ARCHAEOBOTANICAL STUDIES IN THE LEVANT I. NEOLITH IC SITES IN THE DAMASCUS BASIN: ASWAD, GHORAI�E, RAMAD

W. van Zeist and l.A.H. Bakker-Heeres

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

2. THE SITES

3. THE SAMPLES

4. CROP PLANT REMAINS

5. WILD PLANT REMAINS

6. THE NATURE OF THE SA MPLES

7. THE PLANT HUSBANDRY

8. SUMMARY

9. REFERENCES

165 166 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

I. INTRODUCTION able. The introductory investigations provided already a fair impression of the archaeological In 1974, with financial support of the plant remains, such as concentration and Netherlands Organization for the Ad­ preservation of seeds and fruits, seed types vancement of Pure Research (Z. W.O.), the present and differences between sites. More­ research proj ect 'Palaeoethnobotan ical in­ over, experience was gained and the col­ vestigations in western Syria' commenced. lecting of modern seed reference material The research programme comprised the could, at least to a certain extent, be directed examination of charred plant remains from to particular taxa represented or probably archaeological sites in Syria with the aim of represented in the charred seed record. obtaining information on the relations be­ . The analysis of the samples was carried out tween plants and ancient man. The follow­ by the second author. In this stage of the ing sites form part of the research project. examination the contribution of the first Late Palaeolithic Mureybit, c. 80 km east m!lthor was mainly confined to assistance in of Aleppo, on the left bank of the Euphrates the identification of difficult seed types and to river before the area became submerged under discussing the results obtained so far. the water of the Tabqa dam reservoir, was Unfortunately, for reasons which need not be excavated first by M.N. van Loon (Chicago) explained here the second author was unable and subsequently by J. Cauvin (St. Andre de to complete the study by drawing up the final Cruzieres). The study of the charred plant report. Therefore the first author undertook remains of the 1965 campaign has been the working out of the results and the published (van Zeist, 1970; van Zeist & preparation of the publication. Contrary to Casparie, 1968). Bronze Age Selenkahiye, on the original plan to publish the results of all the right bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the sites included in the research proj ect in one Mureybit, was excavated by M.N. van Loon comprehensive report, it turned out more (Chicago, Amsterdam). The material from practical to discuss the data in a series of Bronze Age and Iron Age Hadidi, likewise on papers under the title 'Archaeobotanical the right bank of the Euphrates, c. 20 km studies in the Levant'. The present paper deals north of Selenkahiye, includes samples from with the Neolithic sites in the Damascus areas excavated by H.J. Franken (Leiden) and basin. The palaeothnobotany of Ras Shamra, R. H. Dornemann (Milwaukee). Neolithic Mureybit, Selenkahiye and Hadidi will be levels at Ras Shamra, c. 10 km north of the subject of forthcoming contributions in Lattakia, were uncovered by H. \de Contenson this series. (Paris). Excavations of the Neolithic sites of The authors wish to express their sincere Aswad, Ghoraife and Ramad, in the Damas­ thanks to all who co-operated in the field and cus basin, have been carried out by H. de laboratory work and in the preparation of the Contenson and H. de Contenson & W.J. van publication. The excavators of the sites, Mr. Liere (Damascus). H. de Contenson (Paris, Centre National de la The time span embraced by the sites Recherche Scientifique) and Dr. W.J. van mentioned above is such that information on Liere (at the time Damascus, U.N. Food and the plant husbandry from the late Palaeolithic Agricultural Organization) encouraged the to the Iron Age might be expected. Thus, early palaeobotanical examination and rendered all as well as more advanced stages of agriculture possi ble assistance in the field work. H. de are represented in the research project. On the Contenson also provided additional inform­ other hand, as the sites are situated in different ation on the sites, including unpublish­ ecological zones, no continuous record of the ed drawings of sections from Ramad. Dr. plant husbandry in one particular zone could A. Bounni (General Directorate of Antiqui­ be obtained. ties and Museums, Damascus) arranged for Before the start of the research project the permission for the field work and pro­ some of the material had already been examin­ vided transportation facilit ies for the sam­ ed in the Illboratoty. Moreover, during the pling at Aswad and Ghoraife. Mr. M. excavation campaigns, preliminary analyses Mam.louk was the representative of the of samples were carried out in the field. For General Directorate of Antiquities and M useums at the sampling of Aswad and the palaeobotanical field work an inexpen­ " sive binocular stereomicroscope was avail- Ghoraife. Mr. J. Dufour (at the time Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 167

Damascus, C.N.R.S.) rendered assistance in The study presented in this paper forms part the field work at Aswad and Ghoraife. Dr. Y.I. of a research proj ect that was financially Barkoudah (Department of Botany, Uni­ supported by the Netherlands Organization for versity of Damascus) identified plants. seed the Advancement of Pure Research (Z.W.O.) or pollen of which was collected for ref­ (grant no. 85-83). The field work at Ramad was erence material and he accompanied the first likewise made possible by a grant from Z. W.O. author on var·ious field trips. Dr. S. Bottema contributed greatly in the sampling of Ramad. 2. THE SITES Mrs. R.M. Palfenier-Vegter assisted in no small measure in the laboratory work: ex­ 2. I. The environment amination and re-examination of samples, In this section the physical and biological most of the measurements. The charcoal environment of the area, in which the Neolithic identifications were carr ied out by Mr. R. sites of Aswad, Ghoraife and Ramad are N eef. The drawings of the charred seeds, fruits situated, will briefly be discussed. and other plant remains, which constitute a very substantial part of this publication, have 2. I. I. The geography expertly been prepared by Mr. H.R. Roelink. M ost of the other drawings were executed by The following remarks on the geography of Mr. J.W. Dijkema. The manuscript was the Damascus basin are taken from van Liere linguistically improved by Mrs. S.M. van (1960/61) and Kaiser et al. (1973). The Gelder-Ottway (Haren). In the preparation of Damascus basin is a structural basin of the publication the first author was greatly internal drainage. To the west it is bordered assisted by Mrs. G. Entjes-Nieborg. by the eastern escarpments of the Anti-Lebanon

Q.t.n. ®

'- , 2? \ I

,-'I r \ \ ..J \

( o, , , , , ,5 , , , , IOkm , S

. . Ghoula (irrigation oasis of Oamascus I blenl of Upper Pleislocenf' lake .:.y� :�:� Extent of Middle Pleistocene lake ?:. ":��:f�' �"I; . �. , ;'." :?

Fig. I. Map of the Damascus area showing, among other things, the location ofihe Neolithic tell sites of Ramad, Ghora ife and Aswad (indicated with a cross). See further 2.1. I. 168 W. V AN ZEIST & J .A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Mountains, to the north by the limestone hills of the Palmyra range, and to the south and the " ...... � east by the basalts of the Hauran plateau. ,."'1 . ' I � g+". I In its eastern, lowermost part the surface of ··'t"· ·· .··� . ...1 - the basin is just above 600 m. Here are situated .., I : I Lake Aateibe and Lake Hijjane which are • I "' // residual lakes of a late Pleistocene lake which +) . /'OAMASCUS, covered almost half of the Damascus basin. The . ,,..../" "" x Ghoraifi extent of this late Pleistocene lake is indicated ,

2. 1.3. Th e natural vegetation specimens of Crataegus aronia in steppe vegetat ions and in fields are indicators of the The reconstruction of the natural vegetation of former presence of an almond-pistachio forest the Damascus basin and its surroundings is steppe. Te ll Ra mad was situated in this rather speculative. The whole of the a ea is � vegetation zone with its rich potential of wild under intensive land use, as a result of whIch at edible fruits. most a few remnants of the original vegetation ' Further to the west and northwest, at are left. As a consequence, a discussion o� the . elevations above 1200 m and with mean annual assumed natural vegetation must be confIned precipitations of more than 400-500 m , (Oro-) to some more general remarks. No exact � Mediterranean shrub and tree vegetatlons are borders between the vegetation zones can be found on the east facing flanks of the Anti­ determined and no attempt has been made to Lebanon Mountains. Thus, along the draw a vegetation map of the Damascus basin Damascus-Beirut highway, near the Syrian­ and the surrounding areas. . Lebanese border, at elevations of about 1300 The zonal vegetation is bound to precIp­ m rather dense shrub vegetation was observed itation and elevation (temperature), whereas b the first author and S. Bottema in 1965. azonal vegetation types are primarily edaphi­ Or. . Th; e following arboreal components were cally conditioned. As in West-Cent al SYrIa � noted : Quercus calliprinos, Quercus inJectoria, the isohyets as well as the elevatIOn con­ Pistacia palaestina, Crataegus spec., Amyg­ tour lines run roughly in a north-south da lus spec., Prunus spec., Rhamnus spec., direction, the main vegetation zones are also AceI' syriacus and Lonicera spec. (see also north-south oriented. Bottema Barkoudah, 1979, pp. 442-3). The greater part of the Damasc s area, & � As for azonal vegetation types, on the approximately east of the 200 mm Isohyet, annually flooded banks of the Barada and would naturally be covered by treeless Arte­ Awaj rivers rather dense tree and shrub misia steppe. M. Zohary (1973, pp. 478-9) vegetation may have been found. One can distinguishes a group of Artemisia ste pe � only guess about the arboreal components of vegetations characteristic of the Syna n . this river bank vegetation: Populus, Plata­ 'desert' the Artemision herbae-albae desertl­ ' nus Fraxinus, Ulmus, Salix, Ta marix, Vitis, syriaci. Artemisia herba-alba is usually do i­ � Rubus, Ficus'? The lakes of Aateibe and nant, but a great number of other specIes . Hijjane were bordered by extensive marsh are recorded. Zohary warns that hIS vege­ vegetations of reeds, sedges and other hydro- tation records taken in the 1930's all refet phytes. to severely affected Artemisia herba-alba as­ ... As for the vegetation pattern In the Neohthlc sociations:'Anything edible has been taken and in later prehistoric periods, it should be away for the livestock and everyth!ng woody pointed out that at that time the Ghouta, t�e has been seized upon as fuel'. It will be clear fa mous irrigation oasis near Damascus, dld . that there is little sense in speculating on the . not yet exist (see fig. This landscape IS f10ristic composition of the stepp ve etation I). . � � completely man-made. It was not until the l st of the Damascus area in prehIstorIc tImes. � centur ies H.C. that a beginning was made wIth To the west of the steppe zone, at eleva­ the laying-out of the Ghouta. To that end the tions above 750 m and with mean annual carbonate crust on top of the Barada gravels precipitations between 200 and �00-5�0 mm, a had to be broken and the water of the Barada Xero-Med iterranean almond-pIstachIO forest river was diverted over the area through a steppe is postulated. This e etation type � � system of irrigation channels (cl Wirth, 1971, forms, as it were, the transItIOn from the p. 403). continental steppe area to the Mediterranean maquis and forest region. �he �lmond­ pistachio forest steppe must be vIsualIzed as a 2. 1.4. Sp eculations on early Holocene steppe vegetation with scattered trees an.d vegetation and climate shrubs. The arboreal components of thIs One may wonder whether in the early vegetation type are Pistacia atlantic�., Amygdalus korschinskii, Amygdalus webbll, Holocene, at the time of the habitation of Pyrus syria ca, Crataegus aronia and Rhan:nus Aswad,Ghoraife and Ramad, climatic condi­ palaestinus (M. Zphary, 1973, p. 522). SolItary tions diffel;ed from those of today. Thus, 170 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES under conditions of higher precipitation the 2.2. Aswad almond-pistachio fo rest-steppe belt would have extended fu rther to the east and Tell Aswad is situated some 30 km east­ conditions for dry-farming would have been southeast of Damascus, between the lakes of more fa vourable . With respect to the early Aateibe and Hijjane (fig. I). The subsoil in the Holocene climate in the Damascus basin the Aswad area consists of lacustrine sed iments following can be re marked . which have been fo rmed in the late There is no palynological information on Pleistocene lake that covered a large part of the early Holocene vegetation of the Damas­ the Damascus basin (2. 1.1.). It is likely that in cus area. The orily Holocene pollen record at the early Holocene, La ke Aateibe had a much not too great a distance from the Damascus larger surface area than nowadays and that basin, viz. a pollen diagram prepared for Tell Aswad was fo unded at the edge of the sediment in the upper reaches of the Barada marshes surrounding the lake (7.2. 1., fig. 31). river near Zebdani, covers only the last few The tell measures 275 m north-south and 250 thousand years, the upper Holocene (Bottema, m east-west, and reaches up to 4.50 m above 1975-1 977). Final Pleistocene and early Holo­ the surrounding plain. cene climatic changes in the Levant can be In 1971 and 1972, two squares, measuring 4 inferred from pollen diagrams prepared for by 4 m and lying c. 100 m apart, were sediment cores from the Huleh marshes in excavated by de Contenson (1972; 1973; northern Israel and from the Ghab valley in 1979). The sound ings are indicated as Carre Quest (:'-swad West) and Carre Est (Aswad northwestern Syria (cf van Zeist & Bottema, 1982). East) (fig. 3). At Aswad East the virgin soil The Huleh ppllen diagram shows relatively was reached at a depth of 4.25 m below the . high tree pollen values in the section dated to surface of the mound, while at Aswad West 12,00-8000 B.C. In the succeeding period, c. 3.30 m of occupational remains could be 8000-5400 B.C., tree pollen percentages are established . The mound consists of a fi ne lower suggesting a greater climatic dryness. dark ashy soil which has given the site it� After 5400 B.C. forest expanded again, prob­ name: Tell Aswad=Black Hill. ably the result of an increase in precipi­ tation. Thus, the H uleh pollen record would point to a relatively dry early Holocene. The Ghab pollen evidence, on the other hand, suggests another climatic history. There, high Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae pollen frequencies point to a wide expansion of steppe vegetations in the period of 12,000 to 9000-8000 B.C. A spread of forest vegetation after 9000 B.C. is ascribed to an increase in humidity. It is likely that in northwestern Syria, humidity reached its highest level in the early Holocene, to decrease again to some extent after 6000 B.C. In conclusion, the Ghab pollen evidence suggests an early Holocene climate that was more humid than the present one, where­ as the Huleh pollen record rather points to the contrary. The conflicting or seemingly conflicting pa lynological evidence prevents us from making inferences on past climates of the Damascus region. We are still left with the 50 lOOm uncertainty whether, and if so to what extent, . the ea rly Holocene climate, in particular Fig. 3. Tell Aswad. Elevation contour lines in metres the humidity, of the Damascus area differed above the surrounding plain. The areas West and East from that of today. have been excava ted (de Contenson, 1972, fig. I). Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 171

No stone foundations were found. Struc­ Table 1. Conventional radiocarbon dates (half life value of tural elements consisted of basins with a dia­ 5568 years) for Ramad, Ghoraife and Aswad. After Vogel & meter of at most 2 m and were fi lled with ,Waterbolk (1967) and de Contenson (1973, 1975b, 1976a). burnt clay and ash, narrow cylinder-shaped Sample Lab , no. Years BP Years BC pits, and floors or benches of crude mud bricks. It seems that the occupants of the site Ramad lived in small round huts with sunken floors, Phase II "'C8 1.65 m GrN-4823 7 880 ± 55 5930 C8 2.50 m GrN-4427 7920 ± 50 5970 the walls of which were made of reeds with M4 1.80 m GrN-4822 7900 ± 50 5950 clay daub. Fragments of baked clay with reed impressions are reported by de Contenson Phase I M4 4,05 m GrN-4821 8090 ± 50 6140 C8 5.10 m GrN-4428 8200 ± 80 6250 ( 1978). HIO 0.50 m GrN-4426 8210± 50 6260 No pottery was found, but in addition to clay figurines and bone implements, great Ghoraife quantities of silex artifacts were recovered. Phase II GH-2: 3.00 m GIF-3372 8150 ± 190 6200 The fl int industry has been studied by M.-C Phase I GH-4: 5.50 m GIF-3374 8400±190 6450 Cauvin (1974; 1979). In all occupation levels GH-5 : 6.00 m GIF-3375 8480±190 6530 sickle blades are predominant. Moreover, GH-6: 6.20 m GIF-3376 8710±1 90 6760 arrowheads in various sizes are quite com­ Aswad mon, which corr oborates with the faunal Phase Il West "0. 30 m GIF-2373 8560±110 6610 remains. Only wild animals would be West 0.40 m GrN-6676 8650 ± 55 6700 West 0.90 m GrN-6677 8720 ± 75 6770 represented at Aswad (c:f de Contenson, 1979). In contrast to the rich flint industry, West 1.30 m GrN-6678 8875 ± 55 6925 polished stone axes, querns made of basalt West 2.30 m GrN-6679 8865 ± 60 6915 East 0.25 m GIF-2369 8540 ±11 0 6590 and limestone bowls were ra re: this is ascribed to the absence of the raw material in the Phase I +East 1.75 m GIF-2370 9 340 ± 120 7390 vicinity of the site (de Contenson, 1978). East 2.35 m GIF-2371 9270±120 7320 East 2.45 m GIF-2372 9640 ±120 7690 On the basis of the flint industry a few East 3.25 m GIF-2633 9730±120 7790 occupation phases are distinguished (de Contenson, 1976b; M .-C Cauvin, 1974). '" Thissample is from a phase III pit, but the charcoal must be Phase I, which is represented only in Aswad derived from phase Il layers (6.4,). East, is subdivided into two subphases. Phase + According to de Contenson (1979) the level at a depth of 1.75 m should be attributed to phase Il, but the date clearly lA comprises the lower section of Aswad East, points to phase 1. from 4.25 to 2.25 m below the surface of the tell, and is radiocarbon dated to 7800-7600 B.C (see table I). Phase IB, at a depth of 2.25-1.80 m, has an inferred date of 7600-7300 B.C Phase I I comprises the upper 1.80 m at Aswad East and the whole of the occupational deposits at Aswad West.

2.3. G horaife The site of Ghoraife is situated at c. 25 km east of Damascus, c. JO km north of Tell Aswad, about 8 km from the shore of Lake Aateibe. The tell measures 300 m north-south and 200 m east-west. The maximum height of the tell is about 5 m above the level of the plain, which constitutes the bottom of the Late-Pleistocene lake (2. I. I.). In 1974, excavations were carried out at Ghoraife by de Contenson '(1975a; 1976a; Fig. 4. Tell Ghoraife. Elevation contour lines in metres 1978). Four test pits, measuring 2 by 2 m, were above sea-level. Only sounding C was excavated as far opened (fig. 4), but in only one of them, down as the virgin soil (de Contenson, 1975, fig. I). 172 W. VAN ZEIST & 1.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

17

Ib

15

11

Il

I!

