Geographical Review of Japan Vol. 78, No. 12, 753-768, 2005

University and Migration Experiences in the South Pacific Region: Survey of Tongans in Fiji

Raelyn Lolohea 'ESAU Graduate Student, Department of Geography, Kyoto , Kyoto 606-8501, Japan

Abstract: This study examines the migration experiences of Tongan students and households in Fiji based on two separate surveys. The major findings obtained are summarized as follows. The student survey results elucidate that the decision to migrate for a university education was made on an individual basis, while the role of family and friends in disseminating information about the institution was conspicuous. The destination choice for university was influenced by the availability of scholarships for studying in Fiji. While a majority of students expect to return to to resume or find employment after completion of their studies, some also anticipated pursuing future graduate studies. The household survey findings confirm the important role of the nuclear family in decision making and reasons for migration while employers funded the migration expenses for most of the individuals. Their highest university degrees were acquired since the 1990s mainly from Fiji and Australian . A considerable portion of them are involved in such skilled occupations as education and administrative jobs at major institutions of the South Pacific region, mainly due to their higher educational attainment and work experience prior to migration to Fiji. As a result, they tended to have higher incomes.

Key words: student migration, skilled migration, Tongan migrants, Republic of Fiji, Kingdom of Tonga, South Pacific Region

tively few. Introduction This paper constitutes a segment of ongoing researches by the author for the South Pacific The enhancement of human capital by inter region with special emphasis on international national student migration is usually regarded migration from Tonga to the Pacific Rim coun as a precursor of overseas skilled employment tries. Based on questionnaire and interview (Castles and Miller 2003: 171). Despite the sig surveys in Tonga with households that sent a nificance of student mobility in the twenty-first family member(s) overseas, 'Esau (2004) clari century, as demonstrated by SOPEMI (2001: 93; fied increases in migration motivated by study 2004: 36), the topic has been better documented ing abroad from Tonga in recent decades; how for the European region (for example, Balaz and ever, this paper was flawed because the data Willams 2004; King and Ruiz-Gelices 2003; was derived from sample households in Tonga, Findlay 2001; Salt 1997; Rhode 1993) and the but not entirely from the migrants themselves. Asia-Pacific region (for example, Castles and With such a drawback in mind, 'Esau (forth Miller 2003; Phillips and Stahl 2001; Castles coming) scrutinized the experiences of Tongan 1998) while investigations for other parts of the migrants in New Zealand. Major attention was world have been relatively late (Baryla and Dot devoted to job-related emigration (particularly terweich 2001; McHugh and Morgan 1984). unskilled/semi-skilled workers) in this paper. The South Pacific region consists of small is Hence, a significant role of student migration land countries; international student migration from Tonga, confirmed in 'Esau (2004), should is now considered to be a rite of passage in this be elucidated, for example in Fiji and not in region for those who aspire to overseas tertiary New Zealand, because student migration is re education, but detailed investigations are rela markable within the South Pacific region fo

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Figure 1. Map of Fiji and its geographical orientation with Tonga. cured on Fiji.1 mobility within the South Pacific region is not The historical relationship between Tonga particularly rich. In relation to this, the follow and Fiji dates back several centuries and em ing three problems from previous literature can phasizes significant cultural and socio be pointed out. economic ties. The first wave of Tongan migra First, existing literature tends to focus on tion to Fiji took place in the eighteenth century international migration from the South Pacific during the historical expansion period of the islands such as from Tonga to the Pacific Rim Tonga maritime empire to its neighbors includ countries (for example, Evans 2001; Fisi'iahi ing a part of Fiji. Those who remained settled 2001; Sudo 1997) such as New Zealand (Vete in the Lau group of islands located in the south 1995), United States (Forte 1994; Small 1997), western part of Fiji, which is geographically and Australia (Cowling 2002; Lee 2003; Tonga close to Tonga (see Figure 1). The second wave moa 1987); however, migration within this re of migration, dominated by students and young gion has generally been overlooked. Without a adults seeking educational and socio-economic fuller understanding of such intra-regional opportunities, began to trickle out of the coun migration, the human mobility of the region, try in the mid-twentieth century. This paper including Tonga as a whole, cannot be explores the migration experiences of the latter sufficiently elucidated. wave. Second, although nowadays Fiji is a sig Contemporary Fiji, owing to its physical size nificant center of higher education in the South and geographical proximity, serves as a re Pacific region, little has been documented ex gional hub for foreign Embassies, South Pacific cept by Yamanaka and Yoshida (1997). As is regional organizations2 and educational institu well known, student migration usually gives tions, and a nexus for the transit of air transpor rise to international human flows in subsequent tation between small Pacific islands. South Pa years; hence, to anticipate future migration pat cific regional organizations have attracted a terns and adopt an effective policy, if necessary, certain number of Tongan migrants during the student migration focusing on Fiji must be second half of the twentieth century to work clarified at this stage. and study in Fiji. Great transportation im Finally, migration literature on Fiji has provements between Fiji and Tonga since the tended to emphasize the brain drain and emi mid-twentieth century (Ward 1998) have gration of Fiji nationals (Rokoduru 2002) and strengthened Fiji's outstanding role as the hub the effects of political crises on Indo-Fijians (for of the South Pacific region. example, Bedford 1989; Reddy et al. 2002, 2004; Migration literature regarding contemporary Voigt-Graf 2003). In the meantime, the migra

