People and Culture in Oceania, 34: 55-78, 2018

Diversity of Banana Cultivars and their Usages in the Papua Lowlands: A Case Study Focusing on the Kalapua Subgroup

Shingo Odani,* Kaori Komatsu,** Kagari Shikata-Yasuoka,*** Yasuaki Sato,**** and Koichi Kitanishi*****

The purpose of this study was to assess the diversity of banana cultivars and their usage in 3 lowland areas of , where bananas are a staple food. We focus on the kalapua subgroup, which is of genome group ABB. We found 3 subgroups of banana at the 3 research sites: the kalapua subgroup, a subgroup of cooking bananas other than kalapua, and a subgroup used as dessert bananas. We observed that kalapua subgroup cultivars and other subgroup cultivars are planted in separate gardens, likely because the growth rate and tolerance to climate differ between kalapua and other subgroup cultivars. A nutritional status assessment revealed that in the kalapua subgroup, nutrient levels, except for carbohydrates, are comparatively low. Thus, farmers classify and produce kalapua and other cultivars separately. Kalapua, which are known for their tolerance for both dry conditions and flooding, are cultivated as a sustainable energy supply. Other banana cultivars may be grown because of their nutritional composition, as a matter of preference, or as a means of cash income.

Keywords: banana, Papua New Guinea, kalapua, taxonomy, farming system, nutrition

1. Introduction

Plants of the genus Musa whose fruits are edible are generally called banana.1 Almost all bananas currently present originated from 2 wild species, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana.

* Faculty of Letters, Chiba University, Japan. [e-mail: [email protected]] ** Faculty of Humanities, Hokkai-Gakuen University, Japan. [email: [email protected]] *** The Center for African Area Studies, Kyoto University, Japan. [email: [email protected]] **** Faculty of Design Technology, Osaka Sangyo University, Japan. [email: [email protected]] ***** Faculty of Global and Science Studies, Yamaguchi University, Japan. [email: [email protected]] 1 There are various other species of the genus Musa, from which the leaves or male buds are used for fibers, food, or ornaments. 56 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi

These 2 wild species are diploid, and are conventionally described as AA (M. acuminata) and BB (M. balbisiana) banana plants. Cultivated bananas have different genome groups, such as diploid groups AA and AB; triploid groups AAA, AAB, and ABB; and tetraploid groups AAAA and ABBB. Wild M. acuminata naturally grows from New Guinea to Malaysia, and wild M. balbisiana naturally grows from northeastern India to the Philippines (Perrier et al., 2011). Edible bananas hybridized from wild Musa species, and acquired parthenocarpy. Humans spread banana plants to humid tropical areas in the world several thousand years ago. Westward, bananas reached Africa via the Arabian Peninsula 2,000 years ago at the latest, and eastward, they were spread along with taro, yam, and breadfruit trees in the earliest periods of migration to the Pacific Islands more than 3,000 years ago. After the 16th century, it is assumed that bananas reached the Americas and Caribbean Islands through Europe. The cultivation of banana and its different cultivars spread through these various movements. Denham et al. (2003), in an archaeological study of a site of early agriculture in the Kuk swamp, argued that the domestication of bananas goes back to about 7,000 years ago in New Guinea. Many recent studies integrating the fields of anthropology and archaeology have revealed plural origins of cultivation. Some of these studies indicated that the domestication of bananas in New Guinea was one of the earliest cases of domestication of the major crops in the world (Price and Bar-Yosef, 2011). Banana cultivation in New Guinea is an important area of research for the exploration of the origins of agriculture in human history and the distribution patterns of banana cultivars in the contemporary world. However, studies on bananas in New Guinea have been less numerous than those on sweet potatoes, upon which many people depend in New Guinea, or sago palms, which are a unique resource in Melanesia. A series of nutritional studies focused on the carotenoid content of these bananas (Englberger et al., 2006), and a few studies have focused on banana cultivars and farming systems in the Highlands fringe region of New Guinea (Dwyer and Minnegal, 1992; Odani, 2002; Kuchikura and Suda, 2011, 2012). There have been more ethnological studies on subsistence systems in Papua New Guinea (PNG) than in West New Guinea (the Papua and West Papua provinces of Indonesia). A team from the Australian National University (ANU) spent more than a decade on a study conducted to describe the food production and consumption systems throughout PNG and to generate national- level data on the volume of subsistence food crop production (Bourke and Harwood, 2009). The publications of the ANU team are the main data source that may be used to understand the historical and geographical distribution of traditional agriculture in PNG. Figure 1 shows the distribution of staple foods2 in PNG, based on data from “Food and Agriculture in Papua New Banana Cultivars in PNG 57            



Figure 1. Distribution of Staple Foods in Papua New Guinea  (Based on Bourke and Harwood, 2009: 198)  Guinea.” The areas in which banana is a staple food can be divided into 4 parts: the northern part  of Western Province, which is situated on the fringe of the central Highlands; the Markham River basin of and adjacent locations in Morobe Province, which contain the majority of our research sites; the coastal area of Central Province, which contains one of our research sites; and the northeast lowlands of the Gazelle Peninsula in East New Britain Province. Despite the availability of national-level data, there is limited detailed information regarding banana usage and the distribution of each cultivar in PNG. The purpose of this study was to clarify the diversity of banana cultivars and their usages in the areas where banana is a staple food. We chose 2 areas, the Markham River basin of Morobe Province and the coastal area of Central Province, from the 4 areas mentioned above.3 We focus on the kalapua4 subgroup, which is generally regarded as a distinct subgroup by the local people; its usage is different from that of the other subgroups. Kalapua is the name of this subgroup in both Melanesian Pidgin and some local languages in PNG. The genome group of the kalapua subgroup is ABB, and the shape of its fingers is unique: short and angled, with a thick peel. Local people regard the kalapua subgroup as having tolerance to both dry conditions and flooding; however, scientific analyses on this subgroup have never been conducted. Categorizations of this subgroup