11

ID

Fig. 5. Tell Ramad. Elevation contour lines in metres above sea­ level. The areas from which samples for palaeobotanica l ex­ amination were ta ken are indi­ cated in black (M4NE, C8NW, C8SE). After de Contenson (1974. p. 22).

sounding C, the excavation was continued burnt material. The uppermost metre, if not until the virgin soil was reached at 6.40 m disturbed, consists of ashy layers on top of a below the surface. Three phases are dis­ 90-cm-thick bed of yellowish clay. Contrary to tinguished at Ghoraife, two of which are those of phase I, the phase II deposits are rich Neolithic. Phase I comprises the occupational in animal bones, but flint artifacts are less deposits between the virgin soil and 3.50 m numerous. Bone implements are quite com­ below the surface. There is a succession of mon and the bone industry is related to that of compact, brown soil layers and lenses of burnt phase I at Ramad (2.4.). Phase 11 at Ghoraife is clay with black ashes. Silex artifacts are quite dated to c. 6200 B.C. numerous and the flint industry as well as the clay figurines compare well with those of phase 2.4. Ramad II at Aswad (2.2.). Animal bones are scarce. Phase I at Ghoraife is dated to 6800-6300 B.c. Tell Ramad is situated at about 20 km SW of (see table I). Damascus and about 3 km SE of Qat ana, at the Phase II occupational debris reaches the foot of Mount Hermon, c. 900 m above sea­ surface of the tell where the upper layers have level. The site lies at the northern edge of a not been disturbed by Roman and modern basaltic plateau, on the Wadi Qatana which burials. In the excavated square, the depth of has its bed at the contact surface between the the post-Neolithic intrusions varies from 0.90 basaltic deposits and Neogene conglomerates to 1.70 m. Between 3.50 and 1.90 m, the (de Contenson & van Liere, 1964). The wadi occupational fill consists again of compact , carries water in the winter and spring; in the brown soil alternating with thin layers of early summer, in May, the stream dries up. The Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 173 tell measures 150 m north-south and 175 m analyses of the fa unal remams are eagerly east-west. Occupational deposits are up to 6 m awaited . thick. Phase II I is represented only on the western Excavations at Tell Ramad have been side of the tell, in the uppermost metre and in carried out by H. de Contenson and W.J. van pits dug in the underlying layers. This phase Liere in 1963 and 1965, and by H. de has true ceramics: crude, hand-made, usually Contenson between ' 1966 and 1973. The site dark-coloured ware. The phase III filling has been tested by altogether 8 field seasons. consists partly or predominantly of redepos­ The areas excavated are indicated in fig. 5. A ited phase II material. A radiocarbon assay grid system (I, 2, 3, etc., A, B, C, D, etc. ) of a phase III sample gave a phase II date divides the site in 10XIO m squares. Each IOX (5930 B.C., because apparently the char­ IO m square is subdivided in four quadrants, coal was from the latter period. A com­ viz. NE, NW, SW and SE. See de Contenson & parison of the phase III pottery with that van Liere (1964; 1966) and de Contenson of other Near Eastern sites points to the end of (1971; 1974; 1978). the 6th millennium B.c. From phase III levels Three main occupation phases are dis­ bones of domestic goat, sheep, cattle and dog tinguished. The settlement was founded on the basaltic virgin soil. In the lower levels (phase I), which consist of up to two metres of dark clayish soil, a succession of semi­ RADIOCARBON subterranean huts, with clay walls and YEARS B.C. plastered ovens was uncovered. The artifacts 5500 include flint tools, some obsidian bladelets and querns, hammerstones, mortars and pestles of basalt. Polished stone bowls were made of limestone; bone artifacts include awls and spatules. Animal and human clay figurines are quite common. Moreover, 6000 plastered skulls were uncovered with the face remodeled with lime and the top of the cranium painted with red ochre. Phase I is dated to about 6200 B.C. (see tabie I). I n phase II levels more elaborate archi­ tectural features were uncovered: rectangu­ 6500 lar houses with mud brick walls on stone =

Table 2. Samples from Ramad examined for plant remains Table 2 (continued).

Sample Depth below Where taken Sample Depth below Where taken designa tion surface in m designa lion surface in m

Ramad C8SE Ramad C8NW Phase II C8 1.10 1.10 Along west balk Phase III C8NW 0.65 0.65 C8 1.20 1.20 Along west balk C8NW 1.25 1.20 - 1.30 C8 1.55 1.55 Along west balk C8NW 1.55 1.55 C8 1.65 1.60 - 1.70 2.00 - 2.50 m from east C8NW 1.95 1.95 From stratified fill of pit balk C8NW 2.15 2.15 C8 1.70 1.70 2.00 - 2.50 m from west C8NW 2.40 2.40 balk C8NW 2.45 2.45 C8 1.90 1.90 2.00 - 2.50 m from east balk C8 2.25 2.20 - 2.30 1.30 - 2.30 m from east balk C8 2.45 2.45 1.25 - 2.00 m from west were recovered, suggesting an emphasis on balk herding (de Contenson, 197 1). C8 2.70 2.60 - 2.80 2.00 m from west balk In fig. 6 the approximate time span covered C8 2.95 2.90 - 3.00 2.00 m from west balk by each of the aceramic habitation phases of 0.80 - 1.30 m from east C8 3.15 3.10 - 3.20 Aswad balk , Ghoraife and Ramad is presented . C8 3.35 3.30 - 3.40 o - 1.00 m from east balk This figure shows the chronological relation­ C8 3.55 3.50 - 3.60 Along east balk ships of the three sites. C8 3.60 3.60 1.00 - 1.30 m from west balk C8 3.70 3.65 -3.75 2.00 m from west balk 3. THE SAMPLES C8 3.90 3.85 - 3.90 2.00 - 2.75 m from east balk C8 4.05 4.00 - 4.10 2.50 m from west balk 3.1. Sample processing C8 4.35 4.30 - 4.40 2.50 m fr om west balk The soil samples taken at the sites under C8 4.55 4.50 - 4.60 1.50 m fr om west balk discussion were floated in the field to recover C8 4.75 4.70 - 4.80 2.00 m from east balk C8 4.95 4.90 - 5.00 Whole surface charred plant remains. The conditions are C8 5.05 5.00 - 5.10 1.50 m from west balk such that only carbonized vegetable material will have been preserved. No flotation Phase I C8 5.25 5.20 - 5.30 Whole surface C8 5.35 5.30 - 5.40 2.50 m from west balk machine was employed, but the plant remains C8 5.40 5.35 - 5.40 2.50 m from west balk were recovered by a simple manual water C8 5.55 5.50 - 5.60 Whole surface separation method (cf van Zeist & Bakker­ C8 5.60 5.55 - 5.65 2.50 m from west balk Heeres, 1979). Contrary to the opinion of C8 5.70 5.65 - 5.70 Whole surface some other researchers (e.g. Keeley, 1978), our Ramad M4NE experience with manual water flotation is Phase II M4 1.75 1.75 - 1.80 Along west balk quite satisfactory. M4 1.80 1.80 Along north balk The sorting of the flotation residues and the M4 1.90 1.90 1.20 m from west balk, identification of the plant remains were 1.20 m from north carried out in the laboratory according to balk usual procedures. After sort ing the sample M4 2.10 2.10 Along west balk (,cuvette residues were kept for possible re-exam­ remplie de graines carbonis�es') ination. For the identifications a seed ref­ M4 2.30 2.30 Along east-west wall erence collection of Near Eastern species was available. In spite of its rather modest Phase I M4 2.80 2.80 Along east-west wall M4 3.00 3.00 Whole surface size, this reference collection permitted the M4 3.10 3.10 1.50 m from north balk, identification of most of the charred seed 3.00 m from west balk types, although usually not to the species M4 3.45 3.45 Along west balk level. The plant remains are discussed ,in M4 3.65 3.60 - 3.70 Along east-west wall, secti'ons 4 and 5. The descriptions are 3.00 m from west balk supplemented by drawings of the plant M4 4.05 4.05 Along east-west wall M4 4.30 4.20 - 4.40 Southeast corner of remains and measurements. I n measuring square grass caryopses, in particular cereal grains, the Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 175

Table 3. Palaeobotanical samples from Aswad. Table 4. Palaeobotanical samples from Ghoraife

Aswad East, from north balk east sounding (Carn� Est) Ghoraife 1975, from north balk sounding C . Phase II 0.20 (= 0.20 m below surface) Phase n 1.20 (= 1.20 m below surface) 0.40 1.40 0.60 1.60 0.80 1.80 1.00 2.00 1.20 2.20 1.40 2.40 1.60 2.60 2.80 Phase I 1.80 3.00 2.00 3.20 2.20 3.40 2.40 "'3.60 2.70 2.90 Phase I 3.80 3.10 4.00 3.30 4.20 3.60 4.40 4.60 Aswa- 4.80 d West, from east balk west sounding (Carre Ouest) Phase II 0.40 (= 0.40 m below surface) 5.00 0.60 5.20 0.80 5.40 1.00 5.60 1.20 5.80 1.40 6.00 1.60 1.80 Ghoraife 1974, samples taken by H.de Contenson in 1974 2.00 from exposed surfaces 2.20 Phase II 2.00 2.40 2.50 2.60 3.00 2.80 3.50 Phase I 4.00 4.50 5.00 radicle point has not been included in the 5.50 5.90 measurement in those cases where the embryo 6.30 had been preserved. I n tables 5 to 10 the numbers of seeds and fruits in the samples '" According to de Contenson (1975) the level at a depth of examined are presented . The dimensions in 3.60 m should be attributed to phase I, but the seed content the tables showing the results of the points rather to phase n. measurements are all in mm.

3.2. Sampling and samples itants of Ramad and if so, which crops were grown? 3.2.1. Ramad - Which wild seeds and fruits were collected At the request of H. de Contenson and W.J. for human consumption? van Liere, at Ramad sampling for palaeo­ - What was the vegetation in the vicinity of botanical research was undertaken by S. Neolithic Ramad? Bottema and W. van Zeist in 1965, during It was decided that we should attempt to the second excavation campaign. At that time sample at least one complete series of the aims of palaeoethnobotanical research occupation layers, covering all three phases were still rather straightforward . Thus, for distinguished at Ramad (2.4.). In the first Ramad our aim was to obtain information on (1963) campaign three 'quadrants (carrees) of the fo llowing questions: 5X5 m had been opened . In two of them, viz. - Was agriculture practised by the inhab- C8NE (Carre Quest of the 1963 campaign) 176 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

/// /// ,0 1Il

x .. 1.10 m lm .. OC) !:!! 1Il1 C;

Il

Il Fig. 7. Ramad, section along south balk of C8SE quadrant. After drawing by H. de Conten­ son (not yet published). The boundary between phase 11 and III deposits is clearly indicat­ ed . The location of the samples from C8SE that have been ex­ amined for charred plantremains I is tra nsferred to this section I (thick horizonta l lines with ind i­ t 1 cation. of depth).

and M4SE (old Carre Est), the virgin soil was or the fill of phase III pits were concerned. reached . In the exposed sections of C8NE Moreover, it was not until the section was many ash layers were present and occasional drawn that the extent of the phase III charred seeds could be observed with the disturbances became evident. At the east side naked eye. For that reason this quadrant was of the section a phase III pit extends down to selected for a systematic palaeobotanical 2. 10 m below the surface. Phase Il levels are sampling. Quadrant C8N E was extended on very thick here and extend to c. 5. 10 m below its south side by about 1.5 m (fig. 5). A strip of the surface. Phase I levels, on the other hand, 1.5X5 m was excavated at intervals of 10 to 15 cover only about 60 cm, from 5. 10 to 5.70 cm, cm. With increasing depth the length of the in the C8 square. excavated strip diminished until in the bottom In the west balk of C8NE a large ash pit, up layers it was only 1.5 m long. From each to 2.65 m below the surface, was visible. From interval one or two samples were taken. The the layers in this pit a series of samples, at samples from this strip are from the SE intervals of 15-20 cm, was taken; to that quadrant of C8 and they should consequently purpose a trench of 2.00 by 1.60 m, to a depth be indicated as C8SE, followed by the depth of 2.65 m, was excavated (fig. 8). The C8NW below the surface. As for the Ramad sample samples are all from levels which archaeo­ designations see table 2: logically must be attributed to phase Ill. Of the newly exposed south balk a· drawing Finally samples were taken from the M4NE was made by H. de Contenson (fig. 7). The pits quadrant which was excavated in 1965. Here of the phase II1 habitation, which were dug in samples were collected from ashy places which the underlying phase Il levels, show up clearly became visible on the exposed surfaces. The in this section. During the sampling for section along the west balk of the M4NE palaeobotancial research it was not always quadrant is shown in fig. 9. very clear whether undisturbed phase Il levels The volume of the soil samples varied from Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 177

Om

Fi g. 8. Ramad, upper part of section along west balk of C8NW quadrant showi ng a deep pit fi lled with phase III deposits. After de Co ntenson & van Liere (1964, pI. XII). Th e location of the sa mples fro m CSNW ex­ amined are indicated in this drawing.

Om

II

,

· Fi g. 9. Ramad, section along west balk of M4NE quadrant. After drawing by H. de Co ntenson (not yet published). The cross-hatched area, I at a depth of approximately 2 m, is the 'cuvette remplie de graines carbonisees' (see 6.1.). The locatio n I' of the sa mples from M4NE exam- ined is transferred to this sectio n. j

10 to 20 litres. Unfortunately, the actual numbers of seeds, fruits and other identifiable volume of each sample has ;10t been recorded. plant remains. In the choice of the samples to It was not until the examination had been be examined it was our leading principle to completed that it became evident that this obtain a good cross-section of the seed would have been useful (6.3.). The samples content of the phase I and 11 levels. From were floated in a rivulet at the foot of the tell. e8SE a series of samples at intervals of 5 to 35 Altogether 172 samples were collected and cm was selected. In total 28 samples from this floated for palaeobotanical examination and quadrant were examined. In the choice of the it soon became clear that only a small sampfes the quality also played a part. Thus, if proportion 01 them could be analysed. The the . flotation residue of a sample from a mere sorting of the samples was already very particular depth was very small or if a first time-consuming because of the usually great inspection showed that it was very poor in 178 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Ta ble 5. Numbers of seeds, fruits and other plant remains in samples from Ramad, C8 SE,quadrant.

Phase II II II II II II II II II II II II 1I II Sample designation C8 1.10 1.20 1.55 1.65 1.70 1.90 2.25 2.45 2.70 2.95 3.15 3.35 3.55 3.60

Triticum boeoticum Ph 1 4 4 Triticum monococcum 1 4 4 1 7 8 2 Triticum dicoccum 1 6 56 4 18 36 'S5 91 48 14 326 200 73 Triticum spikelet forks 29 27 20 300 40 97 375 245 1200 350 63 1250 1550 450 glume bases 45 92 13 675 57 37 675 575 1050 750 42 1125 1700 950 Triticum durum/aestivum 2 3 1 3 1 8 6 3 1 525 65 33 T.durum/aestivum internodes 7 1 4 4 5 457 55 56 Hordeum spontaneum 5 1 1 4 Hordeum distichum 1% 10 3 16 10 14 7 68 35 5 Hordeum internodes 1 18 14 13 11 22 19 3 Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste 1 :z 20 1 Hordeum vulgare internode 1 Cereal grain fragments 39 3 19 140 20 64 147 138 235 238 32 1134 932 422 Pisum 2 7 4 2 7 35 30 1 5 Lens 2 1 2 22 8 7 15 8 2 6 49 57 10 Cicer 1 7 % Linum usitatissimum" 1 5 4 3 16 13 1 Pistacia + 2 + 5V, 2 2 3 33 100 6 Uthospermum arvense 3 1 7 5 Lithospermum tenuiflorum 2 1 7 4 10 2 Heliotropium 1 Cerastium-type Silene spec. 8 21 3 Silene colorata-type Vaccaria pyramidata 2 1 5 Helianthem ledifolium-type 10 9 19 27 47 345 160 19 3 Helianthemum salicifolium-type" 3 Centaurea Convolvulus 3 Carex cf. divisa 6 Scirpus maritimus 3 Scirpus tabernaemontani-type 5 Cephalaria syriaca 1 Aegilops 2 1 2 Avena % 1 14 5 1 Bromus spec. 2 % 4V, Bromus sterilis 1 Echinaria 5 3 7 1 25 7 5 Eremopyron 1 2 1 1 2 Hordeum spec. 3 Lolium spec. V, 3 6 6 19 75 8 7 100 49 6 Lolium temulentum 2 2 4 32 60 13 Phalaris 1 1 Stipa v.. V, V, Gramineae type A 3Vl 3% 10 4 Gramineae indet. 2 2 5 4 2 2 15 3 13 Gramineae fragments + + + + Teucrium-type 2 1 2 1 2 Ziziphora 382 394 47 Astragalus 116 3 17 3 13 20 24 14 172 147 9 1 Coronilla 1 4 2 1 32 14 8 Medicago spec. 2 3 5 5 3 1 10 3 3 5 1 Medicago raoiata 2 1 7 2 13 17 1 Melilotus 1, 2 4 10 Onobrychis 22 35 4 Tr igonella astroites-type 69 13 14 3 8 4 67 133 4 84 32 6 Vicia spec. 2 10 7 1% 2 Vicia ervilia Archaeobotanical studies in the l.evant T 179

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 I I I I I Phase 3.70 3.90 4.05 4.35 4.55 4.75 4.95 5.05 5.25 5.35 5.40 !i.55 5.60 5.70 Sample designation

Vz 2 1 1 Triticum boeoticum 6 8 4 31 14 14 Triticum monococcum . 129 231 86 61 . 46 662 390 577 41 5 1 4 3 Triticum dicoccum 750 2200 500 350 117 1925 2000 1350 93 34 18 7 8 Triticum spike let forks 350 2400 100 520 62 2725 2850 1850 77 28 12 15 glume bases 29 30 30 18 10 167 230 202 7 1 Triticum durum/aestivum 28 8 7 7 6 5 145 60 1 T.durum/aestivum internodes 1 1 4 4 5 Hordeum spontaneum 19 11 7 14 7 114 86 72 4 2 2 Hordeum distichum 25 3 4 22 10 193 16 1 Hordeum internodes 1 10 13 5 1 Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste Hordeum vulgare internode 535 595 270 132 157 1080 1238 874 92 42 14 22 8 9 Cereal grain fragments 1 4 4 1 4 10 11 16 2 12 5 4 2 Pisum 27 15 4 6 6 140 98 82 5 7 15 10 8 7 Lens 1 1 5 3 1 Cicer 6 5 2 32 44 24 2 Linum usitatissimum 6 Vz 1 7Vz 25 23 14 6 Y, + Pistacia 8 6 1 1 3 Lithospermum arvense 14 1 2 13 20 7 9 23 14 4 Lithospermum tenuiflorum 5 1 Heliotropium 1 Cerastium-type 3 4 7 3 Silene spec. 1 Silene colorata-type 3 6 4 Vaccaria pyramidata 1 85 18 25 36 Helianthem ledifolium-type Helianthemum salicifolium-type 1 Centaurea 2 Convolvulus 1 2 1 Carex cf. divisa 8 1 Scirpus maritimus Scirpus tabernaemontani-type Cephalaria syriaca 1 Aegilops 2 6 3 1 9 23 3 y, Avena 4Vz 13 6 8 Bromus spec. 1/z 1 Bromus sterilis 2 5 3 9 18 8 Echinaria 1 2 6 1 Eremopyron 1 1 Hordeum spec. 46 75 50 3 11 165 165 170 10 4 2 2 Lolium spec. 24 50 .39 1 40 20 35 1 Lolium temulentum 1 1 1 5 5 Phalaris Stipa 11 6 2 17 17 18 Gramineae type A 5 8 2 5 11 6 5 Gramineae "indet. + + + + Gramineae fragments 1 Teucrium-type 1 Ziziphora 892 70 72 72 8 86 134 87 43 2 Astragalus r Coronilla 10 6 2 14 6 31 19 24 6 Medicago spec. 13 7 3 16 4 11 2 Medicago radiata 4 4 13 4 40 35 51 3 2 Melilotus 2 1 3 Onobrychis 65 9 6 23 16 86 21 2 1 Trigonella astroites-type 4 4 4Vz 5 49 21 28 4 1 6 Vi cia spec. Vi cia ervilia 180 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 5 (continued).