754 University Education and Migration Experiences 151 tion of non-Fijian nationals to Fiji and their also contributed to the rise of student migration possible contributions to a solution to the brain from Tonga to Fiji since the 1990s; tuition in drain issue has been only partially explored Fiji is generally cheaper than in New Zealand (Liki 2001; Tu'imaleali'ifano 1987, 1990). and Australia. With the above problems of previous litera According to the latest statistics available in ture in mind, this article elucidates the migra 2003, since its establishment in 1968 the cumu tion experiences of Tongan university students lative enrollment for internal and external and households in Fiji based on structured study modes3 has exceeded 6,000 and 9,000, questionnaires and interview surveys con respectively, implying a generally increasing ducted in the destination country. Existing trend. Tongan student enrollment comprises literature has neglected such investigation. only 2% of the internal mode and 6% of the Therefore, two separate surveys for students external, while the bulk of enrollment is domi and households were given. nated by students of Fijian nationality with This article is organized as follows. After a 76% and 57% for the former and latter modes, brief explanation of the background, an outline respectively. Fijian and Tongan staff members of the two surveys conducted on Tongans in comprise 42.8% and 3.3%, respectively, Fiji is introduced. The highlighted results are whereas 41% of the overall total staff is from discussed in the two parts concerned with outside the south Pacific region (USP 2003). student migrants and migrant households. On the national level, Tonga has been con The final section summarizes the findings fronted with serious problems concerning its and presents their implications. human capital resources due to population de cline mainly from emigration. Annually, nearly Background Context 1,000 students complete secondary education and weigh the decision to leave the country to To achieve sustainable development in the undertake tertiary education overseas. Since South Pacific region, the development of hu scholarships from foreign governments as man resources ranks as one of the most impor Official Development Aid to Tonga are very tant items on the agendas of the regional level limited, private funding is more common. The (Haberkorn 2004a, b; Pacific Islands Forum Sec Tongan labor market is too small to provide retariat 2002, 2003; Secretariat of the Pacific jobs for the school leavers and the returning Community 2001) and the national level (James overseas graduates, and thus, as a result, a rise 1998; Tonga Government 2001). Thus, before in unemployment rates and international mo explaining the survey, the background context bility of human capital is inevitable. In this needs to be mentioned briefly. context Fiji is one of the destinations to which On the regional level, national governments human capital migrate for training or employ included in the region have focused on provid ment opportunities. The inadequate availabil ing elementary and secondary education for ity of migration macro data on Tonga is an residents while tertiary education is usually inevitable draw back. The latest available data pursued elsewhere either within or outside the based on arrival card data reported that in 1998 region. In response to various needs (including returning Tongan residents (18,071 persons) tertiary education) of the South Pacific nations, visited New Zealand (38%), the United States regional organizations such as the Forum Sec (15%), Australia (10%) and Fiji (9%). The top retariat based in Fiji with a membership of the three reasons for travel included visiting rela South Pacific islands have played an important tives (45%), taking a vacation (18%) and get role in promoting regionalism to address social, ting an education (6%) (Tonga Statistics De economic and political issues. For example, to partment 2002). enhance human capital resources, the Univer The Republic of Fiji which became independ sity of the South Pacific was established to ent from Britain in 1970 is comprised of 332 educate young adults in this region. The in islands of which only 110 are inhabited and has creasing availability of private scholarships has a total land area of 18,272 square kilometers.

