International Migrant Workers’ Use of Mobile Phones to Seek Social Support CHIB, WILKIN, HUA

Research Article International Migrant Workers’ Use of Mobile Phones to Seek Social Support in

Arul Chib Arul Chib [email protected] Holley A. Wilkin Associate Professor Nanyang Technological Sri Ranjini Mei Hua University Abstract 31 Nanyang Link Singapore 637718 International migrants often need social support to deal with an unfamiliar en- vironment and reduce stress caused by prevailing attitudes in their host coun- Holley A. Wilkin try, as well as that induced by distance and separation from their family. This [email protected] study investigates whether mobile phones facilitate or inhibit migrants’ ability Associate Professor to seek the social support needed to reduce the stress they experience in their Georgia State University host country. Further, gender differences are examined and discussed. A quan- P.O. Box 5060 titative survey of men (n 56), primarily Bangladeshis working in blue-collar Atlanta, GA 30302-5060 USA occupations, and women (n 60), primarily Filipina domestics, was con- ducted in Singapore. For women, mobile use alleviated stress by increasing so- Sri Ranjini Mei Hua cial support; emotional support had the greatest impact on their psychological [email protected] well-being. Male migrant workers were more likely to experience stress the Associate Lecturer more they used their mobile phones and when receiving increased emotional Singapore Institute of support. This ªnding is in contrast to traditionally held assumptions about the Management University beneªcial impacts of mobile phones. We caution against treating immigrants 461 Clementi Road as a homogeneous group, and recommend inclusion of variables such as gen- Singapore 599491 der to understand the role of technology-mediated social support in alleviating migrant stress. We further propose that policies and programs facilitating transnational communication for low-income migrants need to be examined carefully in terms of their unintended impacts.

Introduction Globalization has profoundly impacted ªnancial capital and social organi- zation, as well as the mobility of people, products, occupations, and infor- mation (Castells, 2000). For global labor, the opportunities have been immense, with increasingly complex transportation networks allowing migration to locations that offer better job prospects. The estimated num- ber of international migrants increased to 214 million in 2010, with 60% residing in more developed regions, constituting 10.3% of the host coun- try populations (UN, 2011). However, adapting to a new host culture and job situation, while simultaneously being cut off from one’s traditional social networks, fosters a sense of isolation and leads to stress for interna- tional migrants (Berry, 2005; Bhugra & Jones, 2001). Migrants have been observed to gain social support with increased access to communication networks through information and communica-

© 2013 USC Annenberg School for Communication & Journalism. Published under Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. All rights not granted thereunder to the public are reserved to the publisher and may not be exercised without its express written permission. Volume 9, Number 4, Winter 2013, 19–34 19 INTERNATIONAL MIGRANT WORKERS’ USE OF MOBILE PHONES TO SEEK SOCIAL SUPPORT tion technologies (ICTs). The technological ecology domestic workers (Human Rights Watch, 2008). of migrants is complex, consisting of a variety of As of 2012, approximately one in every ªve Singa- ICTs. Although some migration studies document porean households (Transient Workers Count Too, technology-mediated social support (Chen & Choi, 2011) employed the 209,600 female migrant 2011; Mehra & Papajohn, 2007) and the relation- domestic workers, and 293,000 work permits were ship with acculturation stress (Ye, 2006), this awarded in the construction sector (Ministry of research has been limited to computers and the Manpower, 2013). Internet. We extend this academic research by evalu- Most unskilled laborers in Singapore have found ating use among migrants in access- work in blue-collar occupations (Abbugao, 2010). ing social support. Further, we advance earlier work Migrant workers fall outside the jurisdictions of local (e.g., Wong & Leung, 2008) on the relationship labor laws with regard to minimum wage, job stabil- between key variables in the migration and ICT con- ity, employment mobility, and occupational rights, text—social support and migrant stress—by examin- such as rest days or vacations (HOME, 2008). The ing international migrant workers. low skill levels required and minimal legal protec- Finally, we investigate gender differences related tions have led to rapid hiring and ªring strategies to the questions posed in the literature on migration being used in response to broader macroeconomic stress and social support; e.g., the importance and trends, leading to a transient and mobile workforce availability of social support for women (Kessler & with few permanent rights. Meanwhile, local Singa- McLeod, 2002; Laireiter & Baumann, 1992). We poreans, who feel that low-cost foreign labor has seek to contribute to the knowledge about ICTs’ contributed to a suppression of wages among local potential to reduce stress in, and provide social sup- low-income workers, are wary of existing immigra- port for, low-income migrant communities within tion policies. These issues found heightened public the global context. This article examines whether discussion in political forums, such as the parliamen- mobile phone use by international migrants facili- tary general elections of May 2011 and the debates tates access to social support and reduces stress. generated by the Population White Paper of 2012 The study was conducted among male, primarily (Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2012). The resulting Bangladeshi, blue-collar workers, and female, pri- volatility has led to anger toward, and mistrust of, marily Filipina, domestic workers in Singapore. We foreign workers, particularly by Singaporeans in the begin by presenting the literature on migrant work- lower socioeconomic brackets who suffer the great- ers in Singapore, then examine the literature on est competition for low-wage employment. Thus, migration-related stress, social support, and mobile migrant communities in Singapore face multiple phone use, ranging from the broader international sources of stress, arising not only from job insecurity, perspective to the more speciªc Singaporean but also from discrimination by locals. context. Migration Stress Migrant Workers in Singapore Migrants often need to deal with homesickness With increasing job opportunities associated with a (Swagler & Ellis, 2003; Ying, 1996), loneliness (Ben- growing economy, Singapore has recently experi- Sira, 1997; Ryan & Twibell, 2000), ªnancial enced a rapid inºux of migrant workers (Xinhua, difªculties (Yeh & Inose, 2003), job-related chal- 2007), predominantly from the South and Southeast lenges (Ben-Sira, 1997), language barriers (Vedder & Asian countries of , Bangladesh, , Virta, 2005), and the social discrimination (Pedersen, , and the (Yeoh, 2007). Low- 1995; Qiu, 2009) that comes with living in an unfa- wage migrant workers constituted almost 36% of miliar environment. Migration stress, typically a Singapore’s total workforce (Tan, 2011). Male result of exposure to difªculties and the constant migrant workers were employed in low-skilled jobs, need to adjust to a host country (Chen, 2007), is primarily in the construction and craftsman sectors, related to poor mental health (Wong & Leung, landscaping and grass-cutting services, and the 2008) that manifests through such symptoms as marine sector (Low, 2002; Rahman & Lian, 2005), anxiety, depression, apathy, and feelings of isolation while nearly all the women were engaged as