Phase II II II II II II II II II II II II II II Sample designation C8 LlO 1.20 1.55 1.65 1.70 1.90 2.25 2.45 2.70 2.95 3.15 3.35 3.55 3.60 Leguminosae indet. 2 4 5 Bellevalia 1 1 3 4 9 9 cf. Ornithogalum 3 4 5 4 9 5 17 52 194 87 14 Uliaceae indet. Malva Ficus 4 2 2 37 7 Fumaria densifiora-type Glaucium aleppicum-type Plantago lagopus-type Plantago psyllium-type Polygonum venantianum-type 1 1 Rumex pulcher 3 2 Rumex spec. Androsace maxima 2 16 89 26 3 1 Adonis 1 1 1 1 Amygdalus + 2V. + 2 1 1 + + '12 /. :Y3 Crataegus 1 2 2 4 7 IV. 2 Pyrus + Galium mollugo Galium spec. 6 2 3 7 2 11 3 2 Ammi maj us 5 2 Bifora Bupleurum spec. Torilis nodosa-type 14 Umbelliferae indet. Unidentified 8 8 15 + 19 7

seeds or of poor preservation, this sample was situation at the sampling spot. Thus, in the rejected and another sample from about the west section, shown in fig. 9, the virgin soil is same depth was chosen for examination. It reached at 4.10 m, whereas at ot her places of has already been mentioned that in the upper the M4NE quadrant the basaltic. surface goes one to two metres of the deposit the down to 4.75 m (de Contenson & van Liere, distinction between phase 11 levels and phase 1966). III disturbances was not always clear on the As for the phase III samples, the fill of the exposed surface during sampling. No phase 11 pits of this phase is at least of mixed origin samples from above I m were examined and (2.4.) and part, if not most of the charred from the samples between I and 2 m below the vegetable material in these ash pits is of phase surface only those that could safely be 11 origin. A palaeobotanical examination of attributed to phase Il levels w.ere selected. The these samples is only meaningful in that it may location of the samples examined is trans­ result in seed or fruit types not present in the ferred to the drawing of the section along older deposits. For instance, other crop plants the south balk (fig. 7). Moreover, these could have been grown by the phase I11 samples are listed in table 2. Similarly, the inhabitants. Seven samples from the fill of the M4NE samples that have been examined are large pit in CSN W were included in the listed in table 2, and the location of these examination (fig. S). The phase III samples are samples is ind icated on the drawing of the discussed in 7.5. section along the west balk (fig. 9). In this case In the discussion of the vegetable material the result is less satisfactory than for the (sections 4-7), the samples from CSSE are CSSE samples because various M4 samples simply 'ind icated as (Ramad) CS, and those were taken at quite some distance from the from M4NE as (Ramad) M4. Only for the west balk, so that there is no correspondence phase III samples it is indicated that they are between the stratigraphy of the section and the from the NW quadrant (CSN W). Anotfler Archa�obotanical studies in the Levant I 181

- II II II II II II II II I I I I I I Phase 3.70 3.90 4.05 4.35 4.55 4.75 4.95 5.05 5.25 5.35 5.40 5.55 5.60 5.70 Sample designation

1 4 8 7 9 3 Leguminosae indet. 165 59 1 18 14 10 1 Bellevalia 126 53 49. 38 118 215 140 25 Y2 cf. Ornithogalum 6 Liliaceae indet. 1 Malva 3 29 9 14 4 5 75 25 12 Ficus 1 1 Fumaria densiflora-type Glaucium aleppicum-type Plantago lagopus-type 1 Plantago psyllium-type 1 Polygonum venantianum-type 2 2 1 4 Rumex pulcher 2 1 1 Rumex spec. 19 1 58 16 26 23 2 Androsace maxima 2 2 1 1 1 Adonis + + Y2 + v. + + Amygdalus 11 1 13 V, %35 %19 13 3 + Crataegus Pyrus Galium mollugo 2 20 11 10 Galium spec. 1 5 Ammi majus Bifora Bupleurum spec. 2 4 Torilis nodosa-type 1 Umbelliferae indet. 7 4 6 2 6 + 8 Unidentified

simplification is that only one figure is given 3.2.2. Aswad for the depth. Thus, if, for instance, a sample is from 3.30-3.40 m this is indicated as 3.35. In 1973, H. de Contenson submitted a number of small soil samples from Aswad to the first One. may perhaps wonder why during the campaigns after 1965 no palaeobotanical author for botanical examination. These samples were taken. In this respect the samples yielded some charred seeds and other following should be remarked. Many more plant remains, suggesting that more detailed samples had already been collected than palaeobotanical research could provide valu­ could ever be coped with. At the time the able info rmation on the plant husbandry possible re lat ion between sample composition of Aswad. To that end two series of soil samples were collected by the first author in � nd archa�ological feature was not yet an Important Issue, so that this was no impetus to April 1975. There was no other choice than ta�e samples during succeeding field cam­ taking samples from sections exposed in the paigns. The analysis of the Ramad sam­ soundings excavated in 197 1 and 1972 (2.2.). ples had a slow start due to other research From the north balk of Aswad East , samples commitments of the first author. It was not of c. 26 litres in volume (two baskets) were until 1973 that the systematic examination of taken at intervals of 20 to 30 cm. At Aswad Ramad could begin and more progress was West, the east balk was sampled at 20 cm made. ��en the need was felt for samples intervals; in this case the volume of each sample was about 13 litres (one basket). Prior fro� distinct archaeological features, exca­ vatIOns at Ramad had come to an end. to ·sampling the balks had been cleaned. The samples were floated near the site. The samples selected fo r analysis have with one exception, been examined compl�tely. Water was supplied by a pump which serves to The numbers of seeds, fruits and other pump up irrigation water for the fields. The vegetable remains recovered are shown in samples are listed in table 3. All samples collected at Aswad have been analysed. With tables 5, 6 and 7. 182 W. V AN ZEIST & J .A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 6. Numbers of seeds, fruits and other plant remains in Table 6 (continued). samples from Ramad, C8NW quadrant (phase HI). Of C8NW 2.15, only v.. of the sample has been examined. Sample designation C8NW 0.65 1.25 1.55 1.95 2.15 2.40 2.45 Sample designation C8NW 0.65 1.25 1.55 1.95 2.15 2.40 2.45 cf. Ornithogalum 7 4 21 9 3 11 Ficus 4 1 6 5 Triticum monococcum II I �2 Androsace maxima 2 4 1 Triticum dicoccum 4 5 76 8 13 72 Amygdalus + if3 1� 1 + + + Triticum spikelet forks 53 148 180 285 .144 106 4';10 Crataegus + 2 + IV. glume bases 132 730 1200 750 1100 263 1500 Galium spec. 10 2V. 6 2 3 Triticum durum/ 1 2 10 3 5 7 Ammi maj us 1 aestivum Bifora 1 T.dururn/aestivum 2 2 Torilis nodosa-type internodes Unidentified 7 + 5 2 25 7 Hordeum spontaneum IV. 2 Hordeum distichum 1� .3 4 24 9 6 20 Hordeum internodes 12 2 12 21 3 Hordeum vulgare var. 1 3 1 coeleste regard to the numbers of seeds and fruits Cereal grain fragments 1J 34 77 105 46 23 147 presented in table 8 the fo llowing should be Pisum 4 5 4 3 4 8 remarked. For unknown reasons the sorting Lens 3 10 16 16 5 4� 24 of the samples had not been carried out Cicer 1 1 accurately enough. Particularly small seeds Linum (usita tissimum) 1 2 and other small plant remains, such as glume Pistacia 18 4 2 5 bases and spikelet forks, had only partly been. Lithospermum arvense 2 retrieved. Th us, it was decided to examine the Lithospermum tenui- 2 sa mple residues again. Part of the samples florum were re-examined completely; of the large Silene spec. 2 . 1 1 Vaccaria pyramidata 4 1 samples usually 1/2 to 1/ 10 of the volume was Helianthemum 71 12 1 9 47 re-examined. If part of the sample had been ledifolium-type I:e-examined, the numbers of plant remains Alyssum recovered were converted to obtain the total Scirpus maritimus 1 7 2 1 numbers for that sample before the results of Scirpus tabernae- 13 the first and second examination were added montani-type Cephalaria syriaca together. The latter implies that the numbers Aegilops + of seeds, fruits and other plant remains shown Avena in table 8 may be higher than the numbers Bromus spec. actually recovered. For example, for Aswad Echinaria 5 4 1 2 West 2.00, 60 fruits of Ziziphora are listed, Eremopyron 4 V. whereas only 6 specimens were retrieved (from 1 3 14 Lolium spec. 2 4 5 1/ 10 of the sample re-examined). Lolium temulentum 1 3 2 Phalarls Stipa 3.2.3. Ghoraife Gramineae type A 2 Gramineae indet. 3 12 2 After the sampling at Aswad had been Teucrium-type 1 � 1 completed, a series of samples was taken at Ziziphora 1 Ghoraife in April 1975. In 1974, a test pit had Astragalus 5 28 17 4 8 21 4 Coronilla ( 1 been carried down to the virgin soil by H. de Medicago spec. 8 3� 5 2 5 11 Contenson (2.3.). The north balk of this Medicago radiata 3 1 1 sounding was sampled at 20 cm intervals. Melilotus 6 5 1 1 Flotation of the samples, c. 13 litres in volume Onobrychis 1 (I basket), was carried out in the Barada river, Trigonella astroites- 2 41 9 4 13 a few km to the south of the site. The samples type are lis'ted in table 4. Vicia ervilia 2 1 Vi cia spec. 5 4 11 11/. 3 3 Although the transition between phases I Leguminosae indet. 6 13 1 and II is laid at 3.50 m by the excavator, the Bellevalia 1 11 sample at 3.60 m is attributed to phase II Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 183

Table 7. Numbers of seeds, fruits and other plant remains in samples from Ramad, M4NE quadrant.

Phase II II 11 11 11 I I I I I I I Sample designation M4 1.75 1.80 1.90 2.10 2.30 2.80 3.00 3.10 3.45 3.65 4.05 4.30

Triticum boeoticum 2 2 1 2 2 Triticum monococcum 24 5 3 8 5 4 2 2 5 5 Triticum dicoccum 372 150 98 119 97 54 9 23 19 61 46 14 Triticum spikelet forks 2250 665 700 1100 250 70 50 106 240 380 390 32 glume bases 2550 800 1000 1500 350 24 60 62 200 190 520 24 Triticum durum/aestivum 62 322 145 10 43 1 2 Tdurum/aestivum internodes 20 2 23 13 Hordeum spontaneum 3 Hordeum distichum 51 28 32 31 63 4 5 9 Hordeum internodes 69 14 23 34 18 1 Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste 1 1 2 1 Cereal grain fragmen ts 1499 174 461 776 46 99 64 36 103 51 85 Pisum 5 1 4 10 7 Lens 7 7 21 11 39 2 2 4 13 Cicer 1 5 Linum usitatissimum 80 9 5 5 8 4 5 13 3

Pistacia 6 5 22 + 3 1 Yz Lithospermum arvense 3 6 1 20 2 28 Lithospermum tenuiflorum 3 6 4 6 48 2 1 5 Heliotropium 1 Cerastium-type 4 Gypsophila-type 1 2 Silene spec. 26 39 21 8 2 Vaccaria pyramidata 3 1 1 1 Helianthemum ledifolium-type 215 31 20 6 1 1350 2 5 Crepis-type 2 2 Alyssum 3 Carex cf. divisa 2 Scirpus maritimus Aegilops 1 Avena 7 3 2 7 3 Bromus spec. 2 21/. Echinaria 41 11 10 28 Eremopyron 13 1 2 6 Hordeum spec. Lolium spec. 24 5 11 6 4 10 16 110 Lolium temulentum 36 18 9 15 105 2 5 13 23 Phalaris 1 1 Stipa Y. Gramineae type A 67 17 10 6 [1/. 2 2 Gramineae indet. 24 97 28 11 1 2 2 Gramineae fragments + + + + + Teucri urn-type Ziziphora 1 Astragalus 101 76 51 26 36 2639 23 7 22 Lathyrus cf. cicera 1 Medicago spec. 5 7 4 1 4 Medicago radiata 9 1 2 30 Melilotus 2 2 2 2 2 5 Onobrychis 1 1 Trigonella astroites-type 26 22 9 5 6 89 Vicia spec. 7 14 15 14 33 2 7 2 Leguminosae indet. 3 1 4 9 21 Bellevalia 7 1 1 1 1 3 cf. Ornithogalum 330 31 18 69 46 4 3 6 3 13 2 Ficus 3 10 18 3 4 2 1 1 Plantago spec. 1 1 Rumex pulcher 2 4 184 W. VAN ZEIST & 1.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 7 (continued).

Phase II II II II II I I I I I I I Sample designation M4 1.75 1.80 1.90 2.10 2.30 2.80 3.00 3.10 3.45 3.65 4.05 4.30

Rumex spec. 3 1 1 Androsace maxima 18 10 6 133 Adonis 1 3 2 Amygdalus 1 + 1 + + + + 2 % Crataegus 4 8h 6 3 6 8 Crucianella Galium spec. Ammi majus 5 6 Torilis nodosa-type 20 2 Verbena 1 Unidentified 17 5 15 3 2

Table 8. Numbers of seeds, fruits and other plant remains from Aswad, soundings West and East. The numbers shown in this table may be higher than those actually recovered (see 3.2.2.). '

Aswad West Phase II II II II II II II II II II II II II II Sample (depth below surface) 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 0.20

Triticum monococcum 1 3 3 1 1 2 Triticum dicoccum 8'/. 12 10 18 58 307 430 103 207 226 75 5 22 Triticum spikelet forks 42 40 59 53 309 446 1901 390 987 1003 129 24 3 65 glume bases 61 48 102 84 302 900 1708 500 2907 2042 265 58 5 196 Triticum durum/aestivum 1 22 42 5 24 32 T.durum/aestivum intern. fragm. 1 Hordeum spontaneum/distichum 3 4 8 5 3 55 90 46 43 62 5h 1h Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste 1 9 2 1 Hordeum internode fragments 3 10 7 2 15 16 55 60 50 14 Cereal grain fragments 61 57 61 80 276 359 1311 338 1676 2100 493 70 5 92 Pisum '/. 2 2 1 2 2 5 1 2 Lens 1 4 1 3 2 1 3 1 Linum (usitatissimum) 13,/. 2 Aizoon 1 1 Pistacia 2 2 '/. 1 + '/. 3'/. 2 4 1,/. 2 + + Arnebia decumbens 13 Lithospermum arvense 5 3 2 2 2 1 Lithospermum tenuiflorum 5 11 2 4 5 10 2 2 Capparis 4 2 1 4 7 Arenaria-type Silene spec. 3 1 Vaccaria pyramidata 2 6 4 2 Atriplex Suaeda Chenopodiaceae indet. 9 Carthamus Centaurea Carex cf. divisa 9 38 3 3 9 40 107 82 729 824 53 15 2 Scirpus maritimus 8 12 1 6 149 284 137 169 112 35 3 3 Avena 1 3 2 3 Bromus spec. '/. '/. 2 18 41 14 6 y. Echinaria 1 1 6 10 5 Eremopyron Ih 1 '2 2 2 Hordeum spec. 15 5 3 5 1 Lolium spec: '/. 2 9 17'1. 79 148 129 694 661 17. 6'/. 7 Phalaris 7 12 1 7 42 75 56 151 165 73 6 1 Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 185

because the charred vegetable content of the have also been included in the examination. sample compares with the other samples of All Ghoraife samples have been analysed this phase and not with those of phase I (tables 9 and 10). (table 9). The uppermost metre has not been sampled because of post-Neolithic disturbances (2.3.). The samples at 1.20-1.80 4. CROP PLANT REMAINS m have been taken from seemingly undis­ turbed layers, although one cannot be ab­ 4. 1. Emmer wheat solutely certain in this respect. The seed content of these samples does not suggest Tr iticum dicoccum Schtibl.(emmer wheat) is contamination. one of the oldest cultivated plants in the In 1974, 10 small samples consisting of a Damascus basin. Already from the lowest few litres of soil had been collected by H. de habitation levels at Aswad remains of Contenson at 50 cm intervals. These samples Tr iticum dicoccum were recovered. We are

Aswad East II II II II n II II Ib Ib Ib la la la la la la Phase 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.70 2.90 3.10 3.30 3.60 Sample (depth below surface)

2 2 Triticum monococcum 25 52 92 108 82 30 34 1Y2 1 1Y2 4 2 7 6 % Triticum dicoccum 87 133 306 415 392 162 222 28 8 4 6 14 21 8 21 Triticum spikelet forks 27 1 336 938 1558 574 422 468 68 21 15 52 105 58 50 3 44 glume bases 1 3 14 6 Triticum durum/aestivum T.durum/aestivum intern. fragm. 2 3 6 35 9 2 2 15 7 4 Hordeum spontaneum/distichum 1 1 Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste 3 4 57 12 5 1 1 7 9 Hordeum internode fragments 130 228 362 432 274 296 122 35 9 18 16 50 103 23 16 11 Cereal grain fragments 4 14 1% 3 5 25 3 1 Pisum 2 1 2 3 1 Lens Linum (usitatissimum) Aizoon + + + 2 % 31/2 Y2 21/2 5 22 17 8 lY2 4 Pistacia 3 Arnebia decumbens 1 1% 2 Lithospermum arvense 4 3 5 Lithospermum tenuil10rum 1 3 Capparis Arenaria-type Silene spec. Vaccaria pyramidata 12 4 Atriplex Suaeda Chenopodiaceae indet. Carthamus

I Centaurea 3 10 27 29 8 9 IS 4 15 4 2 6 7 1 Carex cf. divisa 6 8 9 25 31 17 8 7 25 4 8 54 36 11 1 16 Scirpus maritimus 1 Avena % 4 2 10Y2 4 1 Y2 Bromus spec. 1 Echinaria Y2 Y2 Eremopyron 1 Hordeum spec. 2 5 24 32 5 2% Lolium spec. 2 3 29 5 3 1 Phalaris 186 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 8 (continued).