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Fiji is home to a multi-ethnic population of Table 1. Characteristics of student samples 775,077 people dominated by Fijians and Indi ans, 50.7% and 43.7% respectively; a mere 1.3% are from other Pacific Island countries. Fiji's economy, regarded as one of the most devel oped economies in the South Pacific region, de rives its main foreign earnings from tourism, sugar processing and garment manufacturing (Fiji Bureau of Statistics 1996). Although from the late 1980s, emigration from Fiji drastically accelerated, triggered by several political up heavals, the remittances of those emigrants have been relatively insignificant compared to the case of Tonga and Samoa (Reddy et al. 2002). Migration between Fiji and Tonga is Source: Author's questionnaire made accessible by the visa waiver arrange ment for up to a one month stay in Tonga and tics. The obtained data were analyzed using up to four months in Fiji. In 2003 the Pacific SPSS (version 12.0J). Island Countries Trade Agreement (PICTA) was The student samples represent 58% of the ratified to enable free trade within the South Tongan students studying at the Laucala cam Pacific region and maintain macroeconomic sta pus of the University of the South Pacific in bility. Suva, which was an estimated 40% of all Ton gan students studying in Fiji at the time of the Survey Overview survey.4 This university was chosen because it is the premier institution in the South Pacific Questionnaires were given to 80 university and hosts an overwhelming majority of Tongan students in 2002, followed by interviews and students. Table 1 shows the general character questionnaires for 50 households (127 house istics of the student samples. hold members) in 2003. In this investigation Participation by gender was much higher for there was no overlap of respondents for the males (58.7%) than females (41.2%), while over students and households. The questionnaire all 61.2% of the students were privately sheet was used as a guide during face-to-face financed. The remaining 38.7% were sponsored interviews with both students and households. by scholarships mainly from the Australian and The main questionnaire items for both students New Zealand governments. An overwhelming and households covered decision-making units, majority of students (86.2%) came from Tonga reason for migration, payer of migration ex tapu, the main island, about half of whom are penses, and future intention to return; the items from Greater Nuku'alofa. This suggests that of socioeconomic status and remittance items students from Tongatapu and Nuku'alofa (the were included in the question sheet only for the capital) in particular have a higher chance of households. Thus, the question items for the acquiring a university education. Their ages households were more detailed than those for ranged between 18 and 35 with 65.0% and the students. Note that the specific household 23.7% in the 20-24 and 25-29 age groups, re survey items are very similar to those adopted spectively. All students were taking courses for in 'Esau (forthcoming). Regarding the question undergraduate degrees with 78% enrolled in a naire survey for the households, household Bachelor of Arts program; the remaining 27% heads were asked to answer the items for all the were enrolled in a Bachelor of Science program. household members. Broader issues were Approximately 48% of the students enrolled in broached in the interview survey concerning the former program belonged to commerce re migrants' views about brain drain and the fu lated fields that showed general popularity. ture outlook for the Tongan economy and poli The household surveys represent an esti

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Table 2. Characteristics of household samples

Source: Author's questionnaire mated 70% of the first generation contempo excluded from the analysis in this article. Re rary Tongan households in Fiji residing in the garding immigrants' origin in Tonga, 67.6% capital of Suva and its vicinity; this percentage originated from the main island of Tongatapu is based on the fact that, according to the Fiji of whom 42.5% are from Greater Nuku'alofa census, except for students in Fiji, there are (capital). The remaining 18.8% (indicated as approximately 300 Tongans and the average ' other' in Table 2) were born in another over Tongan household size in Fiji is 3.5 persons. seas country (such as New Zealand, Australia The sampling here is not random due to and the United States) while the rest originated slightly inefficient data obtained before the sur from other island groups in Tonga. The aver vey and a snowballing method before and dur age household size is 3.5 persons, which reflects ing the survey period. In addition, the author a one-person household tendency (24%) and nu participated in such Tongan community social clear families with or without children (68.0%). events as a weekly multi-denominational Subsidized rented accommodations (70.0%) re church service and cultural week performances flect the number of households with person(s) at academic institutions where Tongan stu engaged in employment contracts including re dents perform. These events are well supported muneration packages6 that subsidize accommo by the Tongan households, generally reempha dation expenses. Private ownership of accom sizing cultural identity.5 modation is common for migrants with lengthy Table 2 exhibits the basic information for the stays, and their tendency to marry Fijian na 127 Tongan migrants (mainly first generation tionals is conspicuous.? born in Tonga and those born elsewhere who Figure 2 illustrates the year of emigration to migrated to Fiji). Note that 23 Fiji-born persons Fiji by gender between 1943 and 2003, an inter and 11 persons of non-Tongan ethnicity were val that spans 60 years and ranges from very