2 This figure indicates only 3 major crops in PNG: sweet potato, sago, and banana. The blank zone in this Figure indicates the zone in which other crops, such as yam, are mainly produced, or where the variety of crops is high. More detail is presented in the ANU team’s publication. 3 Detailed descriptions of village agriculture for Morobe and Central provinces are given by Bourke et al. (2002) and Allen et al. (2002), respectively. 4 Vernacular words are italicized in this paper. 58 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi were not conducted in previous studies on the Highlands fringe region; therefore, it is thought that they are regarded by local people in the lowland regions, where banana is the staple food, as indispensable for their subsistence. The final goal of the study was the re-evaluation of the kalapua subgroup as an indigenous genetic resource by quantitatively analyzing their usage and providing local people with basic information to consider their subsistence activities and their rights to this indigenous genetic resource by themselves. In addition, by qualitatively describing the farming system, consumption, and market sales of not only the kalapua subgroup, but also other cultivars, we show the current situation and future prospects of banana usage at a local level in PNG. Clarification of the diversity of banana production and consumption in New Guinea, one of the supposed areas of banana origin, may provide indispensable data for the reconsideration of the existing archaeological analyses on banana domestication and the dissemination of bananas and global migration of humans. This research follows studies of bananas in Africa and Asia that a number of authors have conducted since the 1990s. These studies use a common format to describe cultivars and collect data on farming systems, usage, nutrition, and distribution, as well as characteristic topics in each area (Kitanishi et al., 2000; Kitanishi, 2003; Maruo, 2002; Hanawa et al., 2005; Komatsu et al., 2006; Komatsu, 2009).

2. Study Area and Methods

2.1 Study Area The main research area used for this study is Markham District, in Morobe Province. We generated supplementary data for 2 locations in Huon District, Morobe Province, and Kairuku-Hiri District, Central Province (Figure 2). We conducted field research in Morobe Province from 8-11 August 2017, and in Central Province from 15-17 August 2017. Morobe Province, located in the northeastern part of PNG, contains the Province capital, , which is the second largest city in PNG and the center of politics and economy in the northern coastal area. Morobe Province consists of 9 districts, one of which is Markham District, located in the middle basin of the Markham River. The climate there is slightly drier than in much of the Province, and it has clear wet and dry seasons (Figure 3). The vegetation in the is a mosaic of grassland and bushland. Our research site in this area was Intoap Village, located 93 km from Lae. Villagers in this site speak the Atzera language. Intoap has 150 households and 657 individuals (National Statistical Office, 2014a). Although the population density of Markham District on the whole is 14.5 person/ km2, that of Intoap is probably higher, because it is located near the center of the District. The Banana Cultivars in PNG 59     



































  Figure 2. Locations of the Research Areas 60 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi

* Kaiapit is the nearest observation point to Intoap. ** Bareina is the nearest observation point to Hisiu.

Figure 3. Mean Monthly Rainfall for the Standard Period from 1956 to 1970 (Based on McAlpine et al., 1983: 176–177) center, a town called Mutzing, is along the Highlands Highway, which connects the northern coastal area and the highland area. This town contains the Markham District Office, a primary and junior high school, and a local market. Morobe Province was a center of German colonial administration at the end of the 19th century. Thus, connections with other parts of the world were strengthened in this area earlier than in many other areas of PNG. These connections reached Intoap Village before the 1950s. Intoap Village was first mentioned in the Patrol Report5 in 1951 (Territory of Papua New Guinea, 1934–1975) as having a population of 119 individuals. According to the Patrol Report’s description of agriculture in the surrounding area, cash crops were not found, bananas were grown in the river terrace, and taro, yam, and bananas were grown in hilly areas. Subsequently, the government and Christian missionaries gradually influenced the life of local people, and cash crops such as coffee, copra, and cacao were introduced in the 1960s and 1970s. We collected complementary data on the diversity of cultivars at Village in Huon District, Morobe Province. Gabensis Village, located 25 km from Lae, is situated in the hilly area near the Markham River. Rainfall there is much higher than that in the mid-Markham Valley area.

5 From 1920–1975, when Papua New Guinea (PNG) was under the mandate and trusteeship of Australia, the administrative position of Patrol Officer was established for the reporting of measurement, census, and other information in areas without administrative agencies (Sinclair, 1988). This position was abolished when PNG became independent in 1975. Patrol Posts were stations set up for Patrol Officers at key locations in various parts of PNG, and the Patrol Report was a report that was submitted to the central government. Banana Cultivars in PNG 61