20 Information Technologies & International Development CHIB, WILKIN, HUA

(Dion, Dion, & Pak, 1992; Jasinskaja-Lahti, Liebkind, education levels and are generally considered to be Jaakkola, & Reuter, 2006; Swagler & Ellis, 2003). more skilled than construction workers from Bangla- Jibeen and Khalid (2009) identiªed the domains desh, who are commonly known as “unskilled” of social and functional stressors that migrants may manual laborers (Thompson, 2009). Hence, the for- encounter. Along with homesickness and loneliness mer’s adaptation to the host society may be (Ying, Lee, & Tsai, 2000), social stressors include dis- smoother and less laden with obstacles. crimination in the workplace and in society (Rustenbach, 2010), ªnancial constraints on social Social Support and self-improvement activities (See, Goh, Ng, A growing body of research suggests that migrants’ Cheang, Jiang, & Chib, 2012), and interpersonal adaptation processes can be made less stressful and relationship issues. Functional stressors refer to lan- more manageable with ample social support guage barriers arising from an inadequate command (Kamya, 1997; Meadows, Kaslow, Thompson, & of the local language and the occupational and Jurkovic, 2005; Sherraden & Martin, 1994; Tran, ªnancial difªculties relevant to the migrant’s day-to- 1994). A substantial literature also documents the day activities (Thompson, Hartel, Manderson, Woelz- positive inºuence of social support on the mental Stirling, & Kelaher, 2002). health and psychological well-being of migrants The literature points to conºicting accounts of (Elias & Zeltser-Shorer, 2006; Jasinskaja-Lahti, the mental health conditions of migrant workers. Liebkind, Jaakkola, & Reuter, 2006; Uy-Tioco, 2007). Some research studies identify gender disparities in Social support theory emphasizes that the interac- the susceptibility to migration stress (Broidy & tive communication processes within a social net- Agnew, 1997), indicating that female migrant work- work beneªt the psychological well-being of ers experience higher levels of psychological pres- individuals. Deªned as a coping resource to buffer sure than male workers in response to stress the negative effects of migration stress, social sup- (Mirowsky & Ross, 1995). This is likely true in the port can be provided in tangible or intangible forms. Singaporean context as well, because research has According to the theory, social support can come in shown that Filipina domestic workers are a key the form of emotional, instrumental, or informa- source of both ªnancial (Rodriguez & Tiongsen, tional aid. 2001; Tigno, 1998) and emotional support (Ueno, Emotional support provides encouragement, 2009) for their families. However, male migrants comfort, afªnity, and acceptance to distressed working in the manual labor sector in Shanghai migrants, especially when it is offered by individuals were found to have more stressors that led to men- regarded with a degree of closeness and affection tal health issues (e.g., marriage issues and ªnancial (Lyons, 2002). This is essential at a time when and work-related problems) than female migrants, migrants’ existing relationships have been whose stress was mainly attributed to interpersonal destabilized by relocation (Siantz, 1997; Waters, issues (Wong, He, Leung, Lau, & Chang, 2008). 1997). Tangible assistance, in the form of instrumen- Migrants’ lack of acceptance by the host culture, tal support, involves the economic and physical aid their unstable legal status, and the challenging eco- that migrants receive when adjusting to life in their nomic conditions they face are all contributing fac- host country (House, Umberson, & Landis, 1988). tors in their adjustment to migration (Bhugra & The knowledge component of support is fulªlled Ayonrinde, 2004). However, these conditions are through the advice and instructions conveyed to dependent on the migrant’s level of education and help reduce uncertainties while coping with chal- ethnic, cultural, and linguistic proximity to the host lenges. Hence, informational support entails more society (Evans & Kelley, 1991), making the integra- direct assistive measures, such as the sharing of tion process more difªcult for migrant workers from resources to facilitate job-seeking activities and navi- lower socioeconomic brackets. Filipina domestic gate housing-related issues in an unfamiliar workers generally have a better command of the environment. English language than male Bangladeshi construc- A consistent ªnding in the social support litera- tion workers, which may help to facilitate their inte- ture has been that informal networks (family, rela- gration into Singaporean society. Furthermore, tives, friends) play a signiªcant role in providing domestic workers from the Philippines have higher