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Figure 2. Emigration from Tonga to Fiji (1943-2003).

few persons in the first three decades to gradual groups as '30-39' (9%) and '20-29' (30%) corre increases by the 1980s. Prior to the 1980s, the spond to the offspring of migrants who immi migration period was dominated by single grated to Fiji prior to 1980. On the other hand, young adults seeking socio-economic opportu 26.6% of 'overseas-born' Tongans are in the '0 nities. Interestingly, migration prior to 1980 9' and '10-19' age groups while 63.5% are in the was dominated by females (71% or 10 out of 14 age groups between '20-29' and '50-59,' respec persons), a majority of whom are now married tively. Such an age pattern implies that a ma to Fijian nationals or non-Tongans. The rise in jority of the samples reflects economically ac migration from the mid-1990s reflects increases tive populations. Aging is still in its infancy in skilled migrants who migrated with their since the age groups of '60-69' and '70-79' con families for job contracts, suggesting chain mi stitute only 10% of the 'overseas-born' popula gration. Note that such a pattern is not subject tion, as illustrated in Figure 3. to particular macro-level impact factors such as migration policy restrictions, but can be attrib Results and Discussion uted to differential micro-level personal prefer ences. A majority of the households sampled Part 1: Student survey here emigrated from Tonga, while only about 5% emigrated from other such countries as This section examines the results from stu New Zealand and the United States where they dent questionnaires. First, the experiences of had previously studied or worked. This ex the students prior to migration are discussed, plains why 18.8% of the migrants mentioned and then their expectations upon completing were born overseas, as shown in Table 2. their programs of study and the likelihood of Figure 3 represents the gender characteris return to Tonga are examined. tics of the sample including both 'Fiji-born' and In Tonga, approximately 1,000 students an 'overseas -born,' a great majority of whom are nually complete secondary education, of whom Tonga-born migrants whose children were born roughly 10% enter post-secondary education in Tonga or other overseas countries. Since either locally or overseas.8 Although the per 'Fiji -born' persons are not the major emphasis centage of students who proceed to tertiary of this paper, they are mentioned here only education is low, the situation in Tonga is sum briefly. Whereas 39% of the 'Fiji-born' persons marized by the term 'culture of migration,' are found in the '0-9' age group, such age which means that international or intra

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Figure 3. Population pyramid of the household samples.

regional migration within the South Pacific re a higher proportion of fathers than mothers gion is an inevitable event, similar to a kind of possess such qualifications and parents tend to ' rite of passage' (Castles 2000: 45). The prospect have fewer university degrees than the stu of leaving for further education outside Tonga dents. In a Tongan socio-cultural context, this involves considerable anxiety and requires suggests that despite having little education careful contemplation. The dominant decision themselves, parents support their children's making unit for possible student migration was efforts to pursue a university education. an 'individual' decision (65%), followed by 'nu Although the dissemination of information clear family' (30%), and 'extended family' (5%). regarding overseas academic institutions has The means of finance for migration expenses is traditionally been the primary role of the schol higher for 'privately supported' (65%) than arship unit of the Ministry of Education based ' scholarship' (39%), suggesting that the eco in Tonga, recently the roles of the Internet, nomic support of the family plays an important information technology, and families both in role. Tonga and overseas have gained influence. It To compare student's backgrounds, the quali was confirmed here based on the questionnaire fications of their parents were included in the survey, which permitted plural answers, that survey. It has been reported elsewhere that students' decisions concerning institution of parental educational backgrounds tend to en choice were well supported by information ob courage their children's aspirations to higher tained from 'family and/or friends already liv education (Kao 2004). The information ob ing in Tonga' (41.2%), followed by 'the scholar tained from students about their parents re ship unit of the Ministry of Education in Tonga' vealed that respectively 10% and 19% of their (31.2%). Other sources of information were mothers and fathers have a university degrees. 'Internet and various media sources' (16.2%) The remaining mothers have secondary educa and 'friends and/or relatives already living in tion certificates (20%) and vocational school Fiji' (11.1%). Hence, we can confirm diversific certificates (25%) while the remaining fathers ation of information used to choose institutions have secondary education (26%) and vocational by the students. school certificates (16%), respectively. Overall, Students' selected Fiji and the University of