Aswad West Phase II II II II II II II II II II II II II II Sample (depth below surface) 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 0.21

Gramineae type A 1 9 4 Gramineae indet. % 3 12 7 17 14 18 Ziziphora 60 5 Astragalus 6 3 44 6 1 8 6 3 Medicago spec. 1 1 Medicago radiata 3 1'12 2 11 15 4 17 9 2 Me1ilotus 3 5 4 11 Onobrychis Trigonella astroites-type 44 162 17 7 52 178 26 60 182 145 5 Vicia ervilia Vicia spec. 4 5 5 Y:. 6 6 8 5 44 52 12 2 Leguminosae indet. 1 2 2 6 Bellevalia 1 3 2 cr. Ornithogalum 1 8 10 Ficus 13 66 30 3 Fumaria densiflora-type 1 Polygonum venantianum-type 8 12 18 110 44 11 19 43 3 Rumex pulcher 1 Androsace maxima Adonis % Amygdalus Crataegus + Rubus Galium 1 2 3 Thymelaea Vitis 4 Unidentified 10 11 7 3 12 63 31 3 45 7

concerned here with the morphologically­ under way in the southern Levant. defi ned domestic species. No remains of wild Tr iticum dicoccum must have constit uted a emmer wheat, Tr iticum dicoccoides Korn., major crop plant of the Neolithic fa rmers in the have been fo und at Aswad (or Ghoraife Damascus basin. The proportions of emmer and Ramad), suggesting that the fully wheat among the seeds and fruits of cultivated domesticated species was introduced into the plants are usually large (see 7. 1.2.) and Damascus basin. part icularly samples from Ramad yielded The present distribution of wild emmer great numbers of Tr iticum dicoccum kernels. wheat could indicate that the early Neolithic The shape and the size of the emmer wheat emmer wheat of Aswad originated from the grains show a considerable variation. Distinct area to the south and southwest of the differences in size and shape of emmer wheat Damascus basin. On the slopes of Eastern grains between samples have not been noticed, Galilee and Gilead, on the basaltic plateaux of but in one and the same sample the whole array Golan and Hauran, and on the easternslopes of shapes may be found. This finds expression of Mount Hermon wild emmer wheat is to a certain extent in the dimensions and index locally common. One could speculate that in values obtained for Tr iticum dicoccum grains that region wild emmer wheat was taken from four Ramad samples (table 11). into cultivation and that subsequently the In spite of the rather great numbers of domesticated form was brought to other emO}er wheat grains in the samples concerned, areas. The presence of domestic emmer wheat only 52 and 62 specimens have been measured in layers dated to 7800 B.C. (I4C years) suggests in samples M4 1.75 and C8 3.35, respectively. that at the beginning of the eighth millennium This is due to the generally rather poor B.C. plant cultivation must have been well preservation of the kernels. There are many Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 187

Aswad East n II II II II II II Ib Ib lb la la la la la la Phase 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.70 2.90 3.10 3.30 3.60 Sample (depth below surface)

Gramineae type A 3 ¥2 3 5 5 2Y2 13 1Y2 2 Gramineae indet. Ziziphora 2 5 2 38 2 Astragalus Medicago spec. 3 2 4 1 7 28 Medicago radiata 3 4 16 6 2 Melilotus 1 Onobrychis 5 4 10 22 21 39 5 409 3 10 235 36 40 8 11 Trigonella astroites-type 1 Vicia ervilia 4 10 6 2 3 9 16 14 2 1Y2 2 Vicia spec. 4 2 Leguminosae indet. Bellevalia 1Y2 2 1 6 cf. Ornithogalum 1 4 8 3 50 25 69 28 10 Ficus Fumaria densiflora-.type 3 14 3 6 2 4 91 5 6 1 Polygonum venantianum-type , Rumex pulcher 2 Androsace maxima Y2 + Adonis + Amygdalus Crataegus Rubus y" Galium Thymelaea Vitis

5 18 18 6 7 18 + 7 12 + 10 Unidentified

damaged grains of which only or 2 of small grains on the dimensions and index dimensions could have been taken, and, values of the whole of a sample has been moreover, various kernels have been more or determined. Of this sample, in addition to 10 I less seriously deformed by the carbonization. grains of normal size, 15 small specimens have As a rule, only reasonably well preserved been measured. The dimensions and index grains have been selected for measurement. values for C8 4.75 are shown, the small grains Th is does not imply that the shape of these being included (N= 1 16) and not being included grains has not at all been affected by the (N=IOI) (table 11). As could be expected, the ca rbonization. Not only for emmer wheat, but small specimens bring about a decrease of the also for the other cereal species the numbers of minimum and average dimensions. The effect grains that were suitable for measurement are of the modest number of small grains on the re latively small. average dimensions is certainly not negligible. In addition to the more or less normally The comparatively high L/ B index values of developed emmer wheat grains, conspicuously the small grains cause a higher mean L/ B index small specimens were fo und. These grains do value. not make the impression of being under­ There are no conspicuous differences be­ developed in the sense of not fu ll-grown, tween the dimensions and index values of but they may have been formed under less the emmer wheat grains in the Ramad sam fa vourable conditions, e.g. in a basal spikelet ples of ta ble 11. Samples C8 4.75 and C8 5.05 of the ear or on a plant which did not grow well. for which the greatest numbers of grains could These small grains which occur also with the be measured show mostly a somewhat greater other cereals have not been included in the amplitude between minimum and maximum measurements. For Ramad C8 4.75 the effect va lues than the other two samples. For the Table 9. Ghoraife 1975. Numbers of seeds, fruits and other plant remains in samples from Ghoraife, north balk of sounding C. Samples collected in 1975...... 00 00 Phase 11 11 II 11 11 11 II 11 11 11 11 11 11 I I I 1 1 I I I I I I I Sample (depth below surface) 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 4.20 4.40 4.60 4.80 5.00 5.20 5.40 5.60 5.80 6.00

Triticum monococcum 2 3 5 3 Triticum dicoccum 1 5 11 7 11 11 16'12 2 6 4 10 10 1� 1 Ph Triticum spikelet forks 14 4 44 2 25 29 37 49 1 8 18 36 74- 11 3 3 3 1 1 3 glume bases 21 6 58 7 44 58 51 51 8 19 50 41 84 14 5 4 4 2 2 Triticum durum/aestivum 6 6 5 1 11 13 3 3 T.durum/aestivum internodes 2 1 1 1 Hordeum spontaneum/distichum 5 1� 2 Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste 1 2 Hordeum internodes 4 4 3 Cereal grain fragments 9 7 36 4 19 35 20 34 9 22 30 30 4 + 9 3 3 3 Pisum 1� '12 3 4 1� 2� 4 2 Lens 2 Cicer cf. arietinum � Linum (usitatissimum) 2 1 '12 6 4 < � Pistacia + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Z Arnebia decumbens 1 N I:T1 Lithospermum arvense 6 2 6 5 4 10 2 � Lithospermum tenuiflorum 1 1 1 2 2 2 ...., Re Silene spec. 1 '-< Vaccaria pyrarnidata 1 2 � Chenopodium

Suaeda �c:; Carex cf. divisa 3 � 5 2 2 2 4 15 32 12 2 3 1� 3 � Eleocharis 2 � I:T1 Scirpus maritimus 5 5 6 2 3 11 8 10 13 4 4 4 2 2 3 ::0 Avena 1 I:T1:I: Bromus spec. � I:T1 Echinaria 5 4 2 ::0 I:T1 Lolium spec. 20 9 13 1'12 18 12 11 5� 10 . 10 25 32 2 6 7 !Z> Phalaris 1 2 1 1 1 1 Gramineae indet. � 2 5 Astragalus 2 Medicago spec. 1 2 2 Melilotus 10 3 6 14 6 16 91 9 18 24 52 42 Trifolium 2 2 Vicia ervilia Vicia spec. 2 2 11 1 5� 7 5 2 2 2 4 Leguminosae indet. 2 2 5 2 2 4 8 Bellevalia 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 cf. Ornithogalum 4 4 3 2 8 2 1 3 3 Ficus Plantago spec. Polygonum venantianum·type 2 2 Adonis Crataegus 1 Galium spec. Thymelaea A •�/; � � 1 2 Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 189

Table 10. Ghoraife 1974. Numbers of seeds, fruits and other plant remains in samples from Ghoraife, sounding C. Samples collected in 1974.

Phase II II II II I I I I I I Sample (depth below surface) 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 5.90 6.30

Triticum monococcum 2 Triticum dicoccul)1 2 8 2 7 Triticum spikelet forks 3 21 117 1 glumt: bases 7 38 4 120 2 3 Triticum durum/aestivum 3 2 6 Hordeum spontaneum/distichum 1 Y, Cereal grain fragments 7 14 23 + 3 + Pisum Linum (usitatissimum) 5 PI,

Pistacia + + + + Arnebia decumbens 1 Lithospermum arvense 2 4 Lithospermum tenuif10rum 3 Carex cf. divisa 7 25 5 2 3 Eleocharis 1 1 Scirpus maritimus 2 8 r 2 y, Echinaria 4 Lolium spec. 3 9 4 33 2 Phalaris 1 Astragalus 2 Lathyrus cL cicera .. Melilotus 4 57 13 250 Trifolium 1 1 Trigonella spec. 1 Vicia spec. y, 1 2 2 Leguminosae indet. 2 Bellevalia 7 cf. Ornithogalum 2 4 Ficus Polygonum venantianum-type 1 Galium spec. Unidentified 2

first-named samples also frequency dis­ Ramad. One wonders whet her t his could tribution graphs for the length and the LI B indicate that the Aswad emmer wheat was st ill and T I B index values have been drawn (fig. rat her close to the wild fo rm, Tr iticum 10). The lengths of the emmer wheat grains in dicoccoides. In this connect ion it may be both samples show largely similar frequency mentioned that at early-Neolit hic CaybnU, in distributions. The LI Band T I B index value southeastern Turkey, the Tr iticum dicoc­ histograms are rather flattened out, indicating coides -type grains have distinctly higher that no particular grain shape is dominant. L/ B index va lues than the Tr iticum dicoccum­ Although some Aswad samples yielded fa ir type kernels. Of the small numbers of emmer amounts of emmer wheat grains, only re­ wheat grains from phase I layers at Aswad latively few specimens were suitable for none was suitable for measuring. The LI B measuring (table 1 1). For Ghoraife, with only index values of emmer wheat recovered from small numbers of Tr iticum dicoccum grains, phase I I levels at Ghor aife compare with the the measurements of grains of various samples correspond ing values obtained for Ramad. have been taken together in table 11. It is strik­ One could argue that this was to be expected ing that the Aswad emmer grains (phase because phase 11 at Ghoraife corresponds to I I) are, on average, longer and more slender phase I at Ra mad (see fig. 6). (higher LIB index va lues) than those from If the above suggestion of a close affinity of 190 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 11. Dimensions and index values of Triticum dicoccum In addition, einkorn wheat grains which have grains. developed in two-seeded spikelets may be Ramad L B T L/B T/B expected. The ventral side of these grains is not curved but straight and flat as in emmer wheat C8 3.35 min. 4.0 1.8 1.8 160 74 grains. They can be distinguished from emmer N= 62 aver. 5.02 2.50 2.28 202 91 wheat grains by their great slendernessand by max. 6.0 3.4 3.0 248 113 their more pointed upper and lower ends. C8 4.75 min. 4.1 1.8 1.6 153 73 However, it is often difficult to decide whether N = 101 aver. 5.12 2.31 2.16 224 94 a grain is of two-seeded einkorn wheat or of max. 6.3 3.1 2.6 282 115 emmer wheat. At Ramad, an occasional hulled C8 4.75 min. 3.1 1.1 1.1 153 73 wheat grain was found which could possibly be N = 116 (15 small aver. 4.96 2.20 2.07 230 95 of two-seeded einkorn wheat. All hulled wheat specimens included) max. 6.3 3.1 2.6 343 119 grains with a flat dorsal side have been counted C8 5.05 min. 4.0 1.8 1.5 161 71 as Tr iticum dicoccum. N= 90 aver. 5.02 2.27 2.11 222 93 Another possible identification problem max. 6.0 3.4 3.0 291 115 concerns emrrier wheat grains which had M4 1.75 min. 4.0 1.8 1.7 175 70 developed in one-seeded spikelets. These N = 52 aver. 5.03 2.39 2.22 212 93 spikelets are usually found in the top of the ear. max. 6.1 3.0 2.8 250 112 The grains from one-seeded emmer wheat Aswad West spikelets resemble those of einkorn wheat in 1.40 m min. 4.8 1.8 1.9 221 83 that they have a convexly curved ventral side. N = 15 aver. 5.30 2.21 2.11 240 96 However, the upper and lower end are rather max. 6.2 2.4 2.4 278 111 blunt and the dursal side is not sharply ridged 1.60 m min. 5.0 1.8 1.6 203 73 as in einkorn wheat. Although it cannot be N = 14 aver. 5.54 2.23 2.06 251 93 ruled out that a few einkorn-type grains have max. 6.1 2.6 2.6 336 114 been attri buted to the wrong species, by far the 2.20 m min. 5.0 1.8 1.7 197 88 majority of the grains listed as Tr iticum N=l 1 aver. 5.46 2.31 2.12 238 92 monococcum are definitely of this species. max. 5.8 2.6 2.4 280 97 Tr iticum monococcum is a bsent in phase I Ghoraire 1975 levels at Aswad; the first einkorn wheat grains Phase II, various levels min. 3.8 2.0 1.8 171 71 are from phase 11 levels. The fact that einkorn N = 18 aver. 5.03 2.39 2.19 211 92 wheat appeared later in the Damascus area max. 5.8 3.0 2.4 242 100 than emmer wheat is not astonishing. Above (4. 1.) it has been discussed that the emmer wheat at Aswad may have originated from the region of northern Palestine and southwest the Aswad emmer wheat to the wild form is Syria, one of the present-day distribution areas correct, the emmer wheat from phase I levels at of the wild species. On the other hand the Ghoraife, which correspond to those of phase domestication of einkorn wheat must have 11 at Aswad, should show similarly high Lj B taken place at a much greater distance from the index values. Unfortunately, only one grain Damascus basin. Western Anatolia is the most from a definitely phase I level at Ghoraife likely area where one-seeded einkorn was (from a depth of 4.20 m) could be measured . taken into cultivation, because it is there that Although this grain has a high LjB index value Triticum boeoticul11 Boiss, emend. Schiem. (5. IX2.0X2. ! mm, L:B 256, TB 92), it does, of ssp. aegilopoides (Link.) Schiem., is found in course, not prove anything. primary habitats. The distribution centre of two-seeded wild einkorn, Tr iticum boeoticum thaoudar 4.2. Einkorn wheat ssp. (Reuter) 'Schiem. is much greater and includes southeastern Turkey, northern Domestic einkorn wheat, Triticum mono­ Iraq and western Iran. Outside the distribution C()(,(,UI11 L., is also represented in the sites from areas of primary habitats wild einkorn occ.urs the Damascus basin. In einkorn wheat, usually exch.isively as a segetal plant, in secondary one grain develops in a spikelet. The grains habitats, such as roadsides, fields and other are laterally compressed, with longitudinally disturbed places. It is likely that wild einkorn curved ventral and dorsal sides (fig. 11: 4, 5, 6). was dispersed outside its natural habitat zones Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 191

100 liB 100 T/B

• '·90 C8 1.01 •

"

" �" � Fig. 10. Ramad; Tr iticum " " dicDccum . Frequency " " distribution histograms. [:. "'1

Table 12. Dimensions and index values of Triticum mOl1o, right or whether it was grown mixed with caecum grains emmer wheat will not be touched upon here. The dimensions and index values of einkorn Ramad L B T L/B T/B grains are shown in table 12. There are no great C8 3.35, 3.55, 4.05 min. 3.8 1.3 1.6 204 103 differences in size and shape of the einkorn N=13 aver. 4046 1.81 2.09 25 3 117 kernels in different levels at Ramad. The max. 5.0 2.3 2.4 317 133 average dimensions of the few grains measured C8 4.75 min. 3.8 1.3 1.7 196 100 for Aswad are about 10% greater than those of N= 13 aver. 4049 1.84 2.14 249 117 the Ramad specimens. max. 5.0 2.5 204 344 143 Wild one-seeded einkorn wheat, Tr iticum C8 4.95, 5.05 min. 3.8 lA 1.7 196 104 boeoticum ssp. aegilop 0 ides , is also repre­ N = 10 aver. 4045 1.78 2.14 257 122 sented, albeit by very small numbers of grains max. 4.8 2.2 2.5 341 138 and only at Ramad. The wild einkorn grains M4 1.75 min. 3.9 1.5 1.7. 215 96 are distinguishable from those of the domestic N = 10 aver. 4.51 1.82 2.01 250 III species by their extreme lateral compression max. 5.0 2.2 204 332 132 (fig. 11: 1,2, 3). The average width of 11 Tri­ Aswad ticum boeoticum caryopses from Ramad is Phase Il, various levels min. 4.3 1.6 2.1 214 100 1.20 mm, whereas for Triticum monococcum N=7 aver. 4.95 2.00 2.30 250 116 from the same site an average width of max. 504 2.3 2.5 300 130 1.78- \ .82 mm was established (table 13). The yet greater lateral compression than in domestic einkorngr ains fi nds expression in the average LjB index values: 355 and 249-257, Table 13. Dimensions and index values of Triticum boeoticu111 respectively. In contrast to the grains of grains from Ramad C8, various levels eN = 11) domestic einkorn wheat which show a convexly curved ventral as well as dorsal side, L B T T/B LID in the wild species the dorsal side is min. 3.7 0.9 1.3 307 107 longitudinally straight or only slightly curved . aver. 4.20 1..20 1047 355 124 It has to be admitted that the wild einkorn max. 5.2 1.6 1.9 455 146 grain depicted in fig. 11:2 has a rather curved dorsal side. It has already been mentioned that Tr iticum boeoticum is not an indigenous species of together with the domesticated form. the Damascus area . It was introduced In conclusion, the Tr iticum monococcum in inadvertently by Neolithic fa rmers. Tr iticum phase II levels at Aswad most likely originated boeoticum is not reported for the present from western Turkey. One may assume that vegetation of the Damascus area and of the it was grown intentionally although the whole of western Syria, but the species has proportions of einkorn wheat grains suggest been collected in Lebanon (D. Zohary, 1969 that it was not a maj or crop plant of the fig. I). Most probably wild einkorn occurred a� Neolithic fa rmers in the Damascus basin. The a weed in · the grain fields of the Ramad question whether it was a crop plant in its own fa rmers. 192 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

0 2 0

5

0 3 0

6

0 5mm , , 0 7

Fig. 11. I. Triticum boeoticum , Ramad C8 2.95; 2. T boeoticu/11, Ramad C8 3.60; 3. T boeoticum , Ramad C8 4.75; 4,5,6. T l11onococcum , Ramad C8 4.75; 7. Aegilops spec., Ramad C8 3.55.

