DOCSLIB.ORG

New Fire Hazard Risk from Policy Responses to Climate Change

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
New Fire Hazard Risk from Policy Responses to Climate Change Catastrophe and Climate New Fire Hazard Risk from Policy Responses to Climate Change February 2021 2 New Fire Hazard Risk from Policy Responses to Climate Change AUTHOR Esther Boyle (Graduate Student) (Arizona State University) SPONSOR Climate and Environmental Beckett Sterner, PhD (Co-PI) (Arizona State University) Sustainability Research Ann Kinzig, PhD (Co-Author) (Arizona State University) Committee (CESRC) Petar Jevtic, PhD (PI) (Arizona State University) Caveat and Disclaimer The opinions expressed and conclusions reached by the authors are their own and do not represent any official position or opinion of the Society of Actuaries or its members. The Society of Actuaries makes no representation or warranty to the accuracy of the information. Copyright © 2021 by the Society of Actuaries. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2021 Society of Actuaries 3 CONTENTS Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 4 Section 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 5 1.1 Motivating Examples ........................................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Challenges and Opportunities for the Insurance Industry .................................................................................... 6 Section 2: Direct and Reciprocal Effects of Climate Change on Wildfire Risk .............................................................. 7 Section 3: New Fire Hazard Emerging from Tree Planting .......................................................................................... 8 3.1 Carbon Sequestration by Afforestation .................................................................................................................. 8 3.2 Reforestation ........................................................................................................................................................... 9 3.3 Drivers of Risk ........................................................................................................................................................ 10 Section 4: Emerging Policies and Practices to Reduce Wildfire Risk ......................................................................... 10 Section 5: Assessing New Fire Risk for Actuaries ..................................................................................................... 12 Section 6: Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 12 Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................................. 14 References .............................................................................................................................................................. 15 Feedback ................................................................................................................................................................ 20 About The Society of Actuaries ............................................................................................................................... 21 Copyright © 2021 Society of Actuaries 4 New Fire Hazard Risk from Policy Responses to Climate Change Executive Summary The unprecedented losses associated with recent wildfires are yet another call to insurers to understand how climate change is impacting the landscape of fire hazards. In this context, it is important to understand that individual and policy responses to wildfires and climate change, in particular carbon sequestration, are introducing desired benefits but also unintended new fire hazard risks. A case in point comes from highly publicized tree planting initiatives that aim to sequester carbon from the atmosphere or restore regions previously affected by wildfires or agricultural degradation. Unfortunately, without careful planning and maintenance, afforestation and reforestation initiatives such as these can lead to dramatically increased fire hazard. When fire hazard mitigation efforts have been made, the residual fire risk is subject to contributing factors such as the impact of tree types, their spatial arrangements, and relationships between trees and surrounding ecosystems. As an example, the efficiently planted fast growing species in the “pines in lines” arrangement can be surprisingly highly prone to fire hazard. These determinants should be of interest to insurers in order to model accurately the new fire risks emerging from these policies. It is only by accurately understanding emerging wildfire risks that the insurance industry has the opportunity to encourage conscientious policy action and land management through green policies while operating in a sustainable manner. Copyright © 2021 Society of Actuaries 5 Section 1: Introduction The actuarial community is at the forefront of understanding the impacts of climate change on human conditions. Increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events - such as intense droughts, wildfires, and hurricanes - are some of the most obvious manifestations of climate change (NASA, 2020), and numerous studies over the last two decades have explored the impacts of climate change on losses due to extreme events such as hail, floods, and winter storms (Botzen & Bergh, 2008; Changnon, 2009; Born, et al., 2013). Responding to recent dramatic losses, the Actuaries Climate Index has tracked climate change in a similar