759 156 'ESAU R. L. the South Pacific as their choice for tertiary turning to Tonga to seek employment' while education for the following reasons: 'awarded a 37.5% stated that they would 'return to Tonga scholarship for study in Fiji' (39%) and 'the to resume employment.' The latter group repre affordable cost for families' (37.5%). The for sents the older group of students who had jobs mer reason reflects choices made by students before migration to which they expect to return with scholarships and the latter who are pri with promotions in Tonga. Rather than seek vately funded. In addition, an extension center ing employment in Tonga, the remaining stu of the University of the South Pacific, which dents indicated intentions to 'continue to considerably benefits students, is located in graduate studies' (11.2%) and 'search for em Tonga and other Pacific Island member coun ployment in Fiji' (7.5%). Students anticipate tries; they can begin their studies at prelimi such typical jobs with the Tongan government nary levels (by external modes) before complet as 'civil servants' (60%) or 'the private sector' ing their final courses on campus (by internal (40%). Note that upon graduation, employment modes) in Fiji. Furthermore, while foreign aid for almost all the scholarship students is prede donors have top priority for scholarships given termined because the scholarship budget for to students from Tonga and other Pacific is various Tonga government departments is ap lands, scholarships are limited to the Pacific proved prior to advertising the scholarships to Rim countries known as the Third Country the public. Overall, there is a higher anticipa Training Awards to study programs not avail tion of return to Tonga after completing their able in regional institutions (Tonga Govern studies, implying positive results for the Ton ment 1999: 16). Recently, scholarships avail gan government. able for the Tongan government decreased con Finally, the sample students were asked siderably since donor countries have reduced about country of choice for further studies if human resources development assistance budg they had the opportunity in the future. 'Austra ets (Catherwood et al. 2003: 50). lia' was the most popular choice (35%), followed The families of students who cannot acquire by 'New Zealand' (19%), 'other island nations in scholarships usually get loans from commercial the Pacific region' (18%) and 'the United States' banks in Tonga, since student loan programs (16%). Only a few preferred to study through are not available in Tonga. Note that privately correspondence from 'Tonga' (7%). Their per funded university education in such Pacific sonal preference for overseas countries other Rim countries as New Zealand and Australia than Tonga is attributed to various factors. are more expensive for international students First, they appreciate Australia for the avail therefore immigrant relatives already living in ability of a wide range of institutions with those countries usually give them housing sup graduate programs rather than the presence of port. Other reasons included 'friends and/or family or kin. Second, there is no government relatives already living in Fiji' (13.7%), 'already owned University in Tonga that can cater to studying or working in Fiji' (10%), and the the growing demand of students for post availability of study programs and the social secondary education (Tonga Ministry of Educa environment. Tongan students overseas have tion 2001). However, a certain number have often confronted considerable cultural shock, family commitments in Tonga and prefer to be which often hinders academic performance in Tonga and study part-time by correspon (Ton a Government 1999). dence modes while working. Young adults who A recent report suggested that scholarship aspire to higher education and emigration but students do not usually return to work in are caught up in social and cultural family obli Tonga because of opportunities available over gations in Tonga usually confront this di seas while family is the influential factor that lemma. obligates students to return to Tonga (Tonga Part 2: Household survey Government 1999). Thus, the expectations of students after graduation are examined next. The highlighted findings, obtained from Samples illustrate that 43.7% anticipated 're household interviews and questionnaires, are

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Table 3. Decision-making unit, reason for migration, and payer of migration expenses

Source: Author's questionnaire Note: 'Family' specifically means family member(s) who accompanied the emigrant or family reunion. more extensive than the student surveys, and reflecting that the travel costs of a significant are explained in this section with tables and number of skilled migrants who moved with figures. their families to Fiji were covered by the remu Table 3 denotes the relationship among the neration package of the principal skilled mi three variables associated with experiences be grant (s) in the households concerned. The 'own fore migration: the decision-making unit, rea money' answer (11.8%) ranks second, while 'nu son for migration, and payer of migration ex clear family in Tonga' (7.8%) and 'nuclear fam penses. First, the 'nuclear family' (72.4% of 127 ily overseas' (7.8%) are not necessarily sig persons) is the most outstanding decision nificant. Although omitted in Table 3, Fiji was making unit, followed by 'individual prefer selected for employment rather than other ence' (20.4%). This finding is closely related to popular destinations for the following impor the most important reason 'family' (46.4%), in tant reasons. These findings obtained from Ta dicating the significant relationship between ble 3 suggest the importance of the availability the decision-making unit and reasons for migra of well-paid jobs and attractive remuneration tion. Note that here 'family' specifically means packages, the low cost of living in Fiji as eco family member (s) who accompanied the emi nomic factors and Fiji's close proximity to grant or family reunion with a family mem Tonga, which facilitates the maintenance of ties ber (s) already in Fiji. 'Job' (32.0%) ranks second and obligations for the remaining relatives in and 'study' (19.5%) third. Dependents or sam Tonga as a socio-cultural factor. ple household members mainly stated the mi Table 4 is a summary of the characteristics of gration reason of 'family,' while 'job' was the highest university degrees attained by mi mainly given by principal skilled migrants who grants more than 20 years old by gender. As had employment arranged prior to migration. previously indicated in Figure 3, while mi With respect to `payer for migration expenses,' grants younger than age 20 comprise 26.6%, 'job contractor' is the most conspicuous (58.2%), the remaining 73.2% (93 persons) are older than

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Table 4. Characteristics of migrants with bachelor's degrees or higher

Source: Author's questionnaire age 20. Only 47 of them have a university from Australian institutions tend to view Fiji as degree, one of Table 4's notable points. Out of a desirable country for employment. the remaining 44 persons, note that 13 have Figure 4 illustrates the relationship between diplomas mainly acquired from local institu migrant occupational categories and annual in tions in Tonga, and 31 have a secondary level come. An average of 1.5 income earners per education. household contribute to the annual household The following three findings need to be indi income of FJD 58,500, which is remarkably cated here. First, 42.5% of the migrants have higher than the average household income in undergraduate degrees while the remaining Tonga of TOP 18,600 (Tonga Statistics Depart have graduate degrees. Noteworthy is that ten ment 2000: 7). A total of 48 persons (out of 93 persons have doctorates; a remarkable number persons aged 20 and above), engaged in full when remembering that only 25 people had paid employment, are included in Figure 4, PhD's according to the latest 1996 Tonga popu which represents at least one principal income lation census (Tonga Statistics Department earner per household. 1999). Second, most of the highest degrees of The following findings are also noteworthy. the migrants in Fiji have been attained since First, income for 'religion' affiliated jobs is rep the 1990s (72.2%), suggesting a close relation resented in the lower income categories, par ship between recent migration for educational ticularly less than FJD 10,000, which is proba purposes from Tonga and employment in bly attributed to such organizations being skilled jobs in Fiji. The economic burden of highly non-governmental. Second, the 'profes ' private' funding (51.0%) cannot be deemed sional education' category ranges from FJD heavy because tertiary likely 10,000 to FJD 100,000, and academic posts var leads to the acquisition of a good job in the ies in seniority at tertiary education institu country. Finally, Fiji (31.9%), as the country of tions in Fiji suggest higher salary levels. Fi tertiary education destination for the current nally, 'administrative management' jobs appar household samples, is equivalent to Australia ently fall into higher income categories because (31.9%). This implies that even persons with they represent personnel with advanced de university undergraduate or higher degrees grees and extensive work experience gained

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Figure 4. Employment categories and annual personal income.

Table 5. Change of visa status before/after migration

Source: Author's questionnaire Note: The two persons with student visas after migration are elementary school children and are not the respondents of the student survey. prior to migration. The general level of annual 79.5% to 54.3% after migration, while 'work income shown in Figure 4 is attributed to edu visa' status increased from 7.8% to 27.5%. This cational achievements and/or work experience pattern can be attributed to the formal proce prior to migration to Fiji and less likely attrib dure in which migrants normally have to wait uted to duration of stay in Fiji. for one or two week(s) to get a 'work visa' after Table 5 exhibits visa status changes before arrival. Very few student migrants remained and after migration, which are a good indicator for employment purposes instead of returning of transformations in the migrant experience as to Tonga. Hence, changes are generally notable their residential duration advances. First, the from the 'temporary visa' category after migra share of 'temporary visa' status decreased from tion to Fiji.

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Figure 5. Head of households' duration of stay and future intention to return to Tonga.

Second, a slight increase (2.3% to 6.2%) in the of the migrant. In addition, the financial sup ' permanent visa' category and the occurrence of port for the education of immediate relatives ' acquired citizenship' of Fiji (7.0%) deserve at currently studying in Fiji and living with other tention. The latter case is common for Tongans migrants is another alternative arrangement in who migrated prior to the 1980s and most mar stead of remitting to Tonga. ried persons with Fijian nationality. Fijian citi The average remittance per household was zenship can be obtained after residence for five FJD 3,010 (monetary value), FJD 1,884 (value of years and then revoking one's own citizenship; goods), and FJD 4,894 (total average value), therefore, dual citizenship is not common. which was 5.4% of these households' annual The role of remittance is an integral sig income. More than half of the remittances were nificant characteristic of Tongan migrant expe 'irregular' (54.8%), sent only when necessary, riences abroad and has been well documented while 'regular' remittances (42.2%) were sent (for example, Brown 1998; Tongamoa 1987; monthly or quarterly. The beneficiaries of re Vete 1995). This survey also examines the mittances were immediate family members extent to which Tongan migrants in such mi (81%), either the head of the household, the nor destinations as Fiji are committed to send spouse, or parents; the remaining 19% were ing remittances. The data collected cover only extended family members. The primary pur a period of one year prior to the survey and any poses for remittances were 'mainly for support' remittances thereafter are not taken into con (71%), 'family-related events' (19%), and 'school sideration. Only 62% (31 households) sent re tuition' (10%). These reflect the reasons given mittances, while about half of the households by households for remitting: 'obligatory role as who did not remit made other alternative con a family member' (77.4%), 'feelings of altruism' tributions including extra income earned from (16.1%), and 'requests' (6.4%) from family mem rental property in Tonga and from pensions.9 bers in Tonga. Overall, despite irregular remit In such cases designated immediate family tance tendencies, socio-cultural moral values members in Tonga were beneficiaries on behalf function as the nexus for supporting aging par

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ents by maintaining ties and fulfilling socio f or study was influenced by the availability of cultural obligations for relatives remaining in scholarships for study in Fiji. While the major Tonga. ity of students expect to return to Tonga to Figure 5 represents the relationship for 42 resume or find employment upon completion of persons between the head of households' dura their studies, some also anticipated pursuing tion of stay and future intentions to return to postgraduate studies. Tonga; this number was obtained by excluding The household survey findings confirm the the 8 household heads with non-Tongan nation important role of the nuclear family in decision alities from all 50 household heads. Although it making and reasons for migration while em only represents aspirations and does not ex ployers funded the migration expenses for most hibit actual circumstances, it is an interesting individuals. Their university degrees were usu indicator of future options. As shown in Figure ally acquired since the 1990s mainly from Fiji 5, the shorter the duration of residence is, the or Australian universities. A considerable num more 'likely a return to Tonga'; this category ber was involved in such skilled occupations as amounts to about half of all household heads. professional educators and administrative jobs Such tendencies reflect the expiration period of at major institutions of the South Pacific region job contracts, which are usually for three years located in Fiji mainly due to their higher educa and extendable for one more term. Almost all tional attainment in Fiji or Australia and work of those included in the shorter duration cate experience as skilled workers prior to immigra gory are educators who plan to continue their tion to Fiji. As a result, they tended to have research activities in Tonga. Additionally, in higher income. vestments in personal property in Tonga and The situation clarified in this paper demon related family commitments are another part of strates the important role of the flow of students obligations to return. On the other hand, those within the entire context of migration. Among who are 'highly unlikely to return to Tonga' are Tongan workers in Fiji, skilled jobs dominate mainly those who stay for longer durations, because of higher educational achievements ac especially '14-23 years.' Although few persons quired in Fiji or Australia. In this sense, the opt to 'migrate to another country,' this is the flow of students and of the subsequent labor case for the short duration of stay category ('0 force is closely connected. Simply speaking, for 3 years'), who aspire to employment opportuni Tongan emigrants, whereas Fiji is an important ties elsewhere. Meanwhile, longer durations of destination of skilled employment, New Zea stay ('14-23 years') individuals actually hold land and Australia are predominant destina foreign citizenship and intend to immigrate to tions for unskilled/semiskilled work. However, the country concerned when their job contract since the sample size of this study is small and in Fiji expires. The migrants who answered thus may be biased, the above-mentioned find ' undecided' are considering the renewal of their ing needs to be confirmed or reinforced by an contracts and subsequent work. other investigation with a larger sample size. Balaz and Williams (2004), developed a set of Conclusion interesting terms such as 'brain drain,' 'brain training,' 'brain distribution' and 'brain circula This study examined the migration experi tion,' which seem very useful for placing the ences of Tongan students and households in findings obtained here in existing literature as Fiji based on two separate surveys. The major sociated with transnational migration. findings are summarized as follows. Whether intra-regional migration has contrib The results from the student survey elucidate uted to the sustainable development of the that decisions to migrate for university educa South Pacific region including Tonga and Fiji tion were made on an individual basis, while seems an interesting question to pursue. Fur the role of family and friends in disseminating ther exploration needs to be pursued, but it information about higher education institu belongs on a research agenda in the near future. tions was conspicuous. The destination choice

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dings for any member in the Tongan commu nity; these are supported both by the house Acknowledgements hold migrants and the students. 6. It refers to the benefits offered for a certain job The author would like to acknowledge the Govern that differs considerably among organizations. ment of Fiji, particularly the Ministry of Education, Benefits include return airfares, relocation Suva, for granting research permission to undertake costs (for those not from Fiji), tax exempt this study. In addition heartfelt appreciation goes to status, contributions to superannuation the Tongan community leaders, church leaders, Ton schemes and vacation benefits, subsidized ac gan university students, and the Tongan households commodations, and subsidized medical and for their considerable kindness in contributing in education benefits for the successful employee valuable information to this survey. Furthermore, and his/her family members. thanks to the author's family in Fiji and Tonga for 7. Note that only female migrants who migrated support during the survey period. Finally, the author is indebted to Professor Ishikawa Yoshitaka for his prior to 1980 married Fiji nationals and foreign nationals. insightful comments on an earlier draft of this article 8. Tonga currently lacks a government owned (Received 23 May 2005) university but has a number of government (Accepted 10 August 2005) and privately owned post-secondary institu tions focusing on teaching, nursing, seamen, Notes technical and engineering, catering, and infor mation technology to name a few. 1. Official data such as student enrollment at vari 9. Migrants who retired from jobs in Tonga con ous academic institutions in Fiji show an in tinue to receive their pension while undertak creasing trend of students from Tonga. Un ing employment in Fiji. official information from the Ministry of Edu cation in Tonga shows an increasing trend of References students studying in Fiji. 2. Six out of the ten main South Pacific regional Balaz, V., and Williams, A. M. 2004. Been there, done organizations are based in Suva, Fiji: Pacific that: International student migration and human Islands Forum Secretariat (PIFS), South Pacific capital transfers from the UK to Slovakia. Popula Board for (SPBEA), tion, Space and Place 10: 217-237. South Pacific Tourism Organization (SPTO), Baryla, E. A., and Dotterweich, D. 2001. Student mi South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission gration: Do significant factors vary by region? (SOPAC), Fiji School of Medicine (FSM) and the 9: 269-280. University of the South Pacific (USP). The Bedford, R. 1989. Out of Fiji: A perspective on immi remaining four regional organizations based in gration after the coups. Pacific Viewpoint 30:142 other Pacific islands are; Forum Fisheries -153. Agency (FFA)-Solomon, Pacific Islands Devel Brown, R. P. C. 1998. Do migrant's remittances decline opment Programme (PIDP)-, South Pa over time? Evidence from Tongans and Western cific Regional Environmental Programme Samoans in Australia. The Contemporary Pacific (SPREP)-Western Samoa and the Secretariat 10: 107-151. of the Pacific Community (SPC)-New Caledo Castles, S. 1998. New migration in the Asia-Pacific nia. region: A force for social and political change. 3. Internal and external modes refer to studies at International Social Science Journal 50: 215-227. the Laucala campus in Suva of Fiji and the Castles, S. 2000. The impacts of emigration in coun university extension centers located in the Pa tries of origin. In Local dynamics in an Era of cific island countries except Fiji. globalization: 21st century catalysts for develop 4. At the time of the survey, Tongan student ment, ed. S. Yusuf, W. Wu and S. Evenett, 45-56. enrollment was collected from major institu Oxford University Press. tions during the preliminary investigation and Castles, S., and Miller, M. J. 2003. The Age of Migra may only represent estimates. tion. 3rd edition. New York: Guilford Press. 5. The small scale of the Tongan community in Catherwood, V., Taufa, T. U., Scott, C., and Cook, B. Suva and vicinity enables close association be 2003. Tonga: Education sector study. A project tween household migrants and students. For commissioned by the New Zealand Agency for Inter example, the multi-denominational church for national Development and the Government of Tongans, functions as an integral nexus. Other Tonga. Nuku'alofa: Ministry of Education. activities include official visits by government Cowling, W. E. 2002. Motivations for contemporary officials from Tonga, celebration of Tonga's na Tongan migration. In Pacific disapora: Island peo tional day on June 4, and funerals and wed ples in the United States and across the Pacific, ed.

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