4. 3. Spikelet remains of hulled wheats spontaneously into the individual spikelets; these wheats have a brittle rachis. In Tr iticum In addition to the caryopses of Triticum monococcum and T dicoccum, on the other dicoccum and T monococcum, glume bases hand; the mature ear stays intact, which is the and spikelet forks of glume wheats were found most characteristic trait of domestic cereal (fig. 14:5,6,7). In this connection the following species . However, when pressure is exerted, should be remarked. I n wild einkorn and and this happens in threshing, the ear of em mer wheat, at maturity the ear disarticulates domestic einkorn and emmer wheat breaks up Archaeobotanical studies in the LeJiant I 193 into the separate spikelets. The rachis Table 14. Width of Triticum mOl1ococcum/dicoccum spikelet internodes usually break at the disarticulation forks and glume bases fr om Ramad point Tr iticum leaving a distinct scar. Spikelet Glume Proportions of monococcum and T. dicoccum are so-called forks bases einkorn wheat semi-brittle wheats. Subsequent processing of grains (see 4.3.) the hulled wheat crop, such as pound ing or grinding to free the grains, results in a breaking C8 2.45 min. 1.2 0.5 N=97/100 aver. 1.74 0.74 10% up of the spikelets into separate parts. In max. 2.2 1.0 burning crop-processing waste the dense spikelet forks and glume bases had a fa ir C8 2.70 min. 1.4 0.6 N = 100 aver. 1.84 0.81 4% chance of becoming preserved in a charred max. 2.5 1.0 condition Hillman. 1984). (er min. Various samples from Aswad and parti­ C8 3.90 1.4 0.6 N = 100 aver. 1.80 0.81 3% cularly from Ramad yielded la rge quan­ max. 2.3 1.0 tities of spikelet forks and glume bases. C8 4.05 min. 1.4 0.5 stion arises whether it is possible Now the que N = 100 aver. 1.78 0.74 9% to distinguish carbonized glume bases and max. 2.2 1.0 spikelet forks of Tr iticum dicoccum from C8 4.75 min. 1.6 0.6 T. monococcum. those of How do the N = 100 aver. 1.95 0.84 5% proportions compare of einkorn and emmer max. 2.3 1.1 glume bases and spikelet wheat among the C8 5.05 min. 1.3 0.7 forks with those among the grains? The N = 100 aver. 1.82 0.84 2% spikelets of einkorn wheat are smaller and max. 2.2 1.0 more slender than those of emmer whe at, M4 1.75 min. 1.4 0.6 which should fi nd expression in the dimen­ N = 100 aver. 1.68 0.78 6% sions. In carbonized spikelet remains two max. 2.1 1.0 dimensions are usually taken, viz. the width of the spikelet fork and of the glume base. Helbaek (1952) introduced a standard method of taking these measurements. The width of the and spikelet forks have been measured. The spikelet fork is measured across the articu­ results are presented in table 14 and in the lation scar, and that of the glume base at frequency distribution histograms of fig. 13. In its narrowest point, just above the suture (fig. the samples concerned, in addition to emmer 12). wheat grains those of einkorn wheat were For 7 samples from Ramad 100 glume bases counted. The proportions of einkorn wheat among the glume wheat grains (T. mono­ coccum + T. dicoccum) are also shown in table 14 and fig. 13 (2-1 0%). In theory the proportions of einkorn wheat among spike let remains and grains should be the same. To what extent do the above-mention­ ed dimensions allow a relia ble distinction be­ tween einkorn and em mer wheat? In this respect the following should be remarked. At ceramic Hacilar, dated to the sixth millen­ nium B.C., Helbaek (1970) claims that the widths of spikelet forks and glume bases are clearly divided into two groups . The widths of spikelet forks of einkorn and emmer wheat range here from 1.24 to 1.84 mm (mean 1.56 mm) and from 2.00 to 3.28 mm (mean 2.59 mm), respectively. For the width of the glume bases the dimensions are 0.48-0.88 mm (mean Fig. 12. Emmer spikelet, showing whei"ethe dimensions A 0.66 mm) and 0.96-1.72 mm (mean 1.32 mm), (width of spikelet fork) and B (width of glume base) were respectively. If these figures are applied to measured. 194 w. VAN ZEIST & 1.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

SPIIElEl fORlS '/, ElUORK GUllS GlUME BASES n higher than those of the einkorn wheat grains. 10 ca 2.11 Helbaek (1952) reports a slight overlap in the " " dimensions of glume bases and spikelet forks " n" ::1 of modern einkorn and emmer wheat. Knorzer "n n (1967) is of the opinion that in charred material I" only rather extreme values allow a reliable " " species identification, but that within a 11 It wide range of dimensions it is not possible ::j to attribute glume bases and spikelet forks to n n either einkorn or emmer wheat. I"" The present authors take the line that it is " ::� not possible to draw a sharp dividing line "j between einkorn and emmer wheat on the " n basis of the dimensions of spikelet forks f11 ::� and/ or glume bases. Appreciable proportions flO "j of einkorn wheat among the spikelet remains n n from Ramad should result in size frequency ce VD " distributions which are skewed to the lower ID11 11 end of the graphs. The dimensions of the 11 11 Ramad spikelet forks and glume bases show n " rID rather regular frequency distributions. The ::1n greater frequencies of low values for the width

lO of the glume bases in C8 2.45, C8 4.05 and M4 " 11 1.75 seem to correspond to the relatively high 11n 11 proportions of einkorn wheat grains in these n n samples (6-10%). The spikelet forks show a

" similar though less consistent picture. On the I"11 11::1 other hand, a comparison between the width " of the spikelet forks in samples M4 1.75 and C8 4.75 should call for some caution in this

Fig. 13. Ramad. Frequency distribution histograms for respect. Although in C8 4.75 the einkorn I" ::1 grain proportion (5%) is only slig htly (not the" width of spi kelet forks and glume bases of hulled whea t. The proportions of einkorn among the glume significantly) lower than in M4 1.75 (6%), the wheat grains (T. monococcum+T dicoccum ) in the differences in the widt h of the spikelet forks samples concerned are also shown. are quite considerable. There is not only a conspicuous difference in mean values (table 14), but in C8 4.75 the lowermost size classes Ramad, 80-97% of the glume bases and (which should be characteristic of einkorn 38-86% of the spikelet forks wou ld be of wheat) are absent among t.he measured einkorn wheat, which is highly unlikely. specimens. In the Ramad samples, the Helbaek reports that the Hacilar emmer wheat proportions of einkorn wheat are too small is of an extraordinarily coarse and dense spike, to influence appreciably the frequency inconsequence of which the dimensions of the distributions of the spikelet fo rk and glume glume bases and spikelet forks give unusually base dimensions . high figures. The above leads to the conclusion that on the For Late Bronze Age Beycesultan, Helbaek basis of the dimensions of the spikelet remains (1961) was unable to separate the two hulled it may be impossible to demonstrate convin­ wheats on the basis of the width of the spikelet cingly einkorn wheat if the latter species forks. On the other hand, the dimensions occurs in a low percentage relative to em mer obtained for 16 glume bases are grouped into wheat. This is not so much a problem for two classes, viz. 0.48-0.72 and 0.88-1 .06 mm. Ramad because here the charred grains If the latter figures are applied to Ramad, the provide information on the proportions of proportions of einkorn wheat-type glumes einkorn and emmer wheat. However, if of would be considera bly lower (18-61 %) than hulled wheat only spikelet forks and/ or glume those mentioned above, but still very much bases are preserved, possible information on Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 195

2 3

o 5mm ,-, ----'---'------'-� ,

6 7 5

4

8 9 10

o 5mm L' _-----'-_---'__ '---_-'-- _,

Fig. 14. 1-7: Tr iticum glumes and glume bases. I. T. monococcum, modern; 2. T. diococcum , modern;3. T. dicoccum , Valkenburg B44B; 4. T. monococcum , Toszeg; 5. glume bases, Ramad CB 2.70; 6. glume bases, Ramad CB 3.90; 7. glume bases, Ramad CB 4.75; B. Hordeum sp ontaneum-type internodes, Ramad CB 4.95; 9. H. sp ontaneum-type internodes, Ramad CB 4.75; 10. H. distich um -type intern odes, Ramad CB 4.75.

the species concerned must come from these scar) is more pronounced. In emmer wheat, on remains. Can charred spikelet remains of both the other hand; the glumes show only one hulled wheat species be distinguished one from prominent keel, namely at the dorsal side of the another on the ground of morphological spikelet. Modern glumes of both hulled wheats features? are 'depicted in fig. 14: I, 2. In charred glume The glumes of einkorn wheat have two keels bases (only very seldom a greater part of the which both terminate in a pointed beak (a glume is preserved) these keels are present in tooth). The keel at the dorsal side of the the form of sharp edges. In einkorn wheat, the spikelet (the side which shows the articulation charred glume bases have a sharp edge at both 196 W. VAN ZEIST & I.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES sides, whereas in emmer wheat one edge of the In various spikelet fo rks from Toszeg the glume base is sharp and the other more glumes (showing two distinct keels) are rounded . This is illustrated here in two diverging, which according to Knorzer should examples of archaeological wheat in which be characteristic of Tr iticum dicoccum. there is no question about the species identity. The above makes one wonder whether An almost pure einkorn wheat sample from spikelet remains of Tr iticum monococcum do, Bronze Age Toszeg in Hungary contained indeed, not occur at Ramad. Are the whole spikelets and many spikelet remains. distinguishing features perhaps not suffi­ Virtually all glume bases display a sharp ciently valid for Ramad (and other sites), edge at both sides (fig 14:4). In the emmer or is it the fault of the investigators who did wheat glume bases from a large Tr iticum not recognize einkorn spikelet remains? Be dicoccum/ T. sp elta sample from the Roman this as it may, the observations discussed castellum at Valkenburg (Holland ), dated to above demonstrate that there are serious A.D. 69, only one sharp edge can be observed, pitfalls in determining the species of pre­ the other edge being more rounded (fig. 14:3). historic charred spikelet remains of diploid Thus, in principle it should be possible to and tetraploid hulled wheats. determine the species of hulled wheat glume bases. It is clear that not too small a part of the 4.4. Free-threshing wheat glume should have been preserved and that the edges of the glume should be reasonably In addition to the glume wheats Triticum undamaged. dicoccum and T. monococcum, a free­ For Ramad great numbers of glume bases threshing wheat species occurs in Aswad, have been examined with a view to species Ghoraife and Ramad. Mostly small numbers determination. Much to our surprise no dis­ of naked wheat grains were recovered fr om tinctly einkorn-type glume bases were found. phase 11 layers at Aswad and from Ghoraife, Admittedly perhaps too much emphasis but at Ramad this wheat type is better was laid on unequivocal evidence of einkorn represented . Various Ramad samples yielded wheat (some specimens could possibly be considerable numbers of naked wheat grains einkorn wheat glumes), but it is striking (tables 5 and 7). Moreover, rachis fragments of that no distinct einkorn wheat glume bases free-threshing wheat were found at Ghoraife were observed, whereas those of emmer wheat and part icularly at Ramad. A fa ir proportion were fo und in great numbers. of the rachis fragments consists of more than Knorzer (1967) points out that in spikelet one internode (fig. 16). forks the position of the glume bases is The free-threshing wheat grains could, as a characteristic for the species. In the one­ rule, easily be distinguished from those of grained einkorn wheat spikelets, the glumes em mer wheat. Only in case of serious de­ diverge only slightly or run parallel to each formations, mainly in consequence of puf­ other. In emmer wheat spikelets, the glumes fing, it was difficult, if not impossible, to are usually attached at more oblique angles. determine the type of wheat. In naked wheat On the basis of this criterion prehistoric the greatest breadth is usually found in the charred spikelet fo rks are attributed by lower part of the kernel, but naked wheat Knorzer to either einkorn oi' emmer wheat. grains with the greatest breadth in the middle Remains of one-grained emmer wheat occur likewise . The apex of the grains is often spikelets (from the top of the ear) can be truncated-rounded, but other kernels show a recognized as such by the absence of the more gradually tapering upper part. The dorsal articulation scar. At Ramad, spikelet fo rks side is in cross-section usually more rounded . which accord ing to the above dis�inguishing than in emmer wheat. feature should be attributed to Tr iticum The Ramad free-threshing wheat grains monococcum occur rather frequently. However, show a rather great variation in shape and size. the glume bases of these spikelet forks Short and plump grains with low Lj B index show only one sharp edge, indicating values (club wheat-type grains) as well as more that they are of T. dicoccum. Moreover, the slender' specimens (bread wheat/ hard wheat­ Toszeg einkorn wheat spikelet remains cast type) occur at Ramad (fig. 15). At Aswap, on some doubt on the va lidity of the position of the other hand , squat naked wheat grains are the glume bases as a distinguishing character. almost absent. Only in Aswad East 1.20 a few Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 197

o o2

o3 o4

o5 o6

o7 o8 o 5mm ,-, ----''---'---'_....1...--',

Fig. 15. Tr iticum durum/ aestivum grains, Ramad.

grains of this type were found. This finds about by the absence of club wheat-type grains expression in the comparison of the dimen­ at Aswad. The mean length at Ramad is sions and index values obtained for free­ depressed by the short club wheat-type grains. threshing wheat grains from both sites (table LIB index values for typical club wheat-type IS). The minimum and average length of the grains range from about 124 to 156. Ramad grains is considera bly less than of those Among the naked wheat grains fr om phase from Aswad. The maximum length, on the II levels at Ghoraife, the short and plump type other hand, is about the same for the caryopses is quite common (table IS). It looks as if the from both sites. Clear differences are also earliest free-threshing wheat in the Damascus displayed by the LI B index values, the basin was almost exclusively of the more minimum and average values for Ramad being slender grain type, and that later on varieties much lower than for Aswad. The differences in which produced the short and plump grain the dimensions and index values of the naked type became more common. wheat grains between both sites are brought In a few of the Ramad samples, rachis 198 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 15. Dimensions and index values of Tr iticum durum/ was less self-evident, so that somewhat aestivu 111 grains. arbitrarily this dimension was determined in the way indicated in fig. 16. The measure­ L B T LIB T/B ments confirm that there is, indeed, a Ramad great variation in the degree of plumpness or C8 3.35 min. 3.4 2.0 1.6 127 67 slenderness of the internodes. The frequency N = 78 aver . 4.34 2.66 2.20 162 83 distribution histograms for grains and inter­ max. 5.4 3.3 2.9 204 100 nodes of free-threshing wheat from C8 C8 4.75 min. 3.4 1.9 1.6 133 71 3.35 (fig. 17) suggest that internode L/B ratios N = 29 aver. 4.22 2.67 2.20 160 83 of less than 100 would largely correspond to max. 6.0 3.4 2.7 238 97 club wheat-type grains (L/ B index values C8 5.05 min. 3.4 2.2 1.9 124 75 below 160). No measurements were carried N = 28 aver. 4.40 2.79 2.37 159 85 out for rachis internodes from C8 4.95 97 max. 5.6 3.2 2.9 207 because the free-threshing wheat grains from Aswad West this sample had got lost. In this case a 1.40 m min. 4.5 2.0' 1.6 182 69 comparison between L/B index values of N=8 aver. 5.06 2.50 2.00 205 80 intern odes and grains is not possible. max. 5.8 2.7 2.3 248 85 The problems in determining the species of 1.60 m min. 4.4 2.2 1.7 188 69 carbonized caryopses and rachis remains of N = 10 aver. 5.08 2.57 2.02 198 79 free-threshing wheat have already been max. 5.6 3.0 2.4 217 91 discussed in an earlier paper (van Zeist, 1976). 2.20 m min. 4.6 2.3 1.8 161 70 In principle two species or species complexes N=9 aver. 5.00 2.60 2.11 193 81 come into consideration here, viz. tetraploid max. 5.4 2.9 2.5 216 94 Tr iticum durum Desf. (hard wheat) and Ghoraife 1975 hexaploid T. aestivum L. (bread wheat). The Phase 11, various levels min. 3.7 2.4 2.0 121 77 latter species includes the dense-eared, plump­ 146 86 N = 10 aver. 4.14 2.86 2.46 grained variety T. aestivum grex aestivo­ max. 5.4 3.2 2.9 183 91 compactum Schiem. (club wheat), the former T. compactum Host. Tr iticum durum is a mutant of T. dicoccum and this free-threshing wheat could have originated anywhere inside Table 16. Rachis internodes of Triticum aestivum/duru1l1 from the area where emmer wheat was grown. Ramad C8 3.35 (N = 100) Tr iticum aestivum arose from the hybrid­ L B LIB ization of T. dicoccum and/ or T. durum with the diploid wild grass species Aegilops min. 0.9 0.9 65 squarrosa L. (Ae. tauschii Cosson) followed aver. 1.42 1.28 113 by chromosome doubling. Hexaploid wheats max. 2.0 1.8 183 could not have come into existence until Neolithic wheat agriculture had reached the distribution area of Aegi/ops squarrosa which includes the south Caspian region, fragments were found in considerable num­ northern Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and bers. In view of the variation in the shape Uzbekistan (D. Zohary, 1969; 1971). of the grains a corresponding variation in the Carbonized durum wheat grains cannot be shape of the intern odes might be expected. separated from those of bread wheat. The Short and plump grains most probably shape of the grains does not allow a spe­ developed in short and dense ears with short cies identification, nor is the variation in rachis internodes. The ears in which the more slenderness (variation in L/B index values) of ' slender grains were formed must have been any help in determining the species. D. rather long and lax with comparatively long Zohary (1973) reports that in living material rachis internodes. it is frequently impossible to distinguish be­ Length and ' breadth of 100 rachis inter­ tween durum and aestivum varieties on the nodes from C8 3.35 were measured (table 16, basis of the kernel morphology. fig. 17). As for the breadth, the greatest From a comparison of the central axes breadth was taken. A measure for the length (rachises) of the ears of modernaestivum and Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant 1 199 durum wheats with each other and with Continued archaeological, botanical and the charred rachis fragments from Ramad, van zoological investigations at Mehrgarh, combi­ Zeist (1976) concluded that rachis remains are ned with radiocarbon dating, should provide very likely not of much help in distinguishing more precise information on the beginnings between both free-threshing wheat species. of agriculture in that area. Hillman (1978, p. 168), on the other hand, From the above it is clear that one should claims that the shape of the rachis internodes seriously consider the possibility that the does provide clues for a species identification. Neolithic agriculture reached the south No description of the distinguishing features Caspian region well before 6000 B.C. and that has so far been published. For that reason a consequently Triticum aestivum could have possible identification of the Ramad rachis been present in western Syria at an earlier date remains must wait until later. At least for the than is suggested in a previous paper (van time being, we are left with the uncertainty Zeist, 1976). Moreover, Hillman (1978, p. 168) whether Tr iticum durum or T aestivum or claims that at the aceramic Neolithic site of perhaps both species are represented in Can Hasan III in South-Central Anatolia, Ramad, Ghoraife and Aswad. Triticum aestivum could be demonstrated for On ecological grounds Tr iticum durum levels radiocarbon dated to c. 6000 B.C. Thus, if would be the most likely candidate. Durum Hillman's identifications of the rachis remains wheats are adapted to the Mediterranean of free-threshing wheat are correct, bread climate with mild, rainy winters and warm, dry wheat was cultivated in Turkey already in the summers. Until recently durum wheat was 7th millennium B.C. If this is true the species the most important wheat grown in the could equally have been known to the 7th Mediterranean basin. Hexaploid aestivum millennium B.c. farmers in the Damascus area. wheats, on the other hand, are widely grown in As a consequence, the identity of the free­ the more continental areas of westernAsia and threshing wheat at Aswad, Ghoraife and in temperate central and western Europe (D. Ramad-hard wheat, bread wheat or perhaps Zohary, 1971). both-must remain uncertain. However, one Van Zeist (1976) argues that in the 7th wonders whether a certain degree of semi­ millennium B.c., hexaploid wheats could not brittleness could point to durum wheat. For possibly have been grown in the Damascus Ramad it was observed that quite frequently basin. It would not have been until after 6000 the rachis had been broken at the joint between B.C that Neolithic agriculture had arrived in two internodes (as happens in T dicoccum). the area, in which primary habitats of It should be mentioned furthermore that Aegilops squarrosa occur. Consequently, the naked wheat from the Neolithic sites aestivum wheat could have been grown in in the Damascus area and from other pre­ western Syria at the earliest in the 6th historic sites in the Near East and the Bal­ millennium B.C. The weak point in this kans is attributed by Kislev (1979/ 1980; 1981) reasoning is the near-absence of radiocarbon to the archaeobotanical species Tr iticum dated evidence for early Neolithic habitation parvicoccum Kislev. This species has been in the distribution area of Aegilops squar­ found only in archaeological sites and the rosa and in the greater part of Iran. Re­ species definition is based exclusively on cent excavations at Mehrgarh in Pakistan charred grains and ear remains. Tr iticum (Jarrige & Meadow, 1980) seem to indicate parvicoccum is supposed to be a tetraploid that Neolithic agriculture may have expanded wheat and a direct descendant of T dicoccum. much more rapidly in an eastern direction T parvicoccum would differ from other than is suggest by Braidwood (cl Braid­ tetraploid wheats by its dense ear and short wood's (19 75, p. 143) isochronic lines grain, and from hexaploid species by its ind icating the spread of village fa rming). At Mediterranean and Near Eastern distribution. Mehrgarh, impressions of grains of barley, The question to what extent it is justified to einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and bread dis(inguish a separate archaeobotanical wheat/ hard wheat (identifications by Cos­ species will not be touched upon here. As has tantini) are reported for pre-pottery Neo­ been discussed above, only part of the naked lithic strata dated to the 6th millennium wheat grown by the Neolithic farmers in the B.C. The animal bones point to the presence of Damascus area was dense-eared, one of the domesticated animals in the same period. characteristics of T parvicoccum. 200 W. VAN ZEIST & I.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