The dry season is not so pronounced and the land along the river is often flooded during the rainy season. People in Gabensis Village speak the Wampar language, and there are 411 households and 1,859 individuals in the village (National Statistics Office, 2014a). We collected qualitative data for a diverse number of cultivars, and their consumption, in Kairuku-Hiri District, Central Province for comparison. Central Province, located in southeastern PNG, surrounds the national capital, , which is the center of national politics and economy. The political and economic operations are concentrated in Port Moresby, and there is a large disparity between the features of Port Moresby and the surrounding area. For example, power grids and water supply networks do not reach the rural areas. Central Province consists of 4 districts, one of which is Kairuku-Hiri District, which is located west of Port Moresby. Lowland coastal locations in Central Province have a seasonal climate, with clear dry and rainy seasons, including the coastal area of Kairuku-Hiri District. The vegetation is classified as savanna or savanna woodland. The mean monthly rainfall is shown in Figure 3. Our research site in this area was Hisiu Village, located 63 km from Port Moresby. The majority of the villagers speak the Roro language. Hisiu contains 449 households and 2,605 individuals (National Statistical Office, 2014b). Central Province was the center of the British colonial administration beginning at the end of the 19th century, and Hisiu Village first appeared in the Patrol Report in 1943 (Territory of Papua New Guinea, 1934–1975). According to this report, plantations of copra and natural rubber had already been developed in this area, and the colonial government actively tried to introduce rice farming. In addition, banana is only the crop with tolerance to both inundation in the rainy season and water shortage in the dry season. Bananas are the most important staple food, supplemented by yam (Disocorea sp.) and coconut (Allen et al., 2002: 49–50). The earliest census found in the Patrol Report was made in 1953, and it showed that 501 individuals lived in Hisiu (there was no information on the number of households). Copra plantations had been developed in the surrounding areas before the Second World War, and cash crops, such as natural rubber and coffee, were also introduced at this time.

2.2 Methods In Intoap Village, we interviewed local farmers about banana cultivars (using the vernacular name and categorization for subgroup), and classified bananas observed in the gardens into genome groups based on their morphology (Simmonds, 1955). To understand the status of bananas in their farming system and the importance of each cultivar, quadrat sampling was conducted in the farmers’ gardens, counting the number of each banana cultivar and other crops. We performed nutritional analyses on 2 kalapua subgroup cultivars and 2 other subgroup cultivars found in the gardens. In addition, we asked farmers about the dietary usage of banana cultivars, such as 62 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi

Table 1. Banana Cultivars Grown in Intoap Village, Markham District Genome Type and Cultivar Name Freq.* Use** Local Classification Classification Marafri Iran ABB 1 A, B, C Marafri Marafri Chamapian ABB 1 A, B, C (ABB-cooking) Ganawauf ? ? ? Yapur AA 2 A, B, C Grum Klang AA 2 A, B Morning (Not Observed) AA 2 A, B Zijang AA 2 A, B Bundo AA 2 A, B Saife AA or AAA 2 A, B Kupiyano AAB? 2 A, B Girab Rupies ? 3 ? (Non-Marafri-Cooking) Banchim ? 3 ? Jampu ? 3 ? PK ? 3 ? Juga ? 3 ? Kerema ? 4 ? Gana ? 4 ? Yaoung ? 4 ? Yawa ABB 2 B, C Ganamab Yabimor AAA 2 C (Sweet Banana) Sausage Banana ? 4 ? * Frequency of banana, 1: very common; 2: common; 3: rare; 4: very rare. ** Use of banana, A: cooking for staple food; B: snack; C: dessert cooking methods. To evaluate the impact of the market economy on local farmers, we observed the marketing of bananas at the local market in Mutzing Town, collecting data on the prices, cultivars, and trading practices. In Gabensis and Hisiu Villages, we interviewed farmers about banana cultivars and their categorizations in terms of vernacular names. In addition, we performed nutritional analyses on the kalapua subgroup cultivars found in the gardens. Nutritional analyses were conducted by Japan Food Research Laboratories.

3. Diversity of Cultivars

In Intoap Village, bananas are collectively called nam or namgadan. This word has other various meanings, such as staple food, staple crops, food, and meal. Kalapua subgroups are called marafri in the Atzera language. The genome group of marafri cultivars is ABB, including 2 cultivars recognized as the oldest by farmers and planted most Banana Cultivars in PNG 63 frequently, marafri iran and marafri chamapian (Table 1). Ganawauf, also belonging to marafri, is recognized as a relatively recently introduced cultivar. The growth of marafri cultivars is slower than that of other subgroup cultivars. The plants are taller than other cultivars. Although local farmers occasionally eat mature marafri fruits raw, they generally consume cooked marafri that are steamed, boiled with coconut milk, or baked. Local farmers stated that cultivars of subgroups other than marafri were recently introduced. Subgroups of cooking bananas other than marafri are called girab. In this study, we collected 15 cultivar names of girab, and observed 7 cultivars with frequencies that were common or very common. We identified the genome groups of these 7 cultivars: 5 AA cultivars, one AA or AAA, and one probable AAB cultivar. Fruits of girab are cooked in the same way as those of marafri. Bundo is regarded as the true girab, and is supposedly the oldest girab. The most popular cultivar in the market is saife, which has fingers that are long and thick, and is generally consumed fried. The finger color of zijang is orange, which is probably because it contains a large amount of carotene. According to farmers, yapour (an AA cultivar) was introduced 30–40 years ago from western Island (Manus Province). Its growth is slow as marafri, and can be eaten raw. The bract colors of yapour, grum klang, and saife are yellow or green, characteristic of AA cultivars in this area according to the researchers of PNG NARI (National Agricultural Research Institute). The subgroup used as a dessert banana is called ganamab. We collected 3 cultivar names and observed 2 cultivars, yabimor (AAA genome type) and yawa (ABB genome type). Both are considered old cultivars. Once planted, these cultivars reproduce themselves for a long time. Yabimor is eaten raw, and it is supposedly the Gros Michel banana. Yawa is found throughout PNG, and is termed “Pisang Awak” in Indonesia. In addition, although its sweet fruit is mostly eaten raw, it has various uses, such as in beverages and snack materials. In Gabensis Village, we collected 51 banana cultivar names during short interviews. Bananas are collectively called gaen in the Wampar language, which has other various meanings, such as staple food, staple crops, food, and meal. Eleven cultivars were categorized into the kalapua subgroup called oreatch. Twenty cooking cultivars other than kalapua ware categorized into a cooking banana subgroup, called wampong. Twenty cultivars were categorized into a subgroup of raw edible fruits, called gaen fofong. The large difference between the numbers of cultivars collected in Intoap and Gabensis suggests a variance in cultivar availabilities among households, villages, and the surrounding areas. In Hisiu Village, bananas are collectively called nao in the Roro language; whether this word has other meanings, such as staple food, is unclear. Local farmers call the kalapua subgroup warupi. We collected 10 names for cultivars of warupi: heneha, tuiara, paiera, karoma, miria, meurapa, hiyoo, korokapea, samarai, and konoboro. Subgroups of cooking bananas other than 64 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi warupi are called nao, and this includes 7 cultivars: kaima, orobro, beiene, kipo, tarua, daru, and rauaha. Subgroups of dessert bananas are called mau6 banana, which includes 3 cultivars: rairubu, michiruki, and anikero. According to local farmers, because the climate of Hisiu Village is drier, kalapua cultivars are planted anywhere and at any time; in contrast, cultivars other than kalapua are planted only in lower locations where the soil has a high clay content and thus retains moisture better. We found 3 subgroups at all research sites: the kalapua subgroup, a subgroup of cooking bananas other than kalapua, and a subgroup of dessert bananas. Variances between the numbers of cultivars observed in the 3 villages, and those in each subgroup in the villages, were revealed. These differences may have been affected by the history of banana farming, climate, and market access.