Volume 9, Number 4, Winter 2013 21 INTERNATIONAL MIGRANT WORKERS’ USE OF MOBILE PHONES TO SEEK SOCIAL SUPPORT emotional, informational, and instrumental support emergency (Yang, 2008). With the greater to migrant workers (Aroian, 1992; Hernández, Pozo, affordability of telecommunications, both for hard- & Alonso-Morillejo, 2004; Leslie, 1992; Lynam, ware (Yang, 2008) and air time (Vertovec, 2004), 1985). Essential for the progressive delivery of social mobile devices seem to be increasingly used by support are the perceptions of support recipients on migrant workers in adapting to new environments the availability of help, their readiness to seek out (Roldan, 2009). and accept aid, and their assessment of the useful- The use of mobile phones for social support ness of help offered (Coyne & Downey, 1991; depends partially on the relative expense of using Kawachi & Berkman, 2001; Leung, Chen, Lue, & mobiles in both the host and home countries (for Hsu, 2007). However, despite the presence of social accessing support from people there). A mobile support centers and nongovernmental organizations phone is an expensive possession for migrant work- such as the Migrant Workers Centre, the Humanitar- ers, as Thompson notes: “On salaries that range ian Organisation for Migration Economics (HOME), from about 250 to 500 Singapore dollars and Transient Workers Count Too, many migrant [ϳUS$200–400] per month for domestic workers workers in Singapore are unable to access these ser- and only slightly more for construction workers, a vices due to restrictions enforced by their employers hand phone is often a foreign worker’s most expen- or a general lack of awareness. sive budget item” (2009, p. 368). Nonetheless, a Research on gender differences in social support combination of economically competitive subscrip- networks indicates that women tend to have more tion plans and low-cost handsets led to a multifold intimate relationships and more extensive social net- subscription increase in the decade from 2000 to works than men (Laireiter & Baumann, 1992). 2010 in both Bangladesh (from 0.22% to 46.17%) Receiving social support and being included in social and the Philippines (from 8.35% to 85.67%; ITU, networks are important for mental well-being, espe- 2011). These economic trends make communicating cially for women (Kessler & McLeod, 2002). Wong with family and friends back home much easier. and Leung (2008) found that social support acted as Research shows that Bangladeshi construction a moderator for migration stress in women, leading workers communicate less frequently with families to improved mental health. In turn, women both in their home countries than Filipina domestic work- provide more emotional support and receive more ers do, but maintaining family ties is still considered support (Kessler, McLeod, & Wethington, 1985). very important by both groups (Thompson, 2009). However, live-in domestic workers in Singapore When communicating with their families, often ªnd it difªcult to form networks of social sup- Bangladeshi males must distribute their time with port, especially if holidays and regular breaks— everyone equally, especially if they talk with both when they are allowed to leave the house—are their parents and their wives (Rahman, 2004). If strictly regulated (Hsia & Smales, 2010). more time is spent talking to one or the other, resulting jealousy could lead to serious ramiªcations. Mobile Phone Use Among Filipina domestic workers in , Mobile phones—via both text messages and voice McKay (2007) observed that mobile phones facili- calls—provide migrants with a way to build and tated mediated forms of intimacy that were inacces- maintain social support networks within the host sible before; for instance, workers might ªnd it country (Law & Chu, 2008; Law & Peng, 2006; easier to express certain feelings through text mes- Strom, 2002) while maintaining ties to the home sages than in face-to-face contexts. Moreover, country (Ryan, Sales, Tilki, & Siara, 2008; Thompson, mobile phones allowed women domestic workers 2009). Migrant workers typically use mobile phones with children to parent them from a distance (Chib, to maintain a sense of closeness and communication Malik, Aricat, & Kadir, in press; Madianou & Miller, with their geographically distant social network 2011), thus potentially reducing the distress of phys- (Elias & Zeltser-Shorer, 2006; Uy-Tioco, 2007), adapt ical separation from the workers’ children. socially and culturally to the host society (Elias & Although the mobile phone can function as a Lemish, 2008), form networks with other migrants technology for liberation, it can also reinforce power (Law & Peng, 2006), and obtain help in times of relations embedded within social structures. A num- ber of studies report that the mobile phone is used