manner as the consumer price index since 2016 (American Acadmey of Actuaries, Canadian Institute of Actuaries, Casualty Actuarial Society, Society of Actuaries, 2020), and climate change was identified as the number one current emerging risk by the 12th Emerging Risk Survey sponsored by the Joint Risk Management Section of SOA, CAS, and Canadian Institute of Actuaries (CIA) (Rudolph, 2019). Less investigated, however, are the impacts of new policy actions and human behavior in response to the effects of climate change, a pressing example of which is removing carbon from the atmosphere (carbon sequestration) by planting trees. Additionally, reforestation (i.e., planting trees) is a common approach to restoring regions already damaged by forest fires more rapidly than through natural reseeding. Planting trees without informed consideration to what, where, and how the planting is done, may overlook important secondary effects on future hazards. The number of trees planted cannot safely be the sole focus of these policies. That is why, in this report, to further advance understanding of relationship between fire hazard and climate change, for both academic and practitioner communities, we review emerging evidence showing that policies surrounding tree planting are increasingly important for fire hazard insurance. We outline the dynamic relationships between climate change, tree planting policies and initiatives, and wildfire risk as illustrated in Figure 1, and illustrate their importance for insurers. Furthermore, we discuss relevant risk factors and potential mechanisms when accounting for these policies. Figure 1 CLIMATE CHANGE, POLICY, AND WILDFIRE Arrows denote relevant relationships addressed in the report. Afforestation is defined as planting trees in a previously unforested area. CC stands for Climate Change. (Images from Pixabay- no attribution required.) Copyright © 2021 Society of Actuaries 6 1.1 MOTIVATING EXAMPLES To this day, the 2016 fire in Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada remains a stark illustration of the unintended consequences of planting new forests. The fire resulted in the costliest disaster in Canadian history, totaling CAD $3.7 billion in insurance losses (Statistics Canada, 2015). In its wake, 5,890 square kilometers (3,660 square miles) of land were burned. While there were no deaths, 8% of the town’s private dwellings were destroyed (Statistics Canada, 2015). After the event, Wilkinson, et al. (2018) pinpointed the source of the fire on groups of trees planted by the Canadian government back in the 1980s. Regretfully in hindsight, the trees were planted in peatland, a type of wetland area that typically has very low fire risk. However, the trees dried up the peat, sending the water-table deeper underground. Thus, humans grew a dry, highly flammable forest in place of the once fire-resistant, natural peat moss. Once sparked, the resulting wildfire was catastrophic, burning both the newly planted trees and the original peat, releasing carbon that had been stored for thousands of years and taking almost five hundred days to fully extinguish (Elbein 2019). In Europe, the Iberian Peninsula has also witnessed undesirable effects of tree planting on wildfire disasters. Over the last century, large scale reforestation and afforestation policies arose to combat the erosion and flooding that had occurred with historical deforestation (Jones, et al., 2011; Vadell, et al., 2016). While these policies provided highly desired economic opportunities through the timber industry and aimed to improve the landscape, many stands were nonnative monocultures, such as Eucalyptus. These species were highly fire prone (Gómez-González et al, 2018). The resulting land conversion resulted in a staggering increase of area burned by wildfire in subsequent
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Tree Planting Guide
    City of Bellingham Tree Planting Guide This guide provides you with resources for planting trees in the city. Using the right tree in the right place, and maintaining it correctly will provide healthy, beautiful trees whose benefits can be enjoyed by the community for many years. Why plant trees? ....................... page 1 Get a Street Tree Permit First.... page 2 Check the Site & Choose the Right Tree……........ page 3 Plant it Right………………...……page 4 Four trees are removed for every one planted in most American cities. Help it Grow ……...……………… pg 5 & 6 A single large average tree absorbs 26 pounds of CO2 per year. Resources………………………… pg 6 Each vehicle spews out approximately 100 pounds of CO2 per year. Why Plant Trees? Trees in an urban area increase quality of life by: Air quality and cleansing - A typical person uses 386 lb. of oxygen per year. A healthy 32 ft. tall ash tree can produce about 260 lb. of oxygen annually. Two of these trees would supply the oxygen needs of a person each year! Improved water quality - The canopy of a street tree intercepts rain, reducing the amount of water that will fall on pavement and then be removed by a storm water system. Heating & Cooling Costs - A mature tree canopy reduces air temperatures by about 5 to 10° F, influencing the internal temperatures of nearby buildings. Trees divert wind in the winter and increase winter-time temperatures. Increased home sales prices - When homes with equivalent features are evaluated, a 6% increase to the value is associated with nearby trees. Soil Stabilization - Tree roots stabilize soil, helping to minimize erosion.
    [Show full text]
  • Planting Power ... Formation in Portugal.Pdf
    Promotoren: Dr. F. von Benda-Beckmann Hoogleraar in het recht, meer in het bijzonder het agrarisch recht van de niet-westerse gebieden. Ir. A. van Maaren Emeritus hoogleraar in de boshuishoudkunde. Preface The history of Portugal is, like that of many other countries in Europe, one of deforestation and reafforestation. Until the eighteenth century, the reclamation of land for agriculture, the expansion of animal husbandry (often on communal grazing grounds or baldios), and the increased demand for wood and timber resulted in the gradual disappearance of forests and woodlands. This tendency was reversed only in the nineteenth century, when planting of trees became a scientifically guided and often government-sponsored activity. The reversal was due, on the one hand, to the increased economic value of timber (the market's "invisible hand" raised timber prices and made forest plantation economically attractive), and to the realization that deforestation had severe impacts on the environment. It was no accident that the idea of sustainability, so much in vogue today, was developed by early-nineteenth-century foresters. Such is the common perspective on forestry history in Europe and Portugal. Within this perspective, social phenomena are translated into abstract notions like agricultural expansion, the invisible hand of the market, and the public interest in sustainably-used natural environments. In such accounts, trees can become gifts from the gods to shelter, feed and warm the mortals (for an example, see: O Vilarealense, (Vila Real), 12 January 1961). However, a closer look makes it clear that such a detached account misses one key aspect: forests serve not only public, but also particular interests, and these particular interests correspond to specific social groups.
    [Show full text]
  • Ergonomics of Tree Planting Work Among British Columbia Forest Workers
    ERGONOMICS OF TREE PLANTING WORK AMONG BRITISH COLUMBIA FOREST WORKERS by David Glenn Trites B.Sc. Dalhousie University 1984 THESIS SUBMITIED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE (KINESIOLOGY) in the School of Kinesiology O David Glenn Trites 1992 Simon Fraser University July 1992 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL Name: David Glenn Trites Degree: Master of Science Title of Thesis: Ergonomics of Tree Planting Work Among British Columbia Forest Workers Examining Committee: Chair: Dr. W. Parkhouse Dr. E.W. Banister Senior Supervisor Dr. M. Allen 't Dr. T.J. mid External Examiner Human Factors Research Bureau of Mines Minneapolis, Mn USA 13 August 1992 Date Approved: PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE I hereby grant to Simon Fraser University the right to lend my thesis, project or extended essay (the title of which is shown below) to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. I further agree that permission for multiple copying of this work for scholarly purposes may be granted by me or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or publication of this work for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Title of Thesis/Project/Extended Essay Author: (si gnatur ,, Abstract Little objective data exist characterizing the ergonomic demand of tree planting work although a substantial number of workers are seasonally employed in the industry each year in British Columbia.
    [Show full text]
  • Tree Crops for Marginal Farmland
    Agricultural Extension Service The University of Tennessee PB1463 Tree Crops For Marginal Farmland Christmas Trees With a Financial Analysis 1 2 Tree Crops For Marginal Farmland Christmas Trees With a Financial Analysis David Mercker Extension Associate, The University of Tennessee Originally developed by: George M. Hopper Professor, The University of Tennessee James E. Johnson Associate Professor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Larry A. Johnson former Associate Professor, The University of Tennessee James W. Pease Assistant Professor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 3 Acknowledgments This publication is a 2002 revision of the text and financial analysis of The University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service publication PB 1463 (1995) of the same title. The author acknowledges the original authors of this publication: James E. Johnson and James W. Pease, Vir- ginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; and Larry A. Johnson and George M. Hopper, The University of Tennessee. Special thanks to Robert Wright (Tennessee Department of Agricul- tural Forestry Division) and Wayne Clatterbuck and Donald Hodges (The University of Tennessee) for contributions on cost estimates and financial analysis. The Cooperative Extension Service of the United States Department of Agriculture provided funds for the original development of the Tree Crops for Marginal Farmland project. 4 Tree Crops for Marginal Farmland Many producers would like to increase farm income and decrease income variability. A growing number of farmers are investigating new and diversified sources of income. A resource that has not been tapped to its full potential is marginal farmland, specifically its use for growing tree crops. More than 30 million acres of woodland, idle pasture and cropland exist on Southeast farms, and much of this land could be producing valuable tree crops.
    [Show full text]
  • Forest Update 1
    Forest Update www.trilliontrees.org 1 In recognition of this year’s launch Restoring the lungs of the city of the UN Decade on Ecosystem in Tanzania Restoration, we’re celebrating some WWF Tanzania, the Tanzania Forest Service and local com- munities are leading efforts to restore coastal forests near of our amazing restoration projects. Dar es Salaam. Pugu, Kazimzumbwi, and Vikindu Forests are the lungs of the city, Despite the challenges that 2020 and are vestiges of some of the oldest forests in the world. These presented, our partners continued forests are critical to the health of the city and the livelihoods of local communities. Protecting and restoring these remnants of a the hard work to deliver the right once vast forest is crucial. Alongside efforts to protect this vital trees in the right places. Although the landscape, tree planting events are organised with local schools and community groups to restore important tree species in the stories in this newsletter highlight the degraded areas of the reserves. In 2020, WWF started Foresters inspirational restoration work of the for the Future, which aims to plant 100 hectares – about 150,000 trees – by training a cadre of young people who will plant trees partners, in many landscapes there are in their communities and become advocates for the mainte- also additional projects underway to nance of forests and wildlife in Tanzania. protect standing forests. Of course, restoration and planting efforts were impacted by Covid-19 over the last year, but the team is enthusiastic to get back to work and to have planted 40,000 new seedlings by the summer.
    [Show full text]
  • Afforestation and Reforestation - Michael Bredemeier, Achim Dohrenbusch
    BIODIVERSITY: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION – Vol. II - Afforestation and Reforestation - Michael Bredemeier, Achim Dohrenbusch AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION Michael Bredemeier Forest Ecosystems Research Center, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany Achim Dohrenbusch Institute for Silviculture, University of Göttingen, Germany Keywords: forest ecosystems, structures, functions, biomass accumulation, biogeochemistry, soil protection, biodiversity, recovery from degradation. Contents 1. Definitions of terms 2. The particular features of forests among terrestrial ecosystems 3. Ecosystem level effects of afforestation and reforestation 4. Effects on biodiversity 5. Arguments for plantations 6. Political goals of afforestation and reforestation 7. Reforestation problems 8. Afforestation on a global scale 9. Planting techniques 10. Case studies of selected regions and countries 10.1. China 10.2. Europe 11. Conclusion Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketches Summary Forests are rich in structure and correspondingly in ecological niches; hence they can harbour plentiful biological diversity. On a global scale, the rate of forest loss due to human interference is still very high, currently ca. 10 Mha per year. The loss is highest in the tropics; in some tropical regions rates are alarmingly high and in some virtually all forestUNESCO has been destroyed. In this situat– ion,EOLSS afforestation appears to be the most significant option to counteract the global loss of forest. Plantation of new forests is progressing overSAMPLE an impressive total area wo rldwideCHAPTERS (sum in 2000: 187 Mha; rate ca. 4.5 Mha.a-1), with strong regional differences. Forest plantations seem to have the potential to provide suitable habitat and thus contribute to biodiversity conservation in many situations, particularly in problem areas of the tropics where strong forest loss has occurred.
    [Show full text]
  • Tree Owner's Manual Table of Contents for the Northeastern And
    United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry NA-FR-04-07 November 2008 TTreeree Owner’s Manual for the Northeastern and Midwestern United States www.treeownersmanual.info Tree Owner's Manual Table of Contents for the Northeastern and Midwestern United States Important Precautions ................................1 Model Information and Parts Diagram ........2 Deciduous Model..................................... .2 Authors: Evergreen Model...................................... 3 Jill R. Johnson, Forest Service Packaging ..................................................3 Roots .......................................................3 Gary R. Johnson, University of Minnesota Trunk and Branches .................................3 Maureen H. McDonough, Michigan State Pre-Installation (Preparing to Plant) ...........4 University Materials ................................................4 Lisa L. Burban, Forest Service Instructions .............................................4 Installation (Planting) .................................6 Janette K. Monear, Tree Trust Materials .................................................6 Instructions .............................................6 Illustrator: Maintenance Schedule ............................. 12 Maintenance Instructions ......................... 13 Jennifer Salveson Watering ................................................ 13 Installing a Trunk Guard ........................ 14 Technical Reviewers: Preventing and Correcting Katie Armstrong,
    [Show full text]
  • Defining Extreme Wildfire Events: Difficulties, Challenges, and Impacts
    fire Concept Paper Defining Extreme Wildfire Events: Difficulties, Challenges, and Impacts Fantina Tedim 1,2,*, Vittorio Leone 3,†, Malik Amraoui 4 ID , Christophe Bouillon 5 ID , Michael R. Coughlan 6 ID , Giuseppe M. Delogu 7,† ID , Paulo M. Fernandes 4 ID , Carmen Ferreira 1 ID , Sarah McCaffrey 8 ID , Tara K. McGee 9, Joana Parente 4, Douglas Paton 2, Mário G. Pereira 4,10 ID , Luís M. Ribeiro 11 ID , Domingos X. Viegas 11 and Gavriil Xanthopoulos 12 1 Centre for Studies in Geography and Spatial Planning, CEGOT, Geography Department, Faculty of Arts, University of Porto, Porto 4150-564, Portugal; [email protected] 2 Engineering Health Science & Environment, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia; [email protected] 3 Department of Crop Systems, Forestry and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Basilicata, Potenza 85100, Italy; [email protected] 4 Centre for Research and Technology of Agro-Environment and Biological Sciences, CITAB, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real 5001-801, Portugal; [email protected] (M.A.); [email protected] (P.M.F.); [email protected] (J.P.); [email protected] (M.G.P.) 5 National Research Institute of Science and Technology for Environment and Agriculture, IRSTEA, RECOVER Research Unit, Aix-en-Provence 13100, France; [email protected] 6 Department of Anthropology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; [email protected] 7 Regional Forest Corps of Sardinia, Cagliari 09131, Italy; [email protected] 8 USDA Forest
    [Show full text]
  • Methodology for Afforestation And
    METHODOLOGY FOR THE QUANTIFICATION, MONITORING, REPORTING AND VERIFICATION OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS REDUCTIONS AND REMOVALS FROM AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION OF DEGRADED LAND VERSION 1.2 May 2017 METHODOLOGY FOR THE QUANTIFICATION, MONITORING, REPORTING AND VERIFICATION OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS REDUCTIONS AND REMOVALS FROM AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION OF DEGRADED LAND VERSION 1.2 May 2017 American Carbon Registry® WASHINGTON DC OFFICE c/o Winrock International 2451 Crystal Drive, Suite 700 Arlington, Virginia 22202 USA ph +1 703 302 6500 [email protected] americancarbonregistry.org ABOUT AMERICAN CARBON REGISTRY® (ACR) A leading carbon offset program founded in 1996 as the first private voluntary GHG registry in the world, ACR operates in the voluntary and regulated carbon markets. ACR has unparalleled experience in the development of environmentally rigorous, science-based offset methodolo- gies as well as operational experience in the oversight of offset project verification, registration, offset issuance and retirement reporting through its online registry system. © 2017 American Carbon Registry at Winrock International. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be repro- duced, displayed, modified or distributed without express written permission of the American Carbon Registry. The sole permitted use of the publication is for the registration of projects on the American Carbon Registry. For requests to license the publication or any part thereof for a different use, write to the Washington DC address listed above.
    [Show full text]
  • Ramping up Reforestation in the United States: a Guide for Policymakers March 2021 Cover Photo: CDC Photography / American Forests
    Ramping up Reforestation in the United States: A Guide for Policymakers March 2021 Cover photo: CDC Photography / American Forests Executive Summary Ramping Up Reforestation in the United States: A Guide for Policymakers is designed to support the development of reforestation policies and programs. The guide highlights key findings on the state of America’s tree nursery infrastructure and provides a range of strategies for encouraging and enabling nurseries to scale up seedling production. The guide builds on a nationwide reforestation assessment (Fargione et al., 2021) and follow-on assessments (Ramping Up Reforestation in the United States: Regional Summaries companion guide) of seven regions in the contiguous United States (Figure 1). Nursery professionals throughout the country informed our key findings and strategies through a set of structured interviews and a survey. Across the contiguous U.S., there are over 133 million acres of reforestation opportunity on lands that have historically been forested (Cook-Patton et al., 2020). This massive reforestation opportunity equals around 68 billion trees. The majority of opportunities occur on pastureland, including those with poor soils in the Eastern U.S. Additionally, substantial reforestation opportunities in the Western U.S. are driven by large, severe wildfires. Growing awareness of this potential has led governments and organizations to ramp up reforestation to meet ambitious climate and biodiversity goals. Yet, there are many questions about the ability of nurseries to meet the resulting increase in demand for tree seedlings. These include a lack of seed, workforce constraints, and insufficient nursery infrastructure. To meet half of the total reforestation opportunity by 2040 (i.e., 66 million acres) would require America’s nurseries to produce an additional 1.8 billion seedlings each year.
    [Show full text]
  • Quantifying Impacts of National-Scale Afforestation on Carbon Budgets In
    Article Quantifying Impacts of National-Scale Afforestation on Carbon Budgets in South Korea from 1961 to 2014 Moonil Kim 1,2, Florian Kraxner 2 , Yowhan Son 3, Seong Woo Jeon 3, Anatoly Shvidenko 2, Dmitry Schepaschenko 2 , Bo-Young Ham 1, Chul-Hee Lim 4 , Cholho Song 3 , Mina Hong 3 and Woo-Kyun Lee 3,* 1 Environmental GIS/RS Center, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea 2 Ecosystem Services and Management Program, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Schlossplatz 1, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria 3 Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02481, Korea 4 Institute of Life Science and Natural Resources, Korea University, Seoul 02481, Korea * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-02-3290-3016 Received: 31 May 2019; Accepted: 9 July 2019; Published: 11 July 2019 Abstract: Forests play an important role in regulating the carbon (C) cycle. The main objective of this study was to quantify the effects of South Korean national reforestation programs on carbon budgets. We estimated the changes in C stocks and annual C sequestration in the years 1961–2014 using Korea-specific models, a forest cover map (FCM), national forest inventory (NFI) data, and climate data. Furthermore, we examined the differences in C budgets between Cool forests (forests at elevations above 700 m) and forests in lower-altitude areas. Simulations including the effects of climate conditions on forest dynamics showed that the C stocks of the total forest area increased from 6.65 Tg C in 1961 to 476.21 Tg C in 2014. The model developed here showed a high degree of spatiotemporal reliability.
    [Show full text]
  • Applying Reduced Impact Logging to Advance Sustainable Forest Management
    Applying Reduced Impact Logging to Advance Sustainable Forest Management Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission International Conference Proceedings 26 February to 1 March 2001 Kuching, Malaysia Edited by Thomas Enters Patrick B. Durst Grahame B. Applegate Peter C.S. Kho Gary Man Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand 2002 Table of Contents The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Senior Forestry Officer, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok, Thailand. Cover photos: Kuswata Kartawinata, Francis Ng, Reidar Persson and Thomas Enters For copies of the report, write to: Patrick B. Durst Senior Forestry Officer FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200 Thailand Tel: (66-2) 697 4000 Fax: (66-2) 697 4445 Email: [email protected] © FAO 2002 ISBN 974-7946-23-8 Table of Contents Foreword Acknowledgments 1.
    [Show full text]