4. Dietary Habits and Market

In Intoap Village, local farmers divide food (nam or namgadan in Atzera and kaikai in Melanesian Pidgin) into 4 categories: staple crops (nam or namgadan in Atzera and kaikai in Melanesian Pidgin), vegetable (bushafan in Atzera and kumu in Melanesian Pidgin), meat, and fish (apu in Atzera and abus in Melanesian Pidgin). Staple crops include taro, sweet potato, yam, and cocoyam (Xanthosoma sp.), as well as banana. Popular recipes for cooked bananas as a staple food are boiled bananas (nam pari) and bananas boiled with coconut milk (nam wau). Coconut milk (bapin wau) is the most popular seasoning, which is frequently used in starchy main dishes and side dishes. Bananas boiled in an earthen pot are called nam gur. Earthen pots (gur) are made of the brown earth from Markham District, and bananas cooked in these pots are a local specialty in Markham District. Nam gur is also regarded as a characteristic dish of Markham District. The earth pot used for starchy staple foods is distinguished from that used for side dishes. These earth pots have a high heat retention. Banana fruits are also baked with and without their peels (nam tai). Fried bananas were introduced about 20 years ago. There are several differences in cooked fruits between the subgroups and cultivars. Although both marafri and girab fruits are used as staple foods and snacks, people consider cooked girab softer and sweeter than cooked marafri. Cooked marafri chamapian is soft when it is hot, but

6 Mau is not a local word, but is a Melanesian Pidgin word. In not only Hisiu, but also Intoap and Gabensis, people categorize dessert banana into an independent group. It is assumed that the categorization of this group relates to the introduction of new cultivars and cultivation practices, because the dessert banana group includes Gros Michel, Cavendish, and Pisang Awak. In order to categorize introduced cultivars, new or introduced words are used. However, because this assumption lacks historical evidence, further survey is needed. Banana Cultivars in PNG 65 cooked marafri iran is hard even immediately after cooking. Cooked grum klang and morning are sticky, whereas other cooked girab cultivars are soft. These explanations indicate that the evaluation criteria used by local farmers are sweetness and softness. A snack called ganan-jup is made only of marafri fruits. Mature sweet marafri fruits are boiled well in a pot, after which coconut milk is added to them and the mixture is kneaded. This is then mixed with chunky, immature, non-sweet marafri fruits, resulting in a food with a slight sweetness and unique texture. As for other uses, only fruits of marafri iran and girab subgroup cultivars are used as bride- wealth. Fruits of yawa are eaten both raw and cooked; they are regarded as emergency food after drought because yawa plants are believed to have tolerance to dry conditions. The male bud (murung) of marafri cultivars is used for cooking. The central part of the male bud, which has a soft texture, is shaved off, stir-fried, and boiled. Ash of the dried fruit peel was once used for potassium salt; however, it is now rarely used by local people due to the prevalence of commercial salt. Bananas are sometimes used for medical purposes. The sap of yawa is used to treat asthma and coughing. The sap of the yawa male bud is used as a contraceptive. Scraped charcoal pieces of baked banana are used as a medicine for stomach pain. In addition, these pieces are used as treatments for cancer, as well as burnt pieces of dog head and coconut. Banana leaves are used as cooking utensils (e.g. for wrapping stone cooking materials and as pot lids), packaging materials, and rugs. Cooked foods arranged on banana leaves (Numbu-nump) are served to guests. In summary, banana is the most important component of the diet of the inhabitants of Intoap Village. Bananas boiled with or without coconut milk are the most significant part of this diet. The villagers prefer the taste of girab subgroup bananas to that of marafri subgroup bananas. The fact that girab subgroup bananas are used for bride-wealth also indicates their high status. However, the majority of starchy staple foods are cooked bananas of the marafri subgroup, and recipes for only marafri subgroup bananas exist, which suggests the significance of the marafri subgroup in the diet as a whole. Yawa has a unique value. While it is classified as ganamab (those that are eaten raw), it is used as rescue food after drought because yawa plants are resistant to dry conditions. Only this cultivar is used for beverages, as well as for its various medicinal effects. Small-scale sales of bananas were observed at the Mutzing market, which is located along the main road connecting Intoap Village and Mutzing Town. Construction of this road began in the mid-1970s and was completed in the 1980s. At the time of this research, the road surface asphalt was in a bad state. According to an informant, the market began 20–30 years ago. The boundary of the market was not defined by a fence. Betel nut traders occupied the largest area of the market. Bananas, vegetables, fruits, and cooked food are also sold. The amount of unprocessed starchy staple foods (banana, yam, etc.) was limited. Most bananas are sold as hands, or as bundles of a few fingers. Only some traders sell several banana bunches. Occasionally, traders 66 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi from the highland come to buy bananas at the market. There are few brokers in the market, and farmers bring crops to the market and sell them themselves. The household we researched sold their surplus farmed bananas at the market. A banana seller from a remote village at the market said that she would not go back to her village, but she would stay at the market until she sold all of the bananas she had brought. The seller rights fee at the market is 2 kina,7 whereas that at Lae market, in the central city in the Province (about 3 hours away by public transport for 10 kina), is 5 kina. We observed 8 banana cultivars at the market: zijang (1 bunch=5 hands, 6 kina), kupiano (1 bunch=4 hands, 6 kina), saife (1 bunch=7 hands, 10 kina), popondetta, kiaukiau, manian, sangan, and manus. No cultivars were traded in particularly large amounts. It appeared that the marafri subgroup cultivars usually sold at the market, but we did not observe this.

5. Farming System

Bananas are grown almost everywhere in PNG up to an altitude of 2,150 m (Bourke and Harwood, 2009: 195). Production of banana in PNG is second only to that of sweet potato. Bananas are an important crop in a number of lowland areas, including in places with relatively low rainfall and a marked dry season each year, places with no rainfall seasonality and a very high annual rainfall, and locations where rainfall is neither particularly high nor low (Bourke and Harwood, 2009: 195–197). A characteristic found in all villages where we conducted our research is that kalapua subgroup cultivars, cooking bananas other than those in the kalapua subgroup, and dessert banana subgroup cultivars are planted in separate gardens. In this study, we mainly focused on Intoap Village, where we collected quantitative data by quadrat sampling.

5.1 Subsistence Activities The main activity in Intoap Village is subsistence food production. Banana and sweet potato are the most important food crops, supplemented by yam (Dioscorea sp.), coconut, cassava, and cocoyam (Bourke et al., 2002: 19–24). In addition, vegetables and beans are cultivated for side dishes and sale, and tree crops and fruit trees such as betel palm, coconut palm, mango, and cacao are cultivated for self-consumption and sale. Although groundnuts had previously been the main cash crop, cacao was introduced about 10 years ago (probably in the late 2000s), and its importance has recently increased. As described below, marafri cultivar bananas are only consumed by the growers themselves, whereas surplus girab cultivar bananas are occasionally sold.

7 Kina is a unit of currency in Papua New Guinea. The exchange rate on 19 August 2017 was 1 kina to 0.3225 USD, and to 34 Japanese yen. Banana Cultivars in PNG 67

Fishing in the Markham River is important not only for self-consumption, but also for the sale of surplus at local markets. The locals seldom hunt, but wild pig and cuscus (phalanger) are hunted with spears or traps in the appropriate season. This is performed not for subsistence, but for ceremonial events such as weddings. The productivity of hunting is considered to be low, because it takes more than 3 hours to walk to the forest (wap).8

5.2 Overview of Agriculture Land usage in Intoap Village can be divided into 3 categories: residential land; agricultural land around the residential areas; and bush land (uwarang). Agricultural land is collectively called gum. Although the local people generally plant and sow gardens with multiple crops, they call each garden the main crop name with gum, e.g. gum marafri (marafri subgroup banana garden), gum girab (girab subgroup banana garden), and gum buchaham (vegetable garden). Uwarang is used for collecting fire wood and reclamation. According to farmers, the land once used for farming is fallowed for 3 to 4 years, and then the land can be reclaimed. Because the researched village is far from a natural forest (wap), they reclaim bush (uwarang). In the village near the forest, farmers reclaim both forest and bush. Each uwarang has an owner, but there is no ownership in the wap. Each household owns and manages their agricultural lands, such as gum marafri, gum girab, gum buchaham, and gum dari (yam garden), gum peanut (groundnut field). Of these, gum marafri is generally the largest, and other gum are chosen according to the preference of each household. There were many gum dari previously; however, the introduction of girab subgroup cultivars from outside of the village 50–100 years ago reduced yam farming because, according to the farmers, banana was easier to grow than yam. Before the introduction of girab subgroup cultivars, marafri subgroup banana and yam were the main starchy foods. Marafri and girab subgroup bananas are the main starchy foods at present, with girab subgroup banana replacing yams. Yam farming continues in some mountain areas. The research area has a clear rainy season (from December to April, gubu chira) and dry season (from May to November, gubu gami). According to local farmers, the sunlight is more intense from June to August, when the rainfall is only about 20 mm (Figure 3). When the farmers reclaim new gum, they clear bush in the dry season and begin to plant and sow after the first rain; however, if the gum is located near a river, the farmers can plant and sow throughout the year. Marafri subgroup cultivars can be planted throughout the year because of their tolerance to dry conditions, whereas girab subgroup cultivars can be planted only after rain. Farmers generally do not use chemical fertilizer to maintain fertility, but instead use organic

8 When villagers go hunting, they eat wild papayas and wild uncooked bananas called yabimo. 68 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi  

Figure 4. Distribution of Banana Cultivars, Crops and Trees ina Kalapua Garden (Gum Marafri) and a Garden of Other Bananas (Gum Girab) fertilizer. Chicken dung is scattered in gardens, banana peel and residue are composted, and grass cuttings from the gardens and bush are placed around the crops.

5.3 Features of Banana Farming An important characteristic of banana farming is that marafri and girab subgroup cultivars are planted in separate gardens. Ganamab subgroup cultivars (dessert banana) are not planted in gum, but are instead planted around the house of the grower. The features of banana farming for each subgroup are described in the following section. We measured 2 quadrats of 10 m × 25 m in the gum marafri and gum girab, and made diagrams depicting the locations of the bananas, other crops, and trees observed in the quadrats (Figure 4, Tables 2 and 3). We measured the acreage of the gum in whole using GPS.9

5.3.1 The Marafri Subgroup Banana gardens of marafri cultivars continuously provide banana fruit for several decades, as the stands reproduce from existing plants. The gum marafri we researched had been used for more

9 The household we researched had a gum buchaham (vegetable garden) for growing vegetables and fruits. We observed pineapple, maize, tomato, aibika (Abelmoschus manihot), Vigna unguiculata cv. group, pumpkin, coconut palm, mango, and amaranthus. Its acreage was very small, at 0.0032 ha. Banana Cultivars in PNG 69

Table 2. Crops and Trees Observed in the Kalapua Garden (Gum Marafri) Crops and Trees Number of Plants Banana-Marafri (Marafri Iran or Marafri Chamapian) 41 Banana Total 41 Cocoyam (Xanthosoma sp.) 2 Papaya 2 Coconut 2 Mango 1 Tree (Leucaena Leucocephala) 6 Tree (local Name: Tzatzapoai) 3 Tree (Local Name: Aop) 2 Research Area: 10 m × 25 m=250 m2

Table 3. Crops and Trees Observed in the Garden of Other Bananas (Gum Girab) Crops and Trees Number of Plants Banana-Girab Kupiyano 11 Zijang 10 Morning 9 Yapur 7 Saife 4 Grum Klang 3 Banchim 1 Banana Total 45 Pumpkin 9 Yam 2 Cassava 1 Aibika (Abelmoschus Manihot) 3 Pineapple 2 Cacao 18 Coconut 1 Tree (Leucaena Leucocephala) 7 Tree (Local Name: Mururu) 1 Tree (Local Name: Tzatzapoai) 1 Research Area: 10 m × 25 m=250 m2

than 25 years. The growers plant both marafri iran and marafri chamapian, although the planted density of each cultivar is unknown because we did not distinguish between these 2 cultivars at the time of research. The acreage of the measured gum marafri was 0.62 ha. We found 41 bananas, 2 cocoyams, and 2 yams in the quadrat (Figure 4, Table 2). We observed only a small number of mango and coconut palm trees. These results reveal that the farmers grow marafri cultivars in large concentrations in gum marafri. Naturally growing white leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) were observed, which were used for firewood and house materials. Marafri cultivars are not planted in combination with bananas of other cultivar subgroups. Farmers often said “Marafri is strong,” 70 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi expressing that Marafri cultivars have strong drought tolerance. One or 2 months before harvest, villagers cut the male buds with machetes, and wrap the bunches with withered banana leaves in order to prevent bats, birds, and insects from eating the banana fruits. The male owner of the garden does this work, climbing the ladder. Bunches of girab cultivars are also wrapped in this way. However, bunches of dessert bananas are not wrapped, because bananas for use as starchy staple foods have a greater significance than dessert bananas in the diet of the villagers. Pests are now affecting bananas. Farmers are concerned about the spread of pests because they are repeatedly reproducing.10

5.3.2 The Girab Subgroups Banana stocks of girab subgroup cultivars are abandoned after harvest, and the banana suckers are moved to other newly cleared gardens; this is known as shifting cultivation. The continuity of banana farming is based on the shifting gardens and the planting of bananas in new gardens. The acreage of the gum girab was 0.16 ha, about a quarter of that of the gum marafri. We observed 45 banana plants of 7 cultivars in the quadrat (Figure 4, Table 3). The density of bananas in the gum girab was similar to that in the gum marafri, but many crops other than bananas, such as yam, pumpkin, aibika (a leafy vegetable), and cacao were found in the gum girab, which is a difference between the gum girab and gum marafri. Many cacao trees and pumpkins were observed. Cacao farming is expanding because cacao can be grown intermixed with bananas, and growing cacao trees requires less work than is required for growing groundnuts. When farmers reclaim new gum girab, they generally plant bananas and cacao.

5.3.3 The Ganamab Subgroup Ganamab subgroup cultivars are planted around houses. However, they are not commonly grown and only several plants are planted for each household. Because yawa plants retain a lot of moisture, they protect houses from fires. Fruits of yawa are used as starchy staple foods under drought conditions. In summary, a characteristic of farming in Intoap Village is that 2 kinds of main banana gardens are planted, gum marafri and gum girab. Gum marafri secures the majority of starchy food for self-consumption, and gum girab complements gum marafri and produces a cash income.

10 According to an article in a PNG national newspaper on 10 November 2015 (The National, 2015), kalapua subgroup cultivars have strong drought tolerance, and NARI recommended growing kalapua subgroup cultivars to protect against drought. Banana Cultivars in PNG 71

Table 4. Nutritional Composition of Kalapua and Cooking Banana Cultivars Compared with Cavendish Energy Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate Ash Vitamin A Cultivar Name (kcal) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (µg) Cavendish* 86.0 75.40 1.10 0.20 22.50 0.80 0.00 Marafri Iran 163.4 58.20 1.09 0.05 39.76 0.91 8.62 Marafri 153.7 60.68 1.29 0.04 37.09 1.01 3.22 Chamapian Heneha** 137.8 64.63 0.86 0.04 33.64 0.97 4.47 Zijang 162.2 58.53 1.83 0.04 38.73 0.93 35.67 Saife 172.9 55.98 1.61 0.04 41.60 0.81 35.83 Kupiano 157.2 59.65 1.20 0.04 38.14 0.99 19.40 * Source: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2015 ** Heneha was sampled from Hisiu; others were sampled from Intoap.

6. Nutritional Analyses

Bananas occupy an important position in the global fruit market; for example, more bananas are imported into Japan than any other fruit (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan, 2018). The nutritional composition of cavendish bananas in Japan demonstrates that bananas have a high moisture content, but low fat and protein contents, similar to the contents of other fruits (Table 4). The abundance of energy and the high potassium content in the ash are also similar to the amounts found in other fruits. Cavendish bananas comprise most bananas imported into Japan and other developed countries. Nutritional analyses of indigenous cultivars in the banana-producing areas of the world are quite limited. Some previous studies on the nutritional content of indigenous cultivars have sought cultivars that are high in micronutrients. The analysis of cultivars that are high in carotenoids, including vitamin A, is progressing in Africa and Oceania (Ekesa et al., 2015; Englberger et al., 2006; Newilah et al., 2008). In this study, we analyzed vitamin A, as well as the basic nutritional composition, such as energy, moisture, protein, fat, carbohydrate, and ash, of the cultivars. To prepare the samples, we removed the peel from the fruit (the discarded peel rate was calculated), sliced the fruit thinly, and dried the slices using a food drying machine at a temperature at 50–60°C for 8 hours. Nutritional analyses were conducted by the Japan Food Research Laboratories (JFRL). We adjusted the results obtained from the JFRL for the amount of moisture that evaporated during drying (Table 4). We collected and analyzed 5 cultivars in Intoap Village and 1 cultivar in Hisiu Village. To consider the relationship between nutrient composition, usage, farming system, and marketing, we focused on the cultivars of Intoap Village, where we have the most information on bananas. 72 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi

Only a sample of heneha was collected from Hisiu, where this was the most consumed and planted cultivar. We selected 3 kalapua cultivars (marafri iran, marafri chamapian, and heneha) and 3 cooking banana cultivars (zijang, saife, and kupiyano). Zijang, a cooking banana cultivar found in Intoap Village, is classified in the Banana Germplasm Collection of NARI as huntu. Zijang is a vernacular name in the Atzera language. Zijang (huntu) was registered in the International Banana Cultivars Collection by NARI, and research institutes around the world are able to use it as a genetic source. The vitamin A content of zijang (huntu) was analyzed in previous studies as a control sample to compare with indigenous cultivars in Africa. The saife and kupiyano cultivars were found in the quadrat and observed in the markets; therefore, we regard these cultivars as typical cooking banana cultivars in Intoap Village. The nutrient contents, except for that of carbohydrates, were fairly low in the kalapua subgroup, and both protein and vitamin A were comparatively abundant among the cooking banana subgroups (Table 4). The energy content of kalapua cultivars was not different from that of cooking banana cultivars; therefore, the cultivar provides farmers with enough nutrients with respect to energy. The protein content of kalapua cultivars is less than that of cooking banana cultivars. However, the degree to which bananas contribute to protein intake is not clear because we did not conduct a quantitative dietary intake survey. Previous studies have indicated that zijang has a high vitamin A content, which is in accordance with our analysis. Our analysis revealed that saife also has abundant vitamin A. There is a possibility that cooking banana cultivars are selected not only as energy sources, but also as sources of other nutrients, such as vitamin A and protein. According to the interviews regarding banana cultivar preferences, villagers felt that cooking banana cultivars are delicious and soft. Kalapua cultivars were seldom found in the market, but cooking and dessert bananas were frequently found. It is presumed that kalapua cultivars have high productivity in this area, where the climate has clear dry and rainy seasons, i.e., the existence of a drought period and a flood period. Farmers grow more kalapua cultivars than others for use as a sustainable energy supply. Cooking and dessert bananas may be grown in certain amounts because of their nutritional composition, preference, and use for cash income.

7. Discussion

The main purpose of this research was to determine the diversity of cultivars and their usages in some of the areas in PNG where banana is a staple food. From the 4 areas that Bourke and Harwood (2009) indicated that banana is a starchy staple food, 2 lowland areas were selected for Banana Cultivars in PNG 73 study: the Markham River basin in Morobe Province and the coastal area of Central Province. We collected quantitative data in Markham District, Morobe Province and qualitative data in Huon District, Morobe Province and Kairuku-Hiri District, Central Province. All of the local farmers in these 3 areas categorized the kalapua subgroup as clearly distinct from other cultivars, and regard banana in this subgroup as the most important crop. The climates of the study areas have marked rainfall seasonality, and there is a large change in the water balance between the wet and dry periods. Our observations and interviews indicated that local farmers appreciated kalapua subgroup cultivars due to their strong drought tolerance. However, because the research period was short and an investigation of soil and water balance was not conducted, we could not determine the botanical mechanisms of drought tolerance. Further research is needed to elucidate the botanical and agricultural nature of kalapua cultivars. Addressing the relationship between the climate’s seasonality and kalapua utilization, previous studies on banana farming in fringe highland areas did not reveal the categorization of kalapua cultivars and the distinction between the farming practices for the kalapua subgroup and other subgroups. Previous studies on the farming practices in fringe highland areas did not focus on adaptation to seasonal fluctuations in rainfall, but rather to high precipitation over the course of the year. The majority of cultivars in fringe highland areas belonged to the AA and AAA genome groups, and farmers did not distinguish their farming practices based on the cultivar subgroups.11 This study suggests that considerable importance is placed on kalapua cultivars in areas with low altitudes and large seasonal fluctuations in rainfall. Villagers maintained separate gardens of kalapua cultivars and other subgroup cultivars, and the management and strategy of mixed cropping with other crops in the kalapua gardens were different from those in gardens containing other subgroups. Considering the qualitative data, because kalapua cultivars can be cropped repetitively and have strong drought tolerance, locals grow kalapua cultivars as a starchy staple food, as these cultivars are sustainable for the long- term in the same garden. The other cultivar subgroups are regarded as having less repeatability and drought tolerance; thus, people create new gardens every year to grow them. Despite this, farmers still regard these cultivars highly because of their nutritional characteristics and demand in markets. Although kalapua cultivars are regarded as an important energy source, they are an inferior source of protein and vitamins compared to the other cultivars and are not suitable for use as cash crops due to limited demand. According to local farmers, the majority of cultivars other than kalapua were introduced relatively recently from outside the communities. It is assumed that villagers

11 Kuchikura and Suda (2011) found a cultivar named karabue at Samo-Kubo in the highland fringe. Because its genome group was classified as ABB, it is presumed to belong to the kalapua subgroup. However, the authors reported that it had been introduced fairly recently. 74 S. Odani, K. Komatsu, K. Shikata-Yasuoka, Y. Sato, and K. Kitanishi maintain separate gardens of kalapua and the others not only because their botanical characteristics differ, but also because the production in gardens containing other cultivars proceeds in a manner that is relatively conscious of the market economy. Because the research areas used in our study are close to cities, the spread of the market economy occurred relatively early. When discussing the farming systems in the study areas, the degree of integration of the local economy into the market economy should be taken into account, as well as the cultural and ecological context. The farming system of PNG has often been a subject of ethnographic studies. A small number of studies have considered the influence of the market economy, except for studies on cash crops for the global market, such as coffee and cacao. However, at least in our research areas, the farmers’ choices of cultivars and mixed cropping with cash crops were considerably influenced by the market economy. In the local markets of PNG, where grain is not sold, bananas occupy an important position in the lowlands. It is expected that the demand for bananas will increase due to population growth and the progression of urbanization. Partly because of undeveloped infrastructure, such as roads, the amounts of bananas, especially kalapua cultivars, and other crops sold are quite small; therefore, the subsistence economy and market economy coexist even in the suburbs of big cities. In Uganda, where banana is a starchy staple food, the production and consumption of bananas are significantly based on the market economy (Kitanishi et al., 2018). There is less integration of bananas into the market economy in PNG than in Uganda. The results of this study are quite different from the results of studies conducted by our research team in southwestern Uganda (Sato et al., 2018). We also identified categorization of cultivars in southwestern Uganda, although cultivars were not classified based on farming practice, but on consumption form (those that were boiled, baked, or eaten raw). One specific subgroup, called the east African highland banana, with the genome group AAA, accounted for the majority of cultivars. We observed traditional brewing and the prevalent distribution of bananas in Uganda, which are also different from the farming and usage of bananas revealed in the present study. Further research is needed to determine whether the features of banana farming in these locations of PNG, i.e., the existence of the kalapua subgroup and the related farming practices, are found only in these areas, or whether these features occur in other regions in Oceania or South America where bananas are the staple food. If domesticated bananas originated, at least in part, in New Guinea, it is important to elucidate whether the kalapua subgroup existed before the diffusion of banana from New Guinea, or if it was recently created after the diffusion of banana. If kalapua cultivars were generated relatively recently, it is necessary to explore the indigenous knowledge regarding the methods by which local Banana Cultivars in PNG 75 farmers added genetic diversity to bananas, which grow basically as clones due to parthenocarpy. If kalapua cultivars were generated before this diffusion, cultivars that have genetic and botanical similarity to the kalapua subgroup may be found in banana farming areas with large seasonality in rainfall other than those New Guinea. Discovering such cultivars may provide a clue to the investigation of the history of human migration.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant number JP15H03134), with cooperation from the Japan Food Research Laboratories. We thank the villagers of Intoap, Gabensis, and Hisiu for offering precious information and helping our research. We regret that this article could not be published before Peter Linibi, a great leader of Intoap, passed away. We would also like to show our gratitude to the staff of the National Agricultural Research Institute. Without their advice and cooperation, we could not have conducted our research.

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