4 5 6

o 3mm L' ____� L_____ �____ �,

Fig. 16. Triticum durum/ aestivum rachis internodes, Ramad. In 2and 3 it is indicated how the length of the internodes has been determined.

GRAINS 1,,78

length II B liB n n

" "

" u

RACHIS IITERlOO£S I" 1"'00 "l

BrtGdth LIB n Fig. 17. Triticum durum/aestivum from Ramad C8 3.35. Upper row: frequency distribution histograms for grains; lower I: row: fo r rachis internodes. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 201

4.5. Two-rowed hulled barley fa rmers in the Da mascus basin (Aswad) was likewise of the wild type. Consequently, Of Hordeum, grains as well as rachis inter­ particular attention was paid to distinguishing nodes were recovered from all levels, some­ between the charred remains of both barley times in rather great numbers. By far the species. majority of the barley remains are of hulled . . The internode remams should provide the varieties. No evidence of six-rowed hulled most reliable species identification. Char­ barley, Hordeum u/gare L. emend. La ., � r:n red internodes of shattering, brittle-rachised was found. Among the well preserved grams Hordeum sp ontaneum should show an intact no distinctly lop-sided specimens, indicat ive articulation scar (if the latter is preserved) Ho rdeum vu/gare, of occur. Internodes, the because at maturity the ear disarticulates upper part of which is preserved, point naturally into the individual spikelets. Not definitely to two-rowed barley. Although an only the articulation scar but also the base of occasional six-rowed barley cannot be ex­ the internode s of brittle-rachised barley may be cluded one may safely assume that all or ' expected to be undamaged. In tough-rachised almost all hulled barley at Ramad, GhoraiH: Hordeum distichum, on the other hand, the and Aswad is of the two-rowed type . ears stay intact until threshed. In threshing As for the two-rowed hulled barley, two the rachis usually does not break up at the species come into consideration, viz. domes ic � joints between the internodes. In ch rred Hordeum distichum L. emend. La m. and Its � '� . archaeological material two or more mter- w� progenitor Hordeum sp on aneum C. � nodes may be found still adhering together. Koch. The latter species is, at least m theory to More often only one internode or be expected for two reasons. In the fi r t pl ce . � � internode segment with the basal part of the the Damascus basin lies within the distrI bution next internode attached to it is found. At area of Hordeum sp ontaneum, and in fact wild Ramad Ghoraife and Aswad internode barley was observed by the fi rst author in the remain; of both types were recovered (fig. 14: immediate vicinity of Te ll Ramad. Further, 8, 9, 10), and consequently one may assume Helbaek (1966) claims that morphologically­ that wild as well as domesticated two-rowed defined wild barley was grown by the barley are represented. Belo the rachis inhabitants of Pre-Pottery Neolithic Beidha in � . remains will again come up for diSCUSSIOn, but Jordan. For that reason it should not be one more morphological feature will be treated excluded that the barley grown by the earl iest here . In Hordeum sp ontaneum, the sterile lateral fl orets are distinctly pedicellate. Remains of Table 17. Dimensions and index values of Hordeum (distichum) the stalks of the lateral florets are preserved grains in various wild barley-type internode frag­ ments from Ramad, which is accord ing to L B T LIB TIB ? expectation. Howeve.r, d?mes.ticate barley­ Ramad type internodes provide likewise eVidence of M4 1.75, 1.80, 1.90 min. 5.4 2.3 1.7 177 67 pedicellate lateral splkelets, . whereas accord­ N=9 aver. 5.88 2.72 2.04 217 75 ing to Schiemann (1948) m modern Hor­ max. 6.4 3.1 2.4 232 86 deum distichum the lateral florets are C8 3.35 min. 4.6 2.2 1.6 166 67 sessile. Pedicellate lateral fl orets in tough­ N = 17 aver. 5.50 2.64 1.96 210 74 rachised two-rowed barley are reported for a max. 6.7 3.2, 2.3 254 93 fe w other sites. Helbaek (1959a) describes C8 4.75 min. 5.1 2.3 1.8 173 68 non-brittle two-rowed barley with pedicellate 75 N= 24 aver. 5.86 2.76 2.08 213 lateral florets for Jarmo. Helbaek suggests max. 6.8 3.4 2.6 235 86 that stalked lateral florets in the Jarmo bar­ Aswad West ley are a primitive feature which may .be 1.40 m min. 4.6 2.3 1.6 182 67 considered as a transitional stage between wIld N= 17 aver. 5.39 2.58 1.92 209 74 and' fully domesticated fo rms. How�ver, max. 6.0 3.1 2.5 247 89 pedicellate Hordeum distichum IS not confmed 1.60 m min. 4.9 2.2 1.5 182 66 to early-Neolithic sites, but Hopf (1978) N = 18 aver. 5.49 2.63 1.95 210 74 describes qnd depicts two-rowed barley 2.4 250 86 max. 6.1 3.0 internodes with short stalks at each side from 202 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

o

o

5

o

6

o Smm , �, , --��--��� 7 Fig. 18. 1,2. modern Hordeum SDonlaneum. near Ramad; 3, 4. modern H. sponlaneum, along Damascus-Beirut highway; 5, 6, 7, H. sponlaneum, Ramad C8 5.05.

Early Bronze Age levels at Arad in Israel. Thus, wild-type (brittle) and domesticated­ Moreover, in modern two-rowed barley type (non-brittle) rachis internodes can easily collected in a grain field in the Damascus area be distinguished. On the other hand, the the lateral florets appeared to be shortly carbonized caryopses present more difficulties pedicellate instead of sessile. Consequently, up in this respect (figs. 18: 5,6,7 and 19: 4, 5,6). to the present two-rowed barleys with pedi­ To that effect modern grains of Hordeum cellate lateral florets are grown. spontaneum and H. distichum were studied. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 203

0·· o 4

o 5 o 2

o6

o 5mm o ,'---'-----'--'------'-----', 3

Fig. 19. I, 2, 3. modern Hordeum distichum, near Ramad; 4, 5, 6. H. distichum / Ramad C8 4.75.

I n fig. 18: 1-4 grai ns of wild barley from a taneum are characterized by their extreme primary and from a secondary habitat (fallow flatness; they are . markedly thinner than field) and in fig. 19: 1,2,3 grains of those of H. distichum, As is particularly domesticated barley from the Damascus area clear in lateral view, wild barley grains are are illustrated. The kernels of both barley very thin at the apex. In the upper part of the species are spindle-shaped and more or less wild barley grains a dorsal depression can be angular in cross-section; the ventral furrow observed which is absent in the grains of the has its maximum breadth at the upper end of domestic species. Although modern grains of the grain. The grains of Hordeum sp on- both barley species are not difficult to 204 W. VAN ZEIST & 1.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 18. Numbers and percentages of Hordeum internodes 2. The two-rowed barley of the Neolithic and grains (for explanation, see text). Table 8 gives greater fa rmers in the Damascus basin was not yet numbers of barley grains and internodes for Aswad than fully tough-rachised. accounted for in this table. This is due to the fact that here The second hypothesis would imply that as the actual numbers are concerned. for rachis toughness the barley in the Internodes Grains Damascus area was of an intermediate stage . Brittle Non- Uniden- Hordeum Hordeum between wild and fully domesticated forms; in brittle tified spont. dist.+unid. addition to tough-rachised forms, semi-brittle % % % % % and perhaps even brittle forms with Hordeum Ramad distichum-type kernels occurred. As for the C8 SE 133 35.3 184 48.8 60 15.9 25 4.7 506 95.3 hypothetical semi-brittle barley, it is assumed M4 53 32.7 85 52.5 24 14.8 4 1.7 225 98.3 that in threshing, the rachis of this type breaks Ghoraife 4 3 4 IV, 13Y. at the internode joints. The second hypothesis Aswad 80 62.5 34 26.6 14 10.9 25 6.8 344 93.2 is attractive in that it explains also the fact that at Aswad the proportion of brittle-type intern odes is much higher than at Ramad. This would, as it were, illustrate the gradually separate, in carbonized, subfossil specimens increasing proportion of tough-rachised forms the distinction is often less clear. This may to a in the barley grown in the Damascus area. high degree be due to a puffing of the grains The large proportion of brittle and semi­ and other kinds of deformation through brittle barley could also be due to a carbonization. In some of the charred wild continual interbreeding, a back-crossing, of barley kernels the thin upper part is slightly morphologically wild and domestic forms. Wild curved backwards. barley is still found as a weed in and Whereas a large proportion of the rachis along fields in the Damascus area. However, internodes is of the wild barley type, relatively it may not be excluded that among our Hor­ few grains could with a fair degree of certainty deum distichum-type grains a consider­ be attributed to Hordeum spontaneum . This able number is of Hordeum sp ontaneum. discrepancy between the proportions of wild In other words, due to deformation and barley-type rachis internodes and grains poses puffing many charred wild barley grains some questions. In table 18 the total numbers cannot be recognized as such. Be this as it of internode(s) (fragments) and grains from may, it was thought useful to focus atten­ Aswad, Ghoraife and Ramad are shown. tion on the discrepancies in the propor­ Three categories of rachis remains ar e tions of internode types and grain types. distinguished: brittle, non-brittle and un­ The dimensions and index values of hulled identified (too fragmentary to determine barley grains from Aswad and Ramad are brittleness). The grains are separated into shown in table 18. As many kernels had been two categories: more or less distinct wild more or less seriously affected by the carbon­ barley type kernels and the others which are ization, rather few specimens were suit­ predominantly Hordeum distichum but which able for measuring. It cannot be excluded may include some H. sp ontaneum. The latter that some of the measured grains have applies also to H. sp ontaneum and H. afterwards been attributed to Hordeum sp on­ distichum in Ramad (tables 5, 6 and 7). taneum. It was not until the fi nal stage of At Aswad brittle-type internode fragments the investigation that a serious attempt was are dominant. At Ramad non-brittle inter­ made to distinguish between domestic and nodes are more numerous than th ose of wild barley-type grains. There are some the brittle type. For Ghoraife there are too few differences in the dimensions of the hulled internode fragments to allow any conclusion barley grains between the samples, but the as to the proportions. For the proportionally index values hardly differ. Moreover, the too great numbers of brittle-type rachis differences in size are not systematic. Al­ internodes two explanations can be brought though, on average, the Aswad barley is forward: sm,Uier than that of Ramad, the dimensions of I. Many more kernels are of Hordeum the grains in Aswad West 1.60 conform to sp ontaneum than have been determined on those in Ramad C8 3.35. It seems impossible the basis of the grain morphology. to draw any other conclusion than that the Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 205 size differences must have been due. to local here, although this is most likely. The lateral conditions. spikelets on this internode were not sessile as in modern six-rowed barley, but they were pedicellate. Short-stalked lateral spikelets are 4.6. Naked barley described for naked and hulled Hordeum Free-threashing barley is rather scarcely re­ vulgore from Neolithic sites in Central and presented. Only a "few samples yielded some­ Western Europe (Villaret· von Rochow, 1967; what greater numbers of naked barley grains Knorzer, 1971). This barley species has not been demonstrat­ ed for phase I at Aswad. It seems that just 4.7. Cereal grain fragments like einkorn wheat and free-threshing wheat, naked barley did not form part of the crop In addition to complete and more or less plant assortment of the earliest fa rmers in damaged kernels, great numbers of usually the Damascus area. It cannot be ascer­ small cereal grain fragments were recovered. tained whether naked barley was introduc­ Although it would in various instances have ed in the Damascus area from elsewhere been possible to attribute these fragments to a or whether it had developed locally from particular grain type, they are all lumped hulled barley. together into the category of 'cereal grain Naked barley grains have a more flowing fragments'. In tables 5-9 the numbers of cereal shape than those of the hulled varieties and grain fragments are not the numbers of actual they are not angular but rounded in cross­ fragments, but of estimated complete kernels section. The fine transverse wrinkling on the (on the basis of 0.0074 gram per grain). The surface of the grains, which is a characteristic mean cereal grain weight of 0.0074 gram was feature of naked barley, could be observed in obtained in the following way. about 15% of the kernels. For lOO complete grains of emmer wheat The naked barley grains are shorter and and of free-threshing wheat from 3 samples plumper than those of the hulled varieties as is the weight was determined (table 20). For clear from a comparison between tables 17 hulled barley no 100 complete kernels per and 19. The greater plumpness of the naked sample were available for weighing, but here barley finds expression in the considerably the weights obtained for smaller numbers of lower L/ B index values. The naked barley at grains have been converted to lOO grain Ramad, Ghoraife and Aswad is attributed to weights. The 100 grain weights listed in table the six-rowed species, Hordeum vulgore L. 20 result in the mean value of 0.74 gram for emend. Lam. var. coelesle L. (H. vul!(ore var. lOO cereal grains: the value applied here for nudum). It is true that only a fe w, somewhat converting the weights of the cereal grain problematical, asymmetric or lop-sided grains fragments into numbers of grains. have been observed, but the many short and The charred grain weights are a measure of broad kernels point to six-rowed naked the weight of the grains before carbonization barley. and thus of th� quality of the crop. So fa r, few One barley internode fragment has been charred grain weights have been published, so identified as that of six-rowed barley (Ramad C8 2.25). It could not be established with certainty whether naked barley is concerned Table 20. (Calculated) 100 grain weights for cereals from Ramad

Table 19. Dimensions and index values of Hordeum vulgare Tri ticum dicoccum C8 3.35 0.87 g var. coeleste from Ramad C8 3.90 0.66 g C8 4.95 0.75 g L B T L/B T/B Triticum durum/ C8 3.35 0.70 g aestivum M4 1.80 0.72 g C8 3.35· min. 4.1 2.5 1.8 114 5i C8 4.75 0.76 g N = 9 aver. 4.68 3.00 2.09 159 71 max. 5.4 3.9 2.5 194 100 Hordeum (distichum) C8 4.75 0.78 g (based upon 88 grains) C8 4.95 0.66 g (based upon 50 grains) C8 4.95 min. 3.2 2.7 2.0 118 67 C8 5.05 0.73 g (based upon 55 grains) N=8 aver. 3.96 2.98 2.14 133 72 max. 4.4 3.4 2.3 153 81 Mean 100 grain weight 0.74 g 206 W. VAN ZEIST & I.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES that comparisons between sites are hardly Table 21. Dimensions of Linum (usitatissimumJ seeds possible. For Tr iticum durum/ aestivum from Corrected B millennium B.C. Erbaba, in South­ L Corrected sixth for 13 % for 21 % Central Anatolia, a mean 100 grain weight of shrinkage shrinkage 1.1 gram was established (van Zeist & Buitenhuis, 1983), whereas for the free­ Ramad threshing wheat from Ramad this value is M4 1.75 min. 2.8, (3.2 ) 1.3 (1.6 ) N = 30 only 0.73 gram. aver. 3.11 (3.57) 1.54 (1.95) max. 3.5 (4.0 ) 1.7 (2.1 ) C8 4.75 min. 3.0 (3.5 ) 1.6 (2.0 ) 4.8. Linseed N= 10 aver. 3.21 (3.69) 1.67 (2.12) max. 3.4 (3.9 ) 1.8 (2.2 ) Aswad and Ghoraife yielded small numbers of C8 4.95 seeds of Linum , but at Ramad this seed type is min. 2.8 (3.2 ) 1.2 (1.5 ) N= 30 aver. 3.17 (3.64) 1.55 (1.96) better represented. Some of the Ramad flax max. 3.6 (4.1 ) 1.8 (2.2 ) seeds are depicted in fig. 20, while the C8 5.05 min. 2.9 (3.3 ) 1.4 (1.7 ) dimensions are shown in table 21. The N= 10 aver. 3.10 (3.57) 1.54 (1.95) question of the species determination of the max. 3.4 (4.0 ) 1.8 (2.2 ) Linum seeds from Ramad has already been Ghoraife discussed in an earlier paper (van Zeist & Bakker-Heeres, 1975a). The conclusion that Phase Il, N = 8 min. 2.6 (3.0 ) 1.3 (1.6 ) Various levels aver. the flax seeds from Ramad are of domestic 2.92 (3.36) 1.50 (1.90) rnax. 3.3 (3.8 ) 1.8 (2.2 ) linum usitatissimum L. is based upon the size of the seeds. A few points of the argumentation Phase 15.00 2.6 (3.0 ) 1.2 (1.5 ) may be repeated here. Aswad West As for the original size of the Ramad flax Phase Il 1. 20 2.9 (3.3 ) 1.5 (1.9 ) seeds, it should be taken into consideration 2.40 2.8 (3.2 ) 1.5 . (1.9 ) that carbonization causes shrinkage of the seeds. Helbaek (1972) mentions a decrease in length of 12-15% after carbonization. The first author established a difference in length waterlogged sample from the Neolithic and width of 13 and 21%, respectively, lake shore dwelling site of Niederwil, in between non-carbonized and carbonized northeastern Switzerland . The dimensions seeds of Linum usitatissimum in the same after a correction for shrinkage of 13% and 21%, respectively, are also given in table 21. The corrected length of the Ramad seeds varies from 3.2 to 4. 1 mm. This size conforms to that of the seeds of domestic flax, whereas most of the wild Linum species reported for western Syria have seeds which are either larger Of smaller than the Ramad seeds (van Zeist & Bakker-Heeres, 1975a). Only Linum bienne Mill. (L. angustifolium Huds.), which is considered as the wild progenitor of domestic linseed, could possibly come into consideration because its seed size would range from 2.5 to 3.5 mm according to Brouwer & Stahlin (1955). However, Linum bienne seeds of unquestionably Near Eastern proveniences do not exceed 3 mm: 3 mm (Post & Dinsmore, vo!. I, pp. 252-253), 2-3 mm (Zohary & Feinbrun-Dothan, vo!. 2, p. 260), 2.4-2:7 mm (Helbaek, 1959b), 2.6.-2.7 mm

o 3mm L..' _---'-_---'_---', (own measurements). It seems that Near EasternLinum bienne seeds are generally not Fig. 20. Linum usifafissimum, Ramad. larger than 3 mm. Even if an occasional L. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 207 bienne seed reaches a length of 3.5 mm, the Table 22. Greatest diameter of Lens (culinaris) seeds majority of the Ramad seeds, measuring more than 3.5 mm, cannot possibly have originated Ramad C8 4.75 min. 1.8 from this wild flax species. Thus, the size of N = 100 aver. 2.94 the Ramad flax seeds points to Linum max. 4.1 usitatissimum , implying that about 6250 B.C. C8 4.95 min. 1.9 (the radiocarbon dale obtained for a sample at N= 62 aver. 2.93 depth of 5. 10 m) linseed cU'ltivation was well max. 4.0 under way. It is likely that from the beginning C8 5.05 min. 1.8 of the habitation on Linum usitatissimum N= 42 aver. 3.04 formed part of the crop-plant assortment of max. 4.0 the Ramad fa rmers. M4 2.30 min. 1.8 The Linum seeds from GhoraiH:an d Aswad N = 18 aver. 2.87 are, on average, smaller than those from max. 3.8 Ramad. If one takes the line that cultivation of flax resulted in an increase in the sjze of the Ghoraife 1975 Phase I, 4.40 2.6 seeds, the flax at Aswad and Ghoraife was of a 5.00 2.6 more primitive-less developed-type than that 2.6 at Ramad. One could also speculate that the growing conditions at Ramad were better Aswad West min. 2.1 than at the other two sites. On the other hand, Phase 11, various levels N=8 aver. 2.51 the dimensions of the cereal grains do not max. 3.4 support such a hypothesis. Although one cannot exclude the possibility that the flax at Aswad East Aswad and Ghoraife concerns wild Linum Phase I, various levels min. 2.0 bienne, it is tempting to assume that already in N=6 aver. 2.75 max. 3.6 the first half of the seventh millennium B.C. (phase 1I at Aswad) flax was cultivated in the Damascus area. This would be the oldest indication of flax cultivation. The flax seeds at <::aybnii, in southeastern Turkey, from a Lens is present in the lowermost habitation level dated to c. 7000 B.C., are attributed to levels (phase I) at Aswad . Was this lentil Linum bienne (van Zeist, 1972). The <::aybnii collected wild or was the species already flax seeds (dimensions: 2.45 (2.2-2.6) cultivated by the earliest fa rmers in the X 1.30 (1. 1-1.5) mm; corrected for shrink­ Damascus basin? As for the species identi­ age: 2.82 (2.5-3.0) X 1.65 (lA-1.9)mm) are fication the following may be remarked. markedly smaller than those from Aswad and Until recently, Lens nigricans (Bieb.) Godr. Ghoraife . was considered as the wild progenitor of domesticated lentil (Lens culinaris Medik. = L. esculenta Moench). This species which has a 4.9. Lentil Mediterranean distribution from Spain and Lentils were found in almost all Ramad Morocco to the eastern shore of the samples. Particularly C8 4.75, C8 4.95 and C8 Mediterranean Sea, produces seeds of 2.0 to 5.05 yielded rather large numbers of lentils. 2.5 mm in diameter. However, D. Zohary For 4 samples the greatest diameter of the (1972) has pointed out that another wild lentil lentils was measured (table 22). From species, Lens orientalis (Boiss.) Hand.-Mazz., Ghoraife only a fe w lentil seeds . were re­ is the most likely candidate as the ancestor of covered, but at Aswad this species is better domestic lentil. The distribution of this species represented, although no sample yielded more coincides largely with that of the wild cereals. than a small number of seeds. The dimensions The seeds of Lens orientalis range from 2.5 to of the Ghoraife and Aswad lentils are also 3.0 'mm. The seed size of modern cultivated shown in table 22. It was sometimes difficult forms of lentil is 5 to 8 mm, but some present­ to distinguish between small, somewhat day cultivated forms (grouped in ssp. micro­ deformed lentils and flat, lentir-like Vicia sperma) still retain a small seed size: 3-4 mm seeds. (Zohary & Hopf, 1973). All prehistoric 208 W. VAN ZEIST & I.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES domestic lentils are to be attributed to this Table 23. Greatest dimension of Pisum sativum seeds microsperma group. Ramad Although it is likely that by carbonization CS, phase II min. 3.1· lentils decrease in diameter, no information Various levels aver. 4.06 on the degree of shrinkage is available. For N= 54 max. 5.0 that reason one can only guess at the original M4, phase II min. 3.2 diameter of the charred prehistoric lentils. The Various levels aver. 4.06 size of Ramad lentils is such that one may N=l 1 max. 4.8 assume that domes tic lentil is concernedher e. CS, phase I min. 3.4 Even if one assumes a decrease in diameter of Various levels aver. 4.15 only 10%, the majority of the Ramad lentils is N= 19 max. 5.2 more than 3 mm in size. However, this cannot Ghoraife be said of the Aswad lentils. Most of the Phase I min. 3.0 measured specimens, which are admittedly Variouslevels aver. 3.61 few in number, are smaller than 3 mm after N=l1 max. 4.1 correction for moderate shrinkage. On the other hand, comparatively large lentils do Aswad occur at Aswad. One could speculate that West, phase II min. 3.5 Various levels aver. 3.89 lentil was cultivated by the Aswad (and N=S max. 4.2 GhoraiH:) fa rmers, but that the seeds had not 3.5 yet acquired the size that is characteristic of East, Phase II min. Various levels aver. 4.09 prehistoric domestic lentils. This would imply N= 12 max. 4.9 that Aswad represents an early stage of lentil East, phase I min. 3.4 cultivation. It is self-evident that there is no Various levels aver. 4.10 strict evidence of the cultivation of lentils at N = 10 max. 4.7 Aswad. It cannot be ruled out that lentil that was collected in the wild is concerned here. In this connection it should be mentioned that the Damascus basin lies within the dis­ tribution area of Lens orienlalis (Zohary & characteristic hilum was not present. Pea-like Hopf, 1973). seeds smaller than 2.9-3.0 mm have been attributed to Vicia spec. (5. 15.). Some of these seeds may actually be of Pisum as is suggested 4. 10. Field pea by the Ramad material. An occasional Ramad Already from the lowest habitation levels at pea (with hilum) measured only 2.8 mm. Also Aswad field pea seeds were recovered. As in at Ramad, peas in which the oval hilum the charred peas from Aswad (and GhoraiH:) and/ or parts of the seed coat have been no remains of the seed coat have been preserved are rare. preserved, it cannot be established whether For peas from various samples the greatest morphologically-defined wild or domestic pea dimension was measured. Because for each is concerned here. Domestic peas have a sample generally small numbers of peas were smooth seed coat, whereas in wild forms the available for measuring, the results for the wall is rough. We take the line that Pisum was samples from the same archaeological phase cultivated and for that reason all peas are are taken together (table 23). From the attributed to Pisum sativum L. On the other measurements it is clear that there is hardly hand, the Damascus basin lies within the any difference in size between the peas from distribution area of Pisum humile Boiss. et phase I at Aswad (c. 7800-7300 B.C.) and those Noe, the wild progenitor of Pisum salivum from phase Il at Ramad (c. 6000 B.c.). (Zohary & Hopf, 1973, map 2), so the Consequently, there seems to be no question collecting or cultivation of wild pea cannot be of an increse in size in the course of time. The excluded, in particular for the earliest habi­ smaller size of the peas at Ghoraife (in time tation at Aswad. corresponding to those from Aswad phase II) Particularly at Aswad and Ghoraife the must perhaps be ascribed to less favourable distinction between small peas and large vetch growing conditions. seeds had to be rather arbitrary because the Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant 1 209

Table 24. Dimensions of Cicer arietinum seeds from Ramad species identity of this seed . Bitter vetch seeds (various levels). The number of seeds measured is 18. Length are distinguishable from those of other and breadth have been determined in the plane of the radicle. vetches (Vicia spec., see 5.IS.) by their shape: The thickness is the distance between the plane with the obliquely pyramidal, with a triangular base radicle and the opposite end. and a rounded apex. Length Breadth Thickness Fairly large numbers of bitter vetch seeds are reported for seventh and sixth millennia Minimum 3.3 3.0 2.9 B.C. sites in Anatolia: <::aybnu (van Zeist, Average 3.82 4.36 4.14 1972), <::atal H uyuk (Helbaek, 1964), Erbaba Maximum 4.9 4.6 4.3 (van Zeist & Buitenhuis, 1983), Can Hasan III (French et al., 1972) and ceramic Hacilar (Helbaek, 1970). One may assume that already in the seventh millennium B.C. Vicia 4. 11. Chick-pea ervilia was grown in Turkey. However, by the Ramad yielded small numbers of chick-pea end of the seventh millennium bitter vetch seeds, Ghoraife altogether 3 specimens. Chick­ cultivation had apparently not yet expanded peas are easily recognized by the squat, in a southerly direction. At least, the occasion­ angular shape. In a few of the Ramad chick­ al seeds from Aswad, Ghoraife and Ramad peas the characteristic protruding radicle is are no evidence of the cultivation of this po­ still present. In charred seeds this radicle has tential crop plant in the Damascus area. mostly fallen off. The dimensions of chick-pea According to Zohary & Hopf (1973) truly seeds from Ramad are shown in table 24. The wild fo rms of Vicia ervilia are known only for Ramad chick-peas are, on average, somewhat Anatolia . This would imply that bitter vetch smaller than those of Early Bronze Age Arad was introduced into the Damascus area, and and Jericho: 4.7X3.8 and 4.73X4. 11 mm, that the species must have occurred as a weed respectively (c/. H opf, 1978), but larger than in the fields of the Neolithic farmers. the Cicer spec. seeds from aceramic <::aybnu, one specimen of which could be measured : 3.8X3.6X3.2 mm (van Zeist, 1972). The 5 WILD PLANT REMAINS Ghoraife chick-peas are smaller than the <::aybnu specimen: 3.2X3.4X3.0, 3.3.X3.2X This section provides descriptions of the fruits 3.0, 2.6X2.6X2.S mm. and seeds of wild plant species recovered from If chick-pea cultivation resulted in an the sites under discussion. The descriptions of increase in seed size, the Ghoraife specimens the plant remains are supplemented with would represent a more primitive type than measurements and illustrations. those at Ramad. Although the rather few The authors wish to make explicit the basis chick-peas at Ramad are no firm evidence of for their identifications. From the descriptions the cultivation of this species, it is assumed and illustrations it should be clear which kind that the domestic form, Cicer arietinum L., is of seed or fruit has been attributed to a certain concerned here. The status of the Ghoraife plant taxon (species, genus, type). At least to chick-peas is more uncertain. some extent, this provides the reader with the possibility of checking the identifications Two wedge-shaped Lathyrus seeds, prob­ presented in this paper and obvious mistakes ably Lathyrus cicera L., were recovered:one can thus be detected. Palaeobotanists still from Ramad C8 2. 10 (3.7X3.SX3.0 mm) have little experience with the examination of and one from Ghoraife 1974, S.50 (3.9X fruits and seeds of wild plants in Near Eastern 3.2X3.7 mm). sites, and the incompleteness of seed reference collections is a serious handicap for the identification of archaeological plant remains. 4. 12. Bitter vetch The descriptions and illustrations should be Only very few bitter vetch seeds (Vicia ervilia of a'd vantage fo r future resea rch in the sense (L.) Willd.) were recovered: 1 from Aswad, 1 that they fa cilitate the identification of similar from Ghoraife and 5 from Ramad. The plant remains from other sites. Archaeo­ Aswad specimen must have been an unripe botanical research in the Near Ea st can seed. There is some uncertainty as to the only make progress if one can profit from 210 W. VAN ZEIST & J .A.H. BAKKER-HEERES the experience of other researchers in this Table 25. Measurements ofPistacia nuts from Ramad C8 3.55, field. It would be of great help if in the course 4.75 and 5.05 (N = 39). The location of the measurements is of time a kind of catalogue of archaeological indicated in figure 20: 5. plant remains could be compiled. This is all L B T LIB the more necessary for the Near East because the fe w archaeobotanists active in this large Minimum 3.4 3.1 2.8 71 area are based in institutes that are very fa r Average 4.58 4.40 3.51 96 apart, so frequent personal contact between Maximum 5.5 5.6 4.2 138 them is severely limited.

5. I. Aizoaceae 39 complete Pistacia nuts the dimensions are Aizoon. Aswad West 0.40 and 0.60 yielded shown in table 25. The location of the each one Aizoon seed (c. 0.8 mm). The measurements is indicated in fig. 2:5. laterally compressed seeds are almost circular The Pistacia nutshells are laterally flat­ in outline. A characteristic feature is the tened, elliptic to broadly elliptic in outline. The surface pattern: concentric ridges on the side variation in shape finds expression in the fa ces and rows of papillae on the greater part range of the LB index values: from 71 to 138. of the dorsal surface. Two Aizoon seeds from The nutshell surface is smooth. In some of the Tell es Sinn (eastern Syria) are depicted in fig. nuts, remains of the fruit flesh (and fruit wall) 23 : 5. The subfossil seeds conform to those of are still present. Nutshell fragments have been Aizoon hispanicum L., which species is converted to whole specimens on the basis of reported for saline and gypseous soils (M. 0.021 gram per Pistacia nut (the average Zohary, 1973, pp. 443 and 466). weight of 37 complete, carbonized specimens). If the fragments equal less than half a nutshell, 5.2. Anacardiaceae this is indicated in tables 5 to 10 with a plus­ sign (+). Pistacia. Mostly pistachio nutshell fragments As for the shape and the size of the nuts, were recovered. However, some of the Ra mad two species come into consideration, viz. samples yielded also intact nuts (fig. 2:4). Of Pistacia atlantica Desf. and P. palaestina

-B� 01

4 5 m m ,-. 0,-. -,---,---,---,---,1 81 Fig. 21. 1, 2, 3. Crataegus, Ramad C8 4.75; 4. Pistacia, Ramad C8 3.55; 5. Pistacia, position of measurements. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 211

2

3

4

5

6 7

o 3mm L' L' ____� ______L_____ �,

Fig. 22. 1, 2. Arnebia decumbens , El Khom; 3, 4. Arnebia Iinearifolia , El Khom; 5. lithospermum arvense, Ramad M4 2.30; 6,7. Lithospermum tenuij7orum , Ramad M4 2.80.

Boiss. (see also 7.4. 1.). The nuts of P. lentiscus prehistoric sites In the Damascus area. L. are usually smaller and laterally more compressed. Moreover, P. lentiscus is a 5.3. Boraginaceae species from the coastal area of the Medi­ terranean, between 0 and 300 (-500) m above A number of boraginaceous species is sea-level and for that reason one is un­ represented in Aswad, Ghora ife and Ramad. likely to fi nd fruit remains of this species in As has already been expounded in a previous 212 W. V AN ZEIST & J .A.H. BAKKER-HEERES paper (van Zeist & Buitenhuis, 1983), the boraginaceous nutlets recovered from archaeo­ fruits of Boraginaceae in archaeological sites logical sites in Syria. pose some problems. On burning, the nutlets do not turn black, but they acquire a whitish Heliotropium. Slightly compressed nutlets, to grey colour which is due to the silica ovate in outline, with ridged margin in the skeleton. Because of the silica skeleton also of upper part of the fruit. Surface irregularly non-carbonized fruits the wall may remain wrinkled . A characteristic feature is the preserved in archaeological deposits. As a . protruding hilum (fig. 23:7). Of the three sites result it is not possible to determine whether in the Damascus area only Ramad yielded a the fruits are of the same age as the deposit few Heliotropium nutlets. Di mensions of 4 in which they were found or whether they specimens: 1.3XO.9, 1.3 X 1.0, 1.4X 1.1 and are due to a later intrusion. Boraginaceous 1.7X 1.0 mm. fruits may have been carried downwards by No attempt has been made to arrive at a burrowing animals, such as ants. Only of species determination. Heliolropium species those fruits in which the remains of the are reported for natural vegetations as well as carbonized contents are present may one be for disturbed habitats in Syria (Mouterde, vol. assured that they became incorporated in the 3, pp. 50-53). archaeological layer at the time when this was deposited. However, from the appearance of Lithospermum arvense L. (Buglossoides the fruit wall (colour, some degree of corro­ arvensis (L.) Johnston). Nutlets obliquely sion, etc.) one may conclude t hat most of ovate, with truncated base, rather pointed at the boraginaceous nutlets in the sites under the apex (fig. 22:5). Rounded triangular base. discussion are certainly no modern intrusions.. Distinct ventral keel. Surface with grooves, densely covered with wart-like pr oj ections Arnebia decumbens (Vent.) Coss. et Kral. (verrucae). For dimensions see table 26. Nutlets trigonal to ovate in outline, with Lithospermum arvense is represented in a truncated base and rather obtuse apex. The fairly great number of samples of the sites triangular base is bordered by a distinct collar. under discussion, though usually in small The ventral keel extends over the upper 2/3 of numbers. It is a plant of waste places and the fruit. The surface is densely covered with fields (Post & Dinsmore, vol. 2, p. 240; wart-like proj ections of uneven size (fig. 22: I, Mouterde, vol. 3, p. 63; Zohary & Feinbrun­ 2). The greatest length and breadth of the Dothan, vol. 3, p. 67). fruits are about 2 and 1.5 mm, respectively. Arnebia decumbens is represented in a few Lithospermul11 tenu(/lorum L. . fil. (Buglos­ samples from Aswad and Ghoraife . The only lenui/lora (L. fi l.) Johnston). The .wide.1 ' sample which yielded more than a few nutlets nut lets are strongly bigibbous (the most is from just below the surface (Aswad East cha racterist ic rea ture), with an elo ngated, 0.20) and these specimens look ra ther fresh. Arnebia decumbens is a plant from arid regions. At Mureybit (in preparation) the Table 26. Dimensions of Lithospermum fruits from Ramad fruits of this species were found in fairly great numbers. L. tenui/lorum C8 3.70 min. 2.2 1.6 Arnebia linearifo lia DC. Squat nutlets, N = 14 aver. 2.53 1.81 max. 2.9 2.0 trigonal in outline, with short, rather obtuse apex (f ig. 22:3,4). Broad, triangular base. C8 4.75 min. 2.3 1.6 N= 13 Surface less densely verrucate than in A. aver. 2.60 1.87 max. 2.8 2.1 decumbens. In subfossil fruits the verrucae may have disappeared altogether. This species C8 4.95 min. 2.4 1.8 N= 20 aver. 2.62 1.91 from steppe and desert-steppe vegetations is max. 2.9 2.1 not represented in one of the sites of the Damascus basin, but its nutlets were found in L.arver/se M ureybit. It was thought appropriate to M4 2.30 min. 2.4 1.6 describe and to depict the Arnebia linearifo lia N= 20 aver. 2.63 1.86 fruit type here in the con text of the other max. 3.0 2.2 Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 213

3 2

4 5

7 o 6 o 2mm k' ______-L______� ,

Fig. 23. I. Silene colorata-type, Ramad CS 4.35; 2. Te ucrium-type, Ramad CS 2.95; 3. Cerastium-type, Ramad M4 1.75; 4. Silene spec., Ramad M4 I.SO; 5. Aizoon hispanicum, Tell es Sinn; 6. He lianthemum , Ramad M4 2.S0; 7. Heliotropium , Ramad CS 4.95.

rather pointed apex (fig. 22: 6, 7). The base is radicle is a prominent fe ature (fig. 2: I). Most conspicuously small compared to that in of the seeds had been rather seriously Lithospermum arvense nutlets. The surface is deformed. Sometimes only the 'inner seed', densely covered with wart-like proj ections. which reminds one of chenopodiaceous seeds, The dimensions are shown in table 26. A few had been preserved. The dimensions of 5 seeds samples yielded fa irly great numbers of range from '2.2X2.0 to 2.8X2.4 mm. Most Lithospermum tenuiflorum fruits. The species likely the seeds are of Capparis sp inosa L., the occurs in fields as well as steppe vegetations. fleshy fruits of which are still consumed at present, but Capparis ovala Desf. comes also into consideration (Zohary Feinbrun­ 5.4. Capparidaceae & Dothan, vol. I, pp. 242-243). Capparis. Capparis seeds were recovered from Aswad only. The seeds are obovate in outline; 5.5. Caryophyllaceae in side-view tapering from the top to the base (more or less wedge-shaped). The curved Arenaria. One small, kidney-shaped seed has 214 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES been attributed to Arenaria (Aswad West papillae. The carbonization usually results in 0.40). On the surface a pattern of oblong, serious deformations; the seeds tend to split slightly domed verrucae. Size: 0.75XO.55 mm. into two halves (fig. 24: 2, 3). In most of the damaged seeds a part of the characteristic Cerastium-type. Seeds ovate-cuneate in out­ seed wall is still preserved. Very few seeds line (tapering from apex to base). Papillae were suitable for measuring: two seeds from in concentric rows (fig. 23:3). This seed type is Ramad measure each 1.9 mm, one from scarcely represented at Ramad. The dimen­ Ghoraife 1.7 mm and one from Aswad 1.6 sions of 5 seeds vary from O. 75XO. 7 to mm. Most likely the ' prehistoric Vaccaria 0.95X 1.0 mm. seeds are of V. pyramidata Medik. (V. segetalis (Necker) Garcke), which at present is Gypsophi/a . Altogether 3 Gypsophila-type one of the most characteristic weeds of winter seeds were recovered (Ramad M4 1.75 and crops (Zohary & Feinbrun-Dothan, vo!. I, p. M4 1.80). The seeds are almost circular in 104). The greatest diameter of modern seeds outline, with a short but distinct radicle tip. of Va ccaria pyramidata collected in western The surface structure consists of concentric Syria ranges from 1.6 to 2.3 mm. In none of rows of radially elongated verrucae, each with the samples examined were more than a fe w a papilla in the centre (the concentric rows Va ccaria seeds (at most 6) fo und. of papillae are the most obvious surface structure). Greatest diameter c. 1.4 mm. 5.6. Chenopodiaceae Si/ene spec. Reniform seeds with concentric Chenopodiaceae are scarcely represented at rows of radially elongated (oblong) and flat Aswad and Ghoraife, and completely absent verrucae on the side faces as well as on the at Ramad. Chenopodiaceous fruits in Aswad dorsal surface (fig. 23:4). Of 29 reason­ West 0.60 and 1.40 could not be attributed to ably well preserved specimens from M4 1.75, a genus (poor preservation). 1.80 and 1.90 the dimensions have been determined: 0.92 (0.85- 1.05) XO.77 (0.65-0.85) Atrip lex . Flat fruits, more or less circular in -- - XO.70(0.65-0.85) mm. outline, with a distinct radicle tip. Surface Silene is well represented in Ramad, in smooth. Greatest diameter: 0.8 to 0.9 mm (6 some samples t·y rather great numbers of fruits). seeds. From Ghoraife and Aswad, on the other hand , only a fe w Silene seeds were Chenopodium . One lenticular Chenopodium recovered. The seeds from the latter sites are fruit was recovered from Ghoraife (0.7 mm). all more or less seriously damaged, but size In the central part of one of both sides a small, and remains of surface structure conform to round scar is visible. The surface of the those of the Silene seeds from Ramad. subfossil specimen has an obscure radial Apparently all seeds are of the same type, striation. though this does not necessarily mean that only one species is involved. A great num­ Suaeda . Laterally compressed fruits, obovate ber of Silene species is reported for Syria in outline, with a broad radicle tip. A (Mouterde, vo!. I, pp. 483-505). characteristic feature of Suaeda is a small but distinct protuberance in the incurvation be­ Si/ene colorata-type. One seed of this type was tween the radicle tip and the median part of found (Ramad C8 4. 35). The side fa ces of this the fruit. Surface glossy. Greatest diameter of reniform seed show a fine, radial striation. The 2 fruits: 1.0 and 1.2 mm. $uaeda species are dorsal surface has a deep groove, forming two found particularly on saline soils. undulating wings at the margin (fig. 23: I). Dimensions: 1.1X 1.0 mm. The shape of the 5.7. Cistaceae subfossil specimen corresponds to that of the seeds of Silene colorata Poir., but the latter Helianthemum lediJolium-type. Small seeds, are larger (c. 1.7X 1.6 mm). about I mm large (table 27), obliquely ovate in outline. Obtusely pointed at the apex and Va ccaria pyramidata Medik. Almost globular with a round attachment scar at the base (fig. seeds. The surface is densely covered with tiny 23:6). Surface smooth. The carbonized seeds Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 215

Table 27. Dimensions of HelianthemulIl seeds from Ramad the base (in which the hilum is found) is rather inconspicuous and the surface is glossy (l.8X C8 2.95 min. 0.9 0.6 0.8 mm). The other achene (from Ramad C8 N = 68 aver. 1.01 0.85 max. 1.1 1.0 3.70) is more oblong in outline, tapering towards the base. In this specimen no basal M4 2.80 min. 1.0 0.7 indentation is present, which may be due to a N = 100 aver. 1.05 0.87 max. 1.2 1.0 deformation as a result of the carbonization. The fruit wall shows fine, longitudinal grooves (3.4X I. I mm). This type is indicated as cf Centaurea. are often more or less seriously deformed, which may hamper the identification. The Crepis-type. Achenes oblong in outline, subfossil seed type conforms to th�t of slightly tapering at the apex and the base, with Helianthemum ledifolium (L.) Mill., which ten longitudinal, prominent ribs. Ramad M4 species is reported for steppes and desert­ 1.75 and M4 1.80 yielded each two rather steppes as well as for fields (Zohary & poorly preserved achenes of this type. Length Feinbrun-Dothan, vol. 2, p.34; Mouterde, vol. of 2 specimens: 1.5 and 1.8 mm. The 2, pp. 543-544). However, as other He lian­ identification remains unsatisfa ctory; the themum species may likewise come into match with Crepis fruits is not wholly con­ consideration, this seed type is indicated here vmcmg. as Helianthemum ledifolium-type. Some of the Ramad samples yielded great 5.9. Convolvulaceae numbers of Helianthemum seeds, but this type has not been established for Aswad and Convolvulus. Ramad C8 3.55 and 3.90 yielded GhoraiH:. a few Convolvulus seeds. The seeds are three­ From sample C8 2.95, 3 Helianthemum sided, obovate in outline. Two fa ces are flat seeds of a different type were recovered. The and the other one is domed. At the basal end a surface of the seeds (size c. 1.2 mm) shows a rounded triangular hilum. The surface of the pattern of dents and rounded ridges, remi­ charred specimens is almost smooth. Three niscent of that in the seeds of Helian­ seeds measure: 2.6X2.2X I .9, 3.0X2.4X2.0 and themum salicifolium (L.) Mill. 3. I X2.3X2.0 mm. Some of the Convolvulus species reported for Syria are found in fields. 5.8. Compositae

Compositae are scarcely represented in the 5.10. Cruciferae sites under discussion. Only a few fruit types could be established. Alyssum. In Ramad M4 1.75 three Alyssum seeds were found. The flat seeds are oval in Carthamus. One achene of this type was outline. The tip of the radicle is free from the found (Aswad East 1.20). The fruit is cotyledons. The three seeds measure: 1.0XO. 7, elliptic in outline, laterally somewhat com­ I.OXO.8 and I. I XO.8 mm. The carbonized pressed, with a distinct margin. The pappus seeds compare with modern seeds of Alyssum rim and the indentation at the base are com­ desertorum Stapf (A. minimum Willd .) paratively small (fig. 24:4). The shape of the without marginal membranous wing. Th is wing carbonized achene (2.9X1.9 mm) corres­ must easily get destroyed as a result of ponds to that of the achenes of Cartha­ carbonization. An Alyssum seed from Ramad mus oxyacantha M.B.. but the latter are C8NW 1.55 is larger: 1.3XI.0 mm. much larger (c. 4. 5X3.2 mm). 5. I I. Cyperaceae Cen taurea. Two achenes have been attributed to Centaurea, one of which with some reserve. Carex cf. divisa Desf. Compressed fruits, The two Centaurea-type achenes differ ovate to almost circular in outline. The ventral markedly one from the other. One specimen side is flat or slightly convex; the dorsal side is (from Aswad West 1.80) is obQvate in outline, usually convex, but in some fruits slightly with truncated upper end. The indentation at roof-shaped (fig. 24:7,8). The surface is 216 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

2 3

o

6

5 4 000

7 8

9

11

o 3mm L' ____ �______L_____ �, 10

Fig. 24. I. Capparis, Aswad East 2.70; 2. Vaccaria pyramidata, Ramad CB 4.95; 3. Vaccaria pyramidata, Ramad M4 1.75; 4. Carthamus, Aswad East 1.20; 5. Scirpus maritimus, Aswad West I.BO; 6. E/eocharis , Ghoraife 3.40; 7. Carex divisa­ type, Aswad West 2.00; B. Carex divisa-type, Aswad West I.BO; 9. 'Ornithoga/um ', Ramad CB 3.35; 10. Bellevalia , Ramad CB 3.90; 11. Ma/va , Ramad CB 5.05. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 217

Table 28. Dimensions and index values of cyperaceous fruits type, the following has to be remarked. In previous publications Ccf. van Zeist & Bakker­ L B LIB Heeres, 1979) this type is indicated as Cyperus Scirpus maritimus spec. This identification was based upon the Aswad West 1.40 min. 1.3 0.9 106 similarity with fruits from plants near Elazig, N= 71 aver. 1.58 1.15 139 in Southeast Anatolia, tentatively identified max. 1.9 1.4 173 as Cyperus spec. It had already struck us Scirpus maritimus that the charred prehistoric fruits compare Modern, Murat River min. 2.3 1.6 115 morphologically very well with modern and N = 12 aver. 2.47 1.87 132 subfossil Scirpus maritimus fruits from west­ 155 max. 2.6 2.2 ern Europe. However, the latter fruits are Scirpus maritimus markedly greater. For non-carbonized, water­ Modern, Konya Basin min. 1.9 1.4 118 logged Sc ilpus maritimus fruits from two N=8 aver. 2.07 1.54 135 max. 2.2 1.8 144 Iron Age sites in the Netherlands mean dimensions of 3.03X2.16 and 2.92X2.07 mm Carex Aswad West 2.20 min. 1.4 1.3 105 were obtained (van Zeist, 1976, table 16). N = 56 aver. 1.77 1.51 119 Even if one allows for a certain degree of max. 2.2 1.8 147 shrinkage in the charred fruits from Aswad and other Near Eastern sites, the latter remain smaller than Scirpus maritimus fruits from western Europe. minutely granular. In addition to more or less Dr. G.c. Hillman (Institute of Archaeo­ complete nutlets, single fruit contents are logy, London) drew the attention of the first quite numerous. The dimensions of Carex author to Scirpus maritimus fruits collected fruits from Aswad are shown in table 28. The by him in several localities in Anatolia charred Carex nutlets compare with those of and he kindly placed fruits from various modern Carex divisa Desf. The latter species, proveniences at our disposal. The dimen­ which is found in moist places which are sions of these modern fruits are shown in inundated, at least during part of the year, is table 28. The shape of these modern fruits reported for various localities in Syria matches perfectly the carbonized prehistoric (Mouterde, vol. I, pp. 174- 1 75). Carex is well specimens. Although the latter are still represented at Aswad and Ghoraife, but from somewhat smaller than the modern Scilpus Ramad only few fruits of this type were maritimus nutlets from Turkey, the charred recovered. fruits from the sites in the Damascus basin are now attributed to this Scitpus species. The Eleocharis- type. Only Ghoraife yielded some previous identification as Cyperus spec. must Eleocharis-type nutlets. The bi-convex fruits be incorrect are obovate to elliptic in outline, with a keeled According to Mouterde (vol. I, pp. 167- 1 68) margin (fig. 24:6). Finely reticulate surface the Near Eastern Scirpus maritimus should be pattern (epidermis cells). No style base distinguished as a separate species: Scitpus (stylopodium) is present in the subfossil tuberosus Desf. Whether or not this is specimens. The dimensions of 5 nutlets range justified from a taxonomical point of view, is from 1.0XO.75 to 1.1XO.9 mm. no matter here; but it shows at least that there are differences between the Near Eastern and Scirpus maritimus L. (Scirp us tuberosus the European species, and not only in fruit size. Desf.). Nutlets obovate in outline, tapering Near Eastern Scirpus maritimus (Scilpus towards the base. The ventral side is more or tuberosus) is reported for fresh-water swamps less flat, while the dorsal side is roof-shaped as well as for more or less saline habitats. with a rounded median ridge (fig. 24:5). The surface of the carbonized nutlets is usually Ramad C8 2.25 and C8NW 1.55 yielded glossy. As in Carex, single Scirpus fruit nutiets which are reminiscent of those of contents occurred. For the dimensions of Sc irpus tabernaemontani G.c. Gmel. (Scir­ nutlets from Aswad see table 28. This type is pus lacustris L. ssp. glaucus (Srn.) Hartm.). particularly common at Aswad. However, this species has so far not been As for the species determination of this fruit found in Syria or Lebanon, so that it is 218 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

o

3

o o o 4

5 o

QOo � 0 o 7 o o 3mm ____ -L_____ ' Q L' ____ -L 0 6 Ramad C8 4.75; 3. Bromus sterilis­ Aswad West 1.80; 2. Bromus da nthoniae-type, Fig. 25. 1. Bromus danthoniae-type, O 75; 6, Phalaris , As.wad West 2.00;7. �O M4 1. , Ramad pyron , Ramad M4 1 75; 5. Ech inaria type, Ramad C8 4.75; 4. Eremo Ph alaris , Aswad West 1.80. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 219

unlikely that the fruits concerned are, indeed, rounded apical and basal ends. The fruits of Scirpus tabernaemontani. are dorso-ventrally somewhat compressed. Especially in the lower part of the grain, at both sides a lateral keel is present if the grain 5. 12. Dipsacaceae is not too much swollen. The hilum in the Cephalaria syriaca (L.) Schrad. Two Cepha­ narrow ventral groove ends at a short distance laria fruits · were' recovered at Ramad from the apex. In swollen specimens the (CