperman (fortification and worker shoemaker). 100

André Swanström fear could be offered from a psychoanalytical perspective. couldbeofferedfear from apsychoanalytical According tional any andlacked real foundation. Apotentialexplanation ofthis ies. ­ irra The Czar’s wasbasically subversive fear ofJewish activity poseany great threathardly asspies, conspirators, orrevolutionar ­ soldierswithfamilies, private was aboutafew peoplewhocould ofSveaborg, Inthecase ofhisfortresses? within thewalls thematter presence concerned withtheJewish wasNicholas sodeeply Why symbol asa fortress The 41 Halén could. from timetotime, familiesreturned assoon buttheJewish asthey island.ilies withthemon thefortress were Deportations implemented strenuous efforts. soldiersmanaged Manyto have Jewish theirfam­ commandants’maintain apresence despitethevarious inSveaborg much longer thanHalénassumes. were ItseemsthattheJews ableto attention before,scholarly thattheprocess we have was toconclude If we takeintoaccount theorder of1848, hasnotreceived which ing the Jews from lengthy, wasrather ing theJews Sveaborg according toHalén. theordershe mentions only of1863and1866. The process of ­ remov but garrisons Finnish innineteenthcentury aboutJews Halén writes from Jews all Sveaborg. AlopaeusLieutenant General deported Harry Knak’s (Haja). Hova wife Three commandant years later thenew ter Hajka, Iohit Kolomatskiy’s andLejzer 17-year Schifra -old wife some Jews:Fajelovich’sthe familiesmoved included Schlem daugh­ Commandant Alexeyev gave theorder on 1June1863andthelistof operation affected roughly private soldiers missioned officers and from fortress. the Thismassive teen years later. He wanted to remove non the families of all -com ­ many twists. Sveaborg The commandant tothematterfif­ of returned The Jewish presence in Sveaborg was nevertheless a story with astory Sveaborg presence wasnevertheless The Jewish in 2000, 31. families (both Jews and non-Jews).400 families (both Jews 41

Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 101 The entire My choiceMy 44 42 Critics might want to 43 Thus the use of Freud’s theories in the Freud’s Thus the use of 45 . For Theweleit, the use of psychoanalytic symbols Theweleit, For 86. . Freud adds that these symbols are not limited to the that these symbols adds are Freud 140. 1993, 1993, 56–57. 1964, 2008, 67–79. realm of dreams. They are also found in various other contexts, such as also variousfound in They are other contexts, dreams. of realm 1964, 142. Se Freud and poems. everyday speech, legends, popular myths, grounded in the writings of Freud is a methodologically of writ in the writings solid way grounded ­ of Freud Theweleit 1993, 192–194. See ing psychohistory. A fortress is something to be conquered and owned. From another From and owned. A fortress to be conquered is something context of Nicholas I and the JewsNicholas of as jus­ Sveaborgcontext in can be regarded interpretation is naturallyFreudian subject to serious schol­ A tified. possibilityI offerone interpretation the and is just of arly challenge, Nevertheless, with fortresses. special relationship explaining Nicholas’ argue that the psychoanalyticalI would offers a plausible approach seemingly irrational behavior. of Nicholas’ explanation a symbol is of safetythe woman) and the fortress (i.e. view, point of of using Freudian symbolism is supported as a tool of interpretation of using Freudian ­ field of psychohis used in the which are of analysis, similar modes by ­ who dis Theweleit, by Klaus is offered example One prominent tory. Theweleit “in writes that cusses the castle as a symbol for woman. often to or are refer “castles” of images thoughts or perceived dreams, “mother”, carries the connotations “Castle” womb. associated with the high-born woman”. “pure, woman”, “noble dismiss Freud as outdated and discard his theories as unscientific, but theorieshis discard and outdated as unscientific, as Freud dismiss Even theories ignored. be cannot Freud’s psychohistory, of field the in they and modified, developed, as his theories been challenged, have As of relevance. of departurestill a point with a high degree constitute of conceptualization here the mode “As a rule, Theweleit puts it: Klaus Freudian.” while still remaining be criticalmust of Freud, Freud 42 Freud 43 Theweleit 44 Theweleit 45 Falk to Freud, the fortress is a powerful and loaded psychological symbol. psychological fortress the symbol. loaded and powerful a is Freud, to castlessees fortressesand symbolsas for woman. Freud psychological study of the causes-Semitism heavily of Anti relies on Freud. built by a foundation 102

André Swanström allowed to visitthefortress, gave which himanuneasyandprisonlike when hewasreceived by dignitaries. local Finally, deCustinewas tions deCustinewasmetwithsuspicion, pretexts, andstrangeglances matter. complicated a highly andrecommenda permits Despite all ­ Ladoga.Lake According todeCustine, was fortress visitingaRussian Shlisselburg, atthehead oftheNevaRiver fortress on the oldSwedish sion by theMinisterof War )tovisit (i.e. himself theCzar ultimately in1839.visited Russia The Marquis deCustinehad been given­ permis ample. examplesare Other offered by theMarquis deCustine, who absurd ways, from beingjustone theJews ex­- expelling Sveaborg safety,need for impossibletosatisfy. wasnearly aneedwhich calculations,ical had butapparently todowithadeeperpsychological orpolit­ I would arguethatthisneedwasnotaboutrationalmilitary ofNicholas I, seatedinthepersonality wasdeeply build fortresses and nons, would protection which offer for theinhabitants. hisbuildings. failedtofortify never can­ included fortifications The nannies. Heusedchairs, earth, andtoys asbuildingmaterials, andhe roots. Nicholas playhouseshimselfandhis Asachild builtsmall for and theengineercorps, althoughhisinterest had deeper infortresses attention to fortresses administration he would close devote military concrete in ahighly manner.tresses andtheengineercorps Regarding ­ for high enthusiasm for Nicholas was able to cultivate his unusually andsecurity.itself inanaccentuatedsafety needfor Asanemperor withhismother. symbiosis for deep craving manifested This craving witha away insuch thatheseemstohave beenleft been disrupted individuation phase inthedevelopment ofNicholas’ had personality fromseparated thecare ofhismotheratatenderage. The separ Nicholas I’s specialattitudeasregards fortresses. Nicholas had been anexamination point for of isastarting care andsafety or maternal find shelter behind its walls.one can of womanly The importance Riasanovsky 46 Riasanovsky Nicholas’ relationship itselfin couldmanifest with fortresses 1969, 10. 46 The needto ­ation-

Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 103 The entire host entire The 47 De Custine 2002, 351–368. of localby the paranoid dignitaries spiritbeen affected had that per­ restrictions and The I. apparatus Nicholas of meated the bureaucratic manifestations of this paranoid fortresses the were surrounding secrets argue that the paranoia and the the same time I would but at spirit, psychological of the Czar’s manifestations fortresses themselves were cry the unanswered early in his unhappy needs rooted childhood years, and the absence of motherlyof the baby and care. love 47 The ordeals of and Schleimo Itshok The The history of the Jews in is particularlySveaborg interesting. story of the cantonists is absolutelyessential for Finnish Jewish the people who former Discharged cantonist soldier were identity. The displayed cantonists founded the Jewish community in Finland. clingingdetermination and courage of their fathers to the religion is slightly picture The for this. due admiration received and they have of the many that the fact account take into if we however, altered, All Jewish soldiers with them. and children Jewish wives soldiers had their Jewish family isolated from boys in Finland not lost young were of Jewish families accommodation The close to and community life. the barracks that was certainly a factor was for helpful the foundation previously I have the mentioned of Jewish life community in Finland. that dealt with the experience traditions narrative of the cantonists. One orally. Stories passed on of the cantonists were about the ordeals feeling. De Custine’s experiences from other European fortresses were fortresses were other European experiences from De Custine’s feeling. in a cour­ received been he had In other countries, markedly different. despite all pleasant manner teous and imaginable strategic polit­ and visit became de Custine’s however, In Shlisselburg, ical consideration. spectaclea bizarre a become in which time have he felt he could at any as a noble and privileged entered whichhad he prisoner in the fortress, of the Emperor. permission tourist with the express 104

André Swanström and the mighty Russian patriarch entered patriarch theroom Russian accompaniedand themighty by to readand started prayers. the evening Then the door was opened courses,Shabbat litcandles, andputon theirtalitot(prayer shawls) could be presentable before the metropolitan. set the table with They sothatthey clothes wereprisoners allowed andclean to wear new Petersburg toseetheprisoners. wasabouttobegin, Shabbat andthe perseverance.spiritual Finally, metropolitan Antonius from came St. the commandant wasmoved, soldiers’ whenhesawthetwo Jewish theirhardships inotherways,and alleviated too. of Even theheart Shabbat. for andcandles alsomended their clothes She regularly food women from Helsinki, MrsChavaKnopp, especially brought them yearsto waitfour beforegot they any decision abouttheirfate. Jewish were inacasemate, locked abombproof dungeon. They wereforced the situation, and the men were transferred to Sveaborg. There they of thecell. this, After inSt. Synod theHoly Petersburg wastoldabout justmade themfurious,zeal ofthepriest The threwhimout andthey inorder totheircell topersuadecame themtoreturn toChristianity. Jews. ofthis,They were because incarcerated priest Orthodox andan creed didnotacceptwantedtobe they theChristian andthat school). toldtheircommanding grewupthey officersthat they When hadathome they learnt andinthechederwhich (i.e. elementary Jewish religiousDespite thisthetwo menhad customs, keptJewish secretly asyoung baptized. childrenhad andthey beenforcibly been drafted identity. Jewish about thenature oftheFinnish The protagonists had legend andactual facts. us tells thingiswhatthestory The important tradition,oral anditishard therelationship todetermine between metthetwo cantonists.had personally ofan isthuspart The story rights. for struggle from Jacobsson hisfather, had heard thestory who 1950s whenJacobsson Jews’ publishedhiswork abouttheFinnish down intheearly tothe1870sbutitwaswritten datesback story oftwo individualcantonits.the story According toJacobsson the history. Jewish major account of Finnish In Jacobsson’s book we find Jacobsson, down by Santeri waswritten story such authorofthefirst Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 105

1951, 97–99. 48 Soon after this the prisoners were released. They were were called They Itshok Soon after released. this the prisoners were Jacobsson 48 Jacobsson guards. The prisoners did not react. They just continued to pray. The continued to Theypray. just react. prisonersThe did not guards. closed and he the the room, to leave the guards ordered metropolitan and waited room on a chair in a corner of the Then he sat down door. were prisonersWhen the forthe prisoners their prayers. finish to telling that the Holy them in a meek tone, them addressed he ready, them to He wanted Synod authorized had them a visit. him to pay to return and to repent they prepared Were a simple question: answer you do “Why ask, you replied: prisonersThe do doctrine? pure the to not see the burning Shabbat candles not been we the table? Have on were We sufferings our tormentedyou? enough? Are not enough for stick we to creed, your do not accept We forcibly baptized as children. Our torture. faith will not be shaken by the doctrine of our forefathers. The Shabbat Leave us alone!” and our protection. God is our witness candles light in the their faint gently flickered on the table and spread of was a moment and there walls, Shadowson the stone flickered cell. triedand backhold to rose tears. his metropolitan the Finally, silence. I will and now “I shall leave voice: with a trembling Then he spoke that the I will recommend Sabbathnot disturb your evening anymore. I pray to the Almighty that Holy Synod immediately. you shall release as of heaven in the kingdom me the same kind of place He shall give God bless faith. unwavering your through earned yourselves have you you!” When bap­ been they had Schleimoand fellowtheir Jews. among but they did not want to use tized new Christian they received names, where Vyborg, After to they went their release those names anymore. fur­ travel not did them of One father. they met SanteriJacobsson’s He fell under the train ther since he was fatally in an accident. injured he where America, to The other moved at the SorvaliVyborg. stop in relatives. had 106

André Swanström Duchy of Finland were not the primary concernsofNicholas, were nottheprimary of Finland but Duchy lutism and paranoia. and their position in the remote Jews Grand of almostconstant intolerance, withhisabso­ wassynonymous which into agreat championoftolerance. The reign of Iwasa Nicholas reign austere like Nicholas childhood would most prob­ with hisstepchildren, that istosay theJews. Aperson withahard and able mother; father” as theCzar “little relationship with acomplicated woman/mother for andNicholas’as asymbol longinganunattain­ for ofhisself;aries asNicholas’ theuniform mental boundary, thefortress their relationship with Nicholas’ of the dissolution fear of the bound­ of Nicholasnection I: to the personality borders geographical and of Finland, Ihave findingswithacon presented­ new thefollowing mindset.cratic rooted suspicion weredeeply ofthe bureau anddiscrimination ­ part awayFinland insuch that Russia and in had thebureaucracy affected inFinland,ing thestatusofJews andattitudes andhispersonality Nicholas Ihad, however, already tothelegislation contributed regard­ population inthecountry. Jewish thus establishing apermanent settleinFinland, soldierstolegally enableddischargedJewish which successor ofNicholas throne, Ion theRussian gave the order, finally inFinland. history developments ofJewish AlexanderII,early the ground hispersonal affected intolerance, marked inturn the which Nicholashave in which I’s demonstrated the ways ­ back psychological werethat the victims Jews of theCzar’s not the only intolerance. I and onlevels all thefact thatNicholasruler Iwasanintolerant sizes ample, work of Yohanan thescholarly Petrovsky-Shtern. Heempha­ identity, Jewish mark on Finnish benuancedby, naturally can ex­- for ance and insecurity. This impression, hasput an indelible which by intoler­ were characterized years settlementinFinland ofJewish clear message: JacobssonSanteri conveys a told by theearly The story Conclusions With regard to the psychohistory of tolerance in the Grand Duchy Duchy intheGrand oftolerance regard tothepsychohistory With ably not have evolved not have evolved ably Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 107 ation and intolerance ation 14647 Santahaminan juutalaiset perheet1848 siirrettävät . New York: New York Review Books. Review Books. York New York: New Russia. From Letters Macmillan. Palgrave Basingstoke: Memory in Culture. Hatred of. Contemporary A Historyand Psychoanalysis Anti-Semitism: Praeger. CT: Westport, . from Maps in Psychogeography Readings the Mind: Symbolism”. “Border University Oklahoma: Norman, Niederland. G. W. Stein and F. H. Eds. of Oklahoma Press. from­ Maps Symbolism“Border in Psycho Readings Revisited”. the Mind: Oklahoma: Norman, Niederland. G. SteinW. and F. H. Eds. geography. University of Oklahoma Press. Gummerus. Jyväskylä: K.J. psykoanalyysiin. Johdatus -Century in the Nineteenth of Age and Coming the Body, “Masculinity, Youth, Journal The History of and the of Childhood Russian Corps”. Cadet Spring 2012. 2, Number 5, Volume Venäläiset sotilasasiakirjat Venäläiset Sotilasinsinöörihallinnon arkisto German Parish Vyborg Archives: Church De Custine, Astolphe De Custine, 2002 Astrid Erll, 2011 Avner Falk, 2008 Avner Falk, 1989a Avner Falk, 1989b Sigmund Freud, 1964 Rebecca Friedmann, 2012 Bibliography

Archive sources Helsinki of Finland, Archives National References they received their share of ukases and imperial orders, which laid the and imperial of ukases orders, their share they received decades for foundation of discrimin coming the ­ the narrative in ordeals of the cantonists’ lasting impression as a as well of Finnishtradition Jews. 108

André Swanström 2012 Smolar, Rony 1999 Siltala, Juha 2005 Seela, Jacob 1837 Bref afKejserliga Samling 1836 Bref afKejserliga Samling 1969 Riasanovsky,Nicholas V. 1995 -Laferriere,Rancour Daniel 2009 Petrovsky-Shtern, Yohanan 1989 Lincoln, W. Bruce 1951 Jacobsson, Santeri 2000 Halén, Harry församlingen iHelsingfors. hepreaksi”. tarina “Kantonistien Hakehila Helsinki: Otava. Valkoisen 5/2005. Helsingfors: Judiskaförsamlingen iHelsingfors. kaupustelijoitaja kauppiaita 1800-luvunTurussa”.“Juutalaisia och medår1834. Utgifven Pehr af Törnqvist. Helsingfors: Pehr Törnqvist. ochOeconomiae- Politiae-ärender. Tredje delen. Från och medår1829till Stor-FurstendömetDess Senatför utiJustitiae-, blifvit Finland utfärdade Hans Kerserliga af Majestät,hvilka i Expeditionerne äfvensom ifrån Bref, gällande Förklaringar detillefterlefnad af Samling och Föreskrifter, och medår1828. Helsingfors: Pehr Törnqvist. ochOeconomiae- Politiae-ärender. Andra delen. Från och medår1821till Stor-FurstendömetDess Senatför utiJustitiae-, blifvit Finland utfärdade Hans af Kerserliga Majestät,hvilka i Expeditionerne äfvensom ifrån Bref, gällande Förklaringar detillefterlefnad af Samling och Föreskrifter, Angeles: Press. ofCalifornia University Nicholas Russia, in I and Official Nationality York &London: New York Press. University Russia: The Slave Soulof Moral. New Masochism Suffering andtheCultof Cambridge: Press. University Cambridge Army, in theRussian Jews 1827–1917. Drafted into Modernity. Press. University Illinois Nicholas I: Emperor andAutocrat DeKalb: theRussians. All Northern of ja Suomenjuutalaiskysymyksen vaiheista. Jyväskylä:Gummerus. Taistelu ihmisoikeuksista. Yhteiskunnallis-historiallinen Ruotsin tutkimus limit jajuutalaiset n. 1812–1840. Helsinki: Unholanaitta. sekäHämeenlinnan–Turun–AhvenanmaanViaporin mus- varuskuntien äidin pojat. Siveellisyys jasenvarjot. kansallisessa projektissa 3/2012. Helsingfors: Judiska 1825–1855. Berkeley &Los Hakehila Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 109 . Minneapolis: Minneapolis: History . Bodies, Floods, Women, 1: . Terror White the Psychoanalysing Male Bodies. 2: Tsar Nicholas I and the Jews: The Transformation ofTransformation Jewish in Society Russia The Jews: I and the Nicholas Tsar JewishThe Publication Society America. of Philadelphia: . 1825–1855 Volume Male Fantasies. University Press. of Minnesota Volume Male Fantasies. University of Minnesota Press. Minneapolis: one. Volume Scenarios Myth and Ceremony of in Russian Power: Monarchy. New Jersey: Princeton, I. the Great the Death of Nicholas to Peter From University Press. Princeton University of Seattle: JewishZakhor: History and Jewish Memory. Press. Washington Stanislawski, Michael Stanislawski, 1983 Klaus Theweleit, 1993 Klaus Theweleit, 1989 S. Richard Wortman, 1995 Haim Yosef Yerushalmi, 1982