22 Information Technologies & International Development CHIB, WILKIN, HUA as a tool to conduct surveillance on employees English language translations were generated to (Au Yong, 2005; Peng & Choi, 2013; Wallis, 2010). check for errors. The Filipina questionnaire was pre- Employers in blue-collar industries use the mobile tested on 10 respondents to gauge the level of phone as a tool for issuing orders and maintaining comprehension. While most of the female domestic control of male migrant workers. Similarly, live-in workers understood English well enough to com- female domestic workers fall under the close and plete the survey unaided, a Filipino and an Indone- constant scrutiny of their employers, are always on sian interpreter were employed for respondents who call, and have little privacy or private space (Hsia & needed translation to Tagalog (a language of the Smales, 2010). Philippines) or Bahasa (the ofªcial language of Sending text messages silently allows migrant Indonesia). workers to keep and use their mobile phones away The Bangladeshi interviews were conducted via from their employers’ hearing (Thompson, 2009). street intercepts in the Little India district, where Moreover, the small size of mobile phones, com- male migrant workers congregate on the weekends. pared to computers, enables workers to hide them The Filipina participants were contacted via local (Yang, 2008). We also determined it important to NGOs, such as aidha, a not-for-proªt organization recognize the two-fold nature of mobile phone use, dedicated to enriching the lives of female migrant because seeking emotional support from loved ones workers through ªnancial education, and HOME, a or regular contact with employers via mobile com- charity that looks into the welfare and rights of munications may, itself, also be sources of stress. migrant workers in Singapore. Throughout the study, speciªc ethical procedures Research Questions/Hypotheses were followed, such as informing respondents that RQ1: Are there differences between male and participation was voluntary and they could withdraw female migrant workers in Singapore with from the study at any time. The purpose of the regard to the workers’ levels of stress, research, protections from possible risks, and con- amounts of social support (informational, cerns were all explained. Individual names have instrumental, and emotional) received, and been withheld from this article for reasons of patterns of ICT (mobile phone and computer) conªdentiality. At the end of the study, all partici- use? pants were given a ªnancial token of appreciation. H1: The level of stress among migrant workers is Dependent Variable inversely related to the amount of social sup- Migration Stress. Jibeen and Khalid’s (2009) multidi- port (informational, instrumental, and emo- mensional acculturative stress scale was adapted to tional) received. the Singaporean context, and the subscales measur- H2: The level of stress among migrant workers is ing discrimination, homesickness, language barriers, inversely related to the frequency of ICT and lack of opportunities for occupational and (mobile phone and computer) use. ªnancial mobility were included in the survey. Factor RQ2: Does social support mediate the relationship analyses and reliability analyses were performed to between ICT use and migrant stress? determine which items should be included in the Singaporean analysis. Thirteen items (see Table 1) Methodology were used in the ªnal migrant stress scale The 116 respondents included were selected (M ϭ 3.67, SD ϭ 0.83), which was reliable through snowball sampling, comprising male (␣ϭ0.78). ϭ ϭ (n 56) and female (n 60) migrant workers Independent Variables based in Singapore. The self-administered survey Informational support, instrumental support, and data was collected from January to March 2010. All emotional support were measured using an adapted questions were closed-ended, using Likert-type version of Sherbourne and Stewart’s (1991) MOS scales. The survey questions were developed in Eng- social support survey. The items used a Likert scale lish, then translated into Bengali for the male Ban- measuring how easy it was to get these types of gladeshi workers, and pre-tested with ªve Bengali- support from Singapore and back home, with 1 speaking males in Kolkata, India. Reverse Bengali-to- being very difªcult and 5 being very easy.

Volume 9, Number 4, Winter 2013 23 INTERNATIONAL MIGRANT WORKERS’ USE OF MOBILE PHONES TO SEEK SOCIAL SUPPORT

Table 1. Migrant Stress Subscale Items Using a 5-Point Likert Scale from Disagree (1) to Agree (5).

Discrimination (␣ ϭ 0.651) 1. Some Singaporeans treat me differently because of my race, nationality, or skin color. 2. I am constantly reminded of my minority status. 3. I think that many opportunities are denied to me because I am a foreigner. 4. I think that some Singaporeans discriminate against me just because I am a foreigner. 5. I feel that some Singaporeans do not treat me with respect.

Lack of opportunity for ªnancial and occupational mobility (␣ ϭ 0.725) 6. I worry about losing my job. 7. I have few opportunities to earn more income. 8. I worry about not having enough money to support myself and my family. 9. I am disappointed that my standard of living is below what I expected.

Homesickness (␣ ϭ 0.829) 10. I miss my country and my people. 11. I miss my family members, relatives, and friends.

Language barriers (␣ ϭ 0.512) 12. I have difªculty understanding English in some situations. 13. I feel that some Singaporeans do not understand the way I speak.

Informational support. Six items from the original The measure (M ϭ 3.28, SD ϭ 1.13) was reliable measure were included in the survey. They were the (␣ϭ0.88). following: 1) I have someone to give me information Emotional support was measured by averaging to help me understand a situation; 2) I have some- responses to ªve items. They were the following: one to give me good advice about a crisis, i.e., if I 1) I have someone I can count on to listen to me had a dispute with my employer; 3) I have someone when I need to talk; 2) I have someone who under- to conªde in or talk to about myself or my prob- stands my problems; 3) I have someone I can get lems; 4) I have someone whose advice I really want; together with for relaxation; 4) I have someone I can 5) I have someone to share my most private worries have a good time with; and 5) I have someone who and fears with; and 6) I have someone to turn to for cares about my feelings. The measure (M ϭ 3.78, suggestions about how to deal with a personal SD ϭ 1.18) was highly reliable (␣ϭ0.92). problem. The measure (M ϭ 3.77, SD ϭ 1.19) was Mobile phone usage was measured by averaging highly reliable (␣ϭ0.93). responses to six items exploring how often (from Instrumental support was measured by averaging 1 ϭ never to 5 ϭ every day) participants used responses to seven items. They were the following: mobile phones to 1) make or receive calls; 2) send 1) I have someone to help me make decisions; or receive text messages; 3) connect to the Internet; 2) I have someone to help me if I needed temporary 4) use the camera/video function; 5) play games; shelter/accommodation; 3) I have someone to take and 6) listen to the radio/music. The measure me to the police if my employer abused or assaulted (M ϭ 2.66, SD ϭ 0.85) was reliable (␣ϭ0.64). me; 4) I have someone to help me ªnd employment Computer usage was measured by averaging if I was unemployed; 5) I have someone to help me responses to four items exploring how often (from seek legal advice on my rights as a foreign worker; 1 ϭ never to 5 ϭ every day) participants used com- 6) I have someone to help keep my travel docu- puters for 1) chatting (i.e., MSN, Skype, , ments and passport safe; and 7) I have someone to Friendster, Chikka); 2) entertainment (i.e., down- help me ªle a claim for unpaid or delayed wages. loading movies, music, games); 3) surªng websites;

24 Information Technologies & International Development CHIB, WILKIN, HUA and 4) Microsoft Ofªce applications (i.e., Word, signiªcantly more informational social support Excel). The measure (M ϭ 1.27, SD ϭ 0.82) was reli- (M ϭ 4.6, SD ϭ 0.73) than males (M ϭ 2.88, able (␣ϭ0.80). SD ϭ 0.91), t(105.34) ϭ 11.19, P ϭ 0.00; more instrumental social support (M ϭ 3.93, SD ϭ 0.92) Data Analysis than males (M ϭ 2.59, SD ϭ 0.90), t(114) ϭ 7.91, Independent sample t tests were used to determine P ϭ 0.00; and more emotional support (M ϭ 4.60, whether there were signiªcant differences between SD ϭ 0.87) than males (M ϭ 2.90, SD ϭ 0.76), male and female migrant workers with regard to t(114) ϭ 11.17, P ϭ 0.00. There were no signiªcant stress level, amount of social support received, and differences between male (M ϭ 2.57, SD ϭ 0.85) ICT usage. Pearson’s correlations were used to deter- and female (M ϭ 2.74, SD ϭ 0.85) migrant work- mine whether the dependent variables were related ers’ mobile phone use, t(114) ϭ 1.11, P ϭ 0.27. to migrant stress in the directions predicted. Multi- There were also no signiªcant differences between ple regressions were used to determine which social male (M ϭ 1.47, SD ϭ 0.91) and female (M ϭ 1.47, support and ICT variables accounted for the most SD ϭ 0.74) migrant workers’ computer use, variance in migrant stress for both female and male t(114) ϭ 0.01, P ϭ 0.99. migrant workers, and to test the mediation models. Migrant Stress and Social Support Results The ªrst hypothesis predicted that the level of stress among migrant workers would be inversely related Sample Description to the amount of social support (informational, The speciªc work domains of migrants were heavily instrumental, and emotional) received. Migrant biased by nationality, with the sample’s blue-collar stress was not signiªcantly related to informational males hailing from South Asian countries such as support (r ϭϪ0.10, P ϭ 0.30), instrumental sup- Bangladesh and India, while the sample’s female port (r ϭϪ0.05, P ϭ 0.62), or emotional support domestic workers were largely from the Philippines (r ϭϪ0.04, P ϭ 0.65) for the entire sample. When and Indonesia. Most of the females were Filipina analyzed by gender, however, signiªcant correlations (90%). They all worked as domestic helpers, and emerged. For females, as predicted, signiªcant more than half (57%) reported making between negative relationships existed between stress and 300 and 399 Singapore dollars (ϳUS$240–320) per informational support (r ϭϪ0.35, P ϭ 0.01), instru- month. Most of the males were Bangladeshi (96%), mental support (r ϭϪ0.37, P ϭ 0.00), and emo- working as construction workers (80%) and making tional support (r ϭϪ0.49, P ϭ 0.00). However, about 500 Singapore dollars (ϳUS$400) per month stress was not related to social support in the way (82%). Slightly more than half (52%) of the female that was predicted for males. For males, migrant respondents were married, while 66% of the male stress was not related to informational support respondents reported being single. Table 2 summa- (r ϭ 0.01, P ϭ 0.94) or instrumental support rizes the sample characteristics. (r ϭ 0.24, P ϭ 0.08), but it was signiªcantly posi- Comparisons of Males and Females tively related to emotional support (r ϭ 0.40, The ªrst research question asked whether differ- P ϭ 0.00). ences existed between male and female migrant Multiple regressions were used to determine workers in Singapore with regard to their levels of which types of social support accounted for the stress, the amount of social support (informational, most variance in migrant stress (see Table 3). For instrumental, and emotional) they received, and female migrants, emotional support was the only their patterns of ICT (mobile phones and computers) signiªcant predictor of migrant stress when all three use. Independent sample t tests were used to deter- types of support were included in the model. For mine whether male and female migrant workers dif- male migrants, both informational support and fered in the amount of stress experienced, the emotional support were signiªcant predictors of amount of social support received, and the fre- migrant stress. quency of ICT use. There were no signiªcant differ- Migrant Stress and ICT Usage ences between male (M ϭ 3.66, SD ϭ 0.88) and The second hypothesis predicted that the level of female (M ϭ 3.67, SD ϭ 0.79) migrants’ levels of stress among migrant workers would be inversely stress, t(114) ϭ 0.06, P ϭ 0.96. Females reported related to the frequency of ICT usage. Migrant stress

Volume 9, Number 4, Winter 2013 25 INTERNATIONAL MIGRANT WORKERS’ USE OF MOBILE PHONES TO SEEK SOCIAL SUPPORT

Table 2. Sample Description.

Females (n 60) Males (n 56) Age (median) 33 28

Nationality Bangladeshi 96% Burmese 2% Filipina 90% Indonesian 8% Sri Lankan 4%

Job Type Domestic helper 100% Construction worker 80% Shipyard worker 5% Other 14% Monthly salary (median) S$350 S$500

Education Secondary/high school diploma or less 55% 40% College degree 7% 18%

Marital Status Single 43% 66% Married 52% 37% Separated/divorced 5% 7%

Time in Singapore Less than 6 months 22% 5% More than 2 years 57% 39%

was not signiªcantly related to mobile phone use between ICT use and migrant stress. Consistent with (r ϭϪ0.07, P ϭ 0.47) or computer use (r ϭϪ0.02, global telecommunication diffusion trends in devel- P ϭ 0.85) for the entire sample. When analyzed by oping countries—where mobile penetration has gender, signiªcant correlations emerged. For reached 89%, but Internet use via any device is only females, as predicted, signiªcant negative relation- 31% (ITU, 2013)—mobile use among migrants far ships existed between migrant stress and mobile exceeds computer use. In our sample, computer use phone use (r ϭϪ0.27, P ϭ 0.04), but not for com- was not a signiªcant predictor of migrant stress, so puter use (r ϭϪ0.09, P ϭ 0.48). Migrant stress was social support was only tested as a potential media- not related to ICT use in the way that was predicted tor between mobile use and migrant stress. Thus, for male migrant workers. For males, migrant stress this study focused on the role of mobile phones—as was positively related to mobile use (r ϭ 0.39, a mechanism for increasing or decreasing access to P ϭ 0.00), but it was not signiªcantly related to social support—in alleviating or exacerbating stress. computer use (r ϭ 0.04, P ϭ 0.76). A series of multiple regressions was used to test this model: Mobile use → social support → migrant Social Support Mediating Between ICT stress for both male and female migrant workers. Use and Migrant Stress First, regression analyses were used to conªrm that The second research question inquired as to mobile use predicted each of the social support vari- whether social support mediated the relationship

26 Information Technologies & International Development CHIB, WILKIN, HUA

Table 3. Multiple Regressions with Types of Social Support Predicting Migrant Stress.

Males (␤) Females (␤) Informational support Ϫ0.39* Ϫ0.28 Instrumental support Ϫ0.21 Ϫ0.21 Emotional support Ϫ0.48** Ϫ0.63** Adjusted R2 Ϫ0.20** Ϫ0.25*** *P 0.05. ** P 0.01. *** P 0.001. ables. When these failed to yield signiªcant relation- sample was low and not signiªcantly related to ships (as was the case for males receiving either social support or stress. informational support), mediation was not possible. We found signiªcant differences between the Then, regression analyses were used to determine male and the female migrant workers with regard to whether each social support type was related to social support received. Females reported receiving migrant stress. For males, it was conªrmed that we more informational, instrumental, and emotional could not check for mediation related to informa- support than males. These distinctions seemed to tional support or instrumental support, because nei- make a difference when it came to the extent to ther of those factors predicted migrant stress. Next, which social support and mobile use reduced we conªrmed that mobile use predicted migrant migrant stress. However, due to the characteristics stress as our initial analysis suggested. Finally, for of our sample respondents and the snowball sam- each mediation model being tested, mobile use and pling method employed, we caution restraint in the type of social support being tested were entered generalizing these ªndings to the entire migrant into regression equations as independent variables, population. However, these ªndings are consistent always with migrant stress as the dependent with prior research on gender differences in social variable. support networks, which has indicated that females For females, each type of social support medi- tend to have more extensive social networks than ated the relationship between mobile use and males (Laireiter & Baumann, 1992), and that females migrant stress. For males, emotional support was both provide and receive more emotional support shown to mediate the relationship between mobile than males (Kessler et al., 1985). Receiving social use and migrant stress, but the relationships were support and being included in social networks are the opposite of what we had predicted. Table 4 important for mental well-being, especially for shows the ªnal regression models demonstrating females (Kessler & McLeod, 2002). mediation. In terms of migrant stress, we found that, for female workers, mobile phones alleviated stress, Discussion particularly providing emotional social support. This study explored the potential of ICT use (mobile Those females who received more informational, phones and computers) to reduce stress among and instrumental, and emotional support experienced provide social support for migrant workers in Singa- less stress. In addition, social support (all forms) pore. Our sample consisted of male, primarily mediated the relationship between mobile use and Bangladeshi, blue-collar workers, and female, pri- migrant stress. When all types of social support marily Filipina, domestic workers. While we recog- were included in the analyses, emotional support nize that the ªndings might be inºuenced by any of had the largest impact on reducing migrant stress. these demographic distinctions, we discuss the This was consistent with our predictions. ªndings as related to gender. The analysis shows In contrast, male workers in our sample experi- that, while females beneªt from transnational enced higher levels of stress with increased mobile mobile communication, males experienced greater phone use and increased emotional support stress with more mobile phone usage. Furthermore, received, particularly through mobile phones. Since gender differences related to social support we only have cross-sectional data, it is difªcult to emerged. Computer use among migrants in our determine conclusively at this point why this might be the case. Are males using their mobile phones

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Table 4. Mediation Models.

Male migrants’ Female migrants’ Female migrants’ Female migrants’ emotional informational instrumental emotional support (␤) support ( ) support (␤) support (␤) Mobile use 0.258 Ϫ0.191 Ϫ0.168 Ϫ0.096 Social support 0.282* Ϫ0.304* Ϫ0.314* Ϫ0.456** (type in column) Adjusted R2 0.185** Ϫ0.128** Ϫ0.131** Ϫ0.223*** *P 0.05. ** P 0.01. *** P 0.001. more because they already have higher levels of support for males in our sample. Emotional support stress, but are not receiving relief from stress levels also mediated the relationship between mobile as a result of mobile use? Or are their stress levels phone use and migrant stress. It is possible that, increasing as a result of mobile phone use? It is pos- when males receive emotional support from family sible that interacting with family at home reminds or loved ones in their home country, it increases them of their obligations, and therefore they feel their homesickness or reminds them of their lack of more stress. Alternatively, male migrant workers opportunities for ªnancial mobility (and their related might be using the phones more for work purposes, desire to provide more for their family), thus yielding stress directly related to interaction with increasing their stress instead of alleviating it. More their bosses. Further research is needed to explore thorough investigation is needed to determine these possibilities. whether this is the case. Additionally, the relationship between stress and Future research could further investigate the gen- social support was complex for males in our sample. der differences that arise when seeking to establish The correlation analysis revealed no relationship the relationships among migration stress, social sup- between stress and either informational or instru- port, and mobile use, while including other variables mental support. However, when entered into a in the analysis. For example, Hanna (1998) found regression model with emotional support, informa- community involvement to be a particular cause of tional support became signiªcant. Some sort of stress for female migrants from Samoa. Wong and interaction between the informational and emo- Leung (2008) found that social companionship sup- tional support measures probably causes this. These port moderated the migration stress felt by female two measures are sometimes combined in migrants. Sherbourne and Stewart’s (1991) work. Other stud- Possible confounding variables exist in the pres- ies have found that certain individuals hesitate to ent study, since gender, nationality, and occupation allow social and professional contexts to overlap are conºated—most of the female respondents (Donner, 2009). For example, some South Asian were from the Philippines, while most of the male male migrants in Singapore reported hesitation in respondents were Bangladeshi. Further, the differing carrying personal mobile phones to work, lest a work assignments of the two genders may have stressful call from home should interfere with their played a role in the results. The role of nationality workday (Chib & Aricat, 2012). Rather than blur the and the parsing of work and life domains, beyond line between their personal lives and their liveli- gender, in determining social support via ICTs are hoods, male migrants waited to return to their dor- potential areas for future research. This study does mitories before commencing personal conªrm that examining migrant workers of different communication. It is likely, as we found in this study, genders, nationalities, or work environments as a that migrants are willing to forgo the informational homogeneous group is inadequate. support rendered by mobile phones to mitigate the Given current policies and migration trends in stress induced by mediated emotional support. Singapore, it is difªcult to develop a research design The more important ªnding to discuss is that, with a signiªcant number of males and females consistent across all analyses, there was a positive from the same countries who are also working in relationship between stress and obtaining emotional the construction and domestic industries to unpack

28 Information Technologies & International Development CHIB, WILKIN, HUA the gender-culture-occupation relationship. Because in the emotional and psychological well-being of migration is an increasingly global phenomenon, migrant workers as they adapt to the foreign cir- these research restrictions may be addressed in cumstances of their host country. Often, domestic countries with similar migrant populations, as seen and blue-collar workers are restricted from or denied in the work of Johnson (2013), who uncovers communication via mobile phones, either by recruit- gendered uses of mobile phones within a single ment agencies or employers who conªscate work- migrant community. ers’ phones in supposed attempts to prevent work The quantitative nature of the study limited in- interference or disruption. As a consequence, many depth exploration, yet it also opened spaces for fur- migrant workers are unable to seek help in emer- ther inquiry. The present research is conªned to gencies, let alone as a routine affair, or even to measures of use, and it reveals little about the con- inform their families of their degrading work condi- tent or appropriation aspects of mobile communica- tions (Human Rights Watch, 2008). Whether individ- tion (Wirth, Von Pape, & Karnowski, 2008). ual attitudes coalesce prior to government Focusing on migrant stress also precludes investigat- intervention is debatable, particularly when anti- ing the role of mobile phones in fostering accultura- immigration attitudes are on the rise, playing a tion into the host society (Aricat & Chib, 2013; See, major role in recent political forums. Goh, Ng, Cheang, Jiang, & Chib, 2012). Finally, the While we urge further scholarly investigation, inºuence of mobile communications on migrants’ mobilizing and informing public opinion and trans- familial ties (Paragas, 2009) and transnational moth- forming national policy are avenues that may simul- ering (within a gendered context; see Madianou & taneously address the issue. From a broader Miller, 2011) can provide fertile areas for deeper perspective, as globalization creates ever more links qualitative inquiry. with and opportunities in distant lands, subaltern communities, such as those made up of migrant Conclusion workers, are bound to increase. This phenomenon This study found that mobile phones can either will have to be managed not only at the interna- increase migrant stress, as was the case with the tional level, but also at the national level, as rural male Bangladeshi blue-collar workers in Singapore, dwellers migrate to cities in search of better lives. or decrease migrant stress, as was the case for Designing effective coping and support strategies female Filipina domestic workers in Singapore. The using increasingly ubiquitous technologies, such as relationship between mobile phone usage and stress mobile phones, may contribute to alleviating the ■ was mediated by emotional support received (in attendant migration stress. both a positive and negative way). The ªndings of this study present various challenges and offer Acknowledgments opportunities for the government and voluntary The authors wish to thank the Humanitarian Organi- welfare organizations to reach out to large migrant sation for Migration Economics, Transient Workers communities. We provide evidence to counter exist- Count Too, and UNIFEM Singapore for aiding in ing policy proposals (Jin, Wen, Fan, & Wang, 2012; the ªeldwork. We are also grateful for the data- Thomas & Lim, 2011), which suggest facilitation of gathering services of research students Subhrajit the transnational communication of all migrants Dutta and Tan Kean Wei. The study was supported with their home communities, via mobile phones. by a grant from the Wee Kim Wee School of Com- Although we point to the importance of mobile munication and Information, Nanyang Technological transnational communication, we caution against University, Singapore. treating the immigrants as a homogeneous group. Mobile communication, while beneªcial to some, References might be detrimental to the well-being of others. Abbugao, M. (2010). Door narrows for foreign We will need to create alternative coping strategies workers in Singapore. Retrieved from http:// for those, such as the males in our sample, for globalnation.inquirer.net/news/breakingnews/ whom mobile communication creates greater stress. view/20100314-258592/Door-narrows-for- From a policy perspective, this study suggests foreign-workers-in-Singapore that mobile phones have an important role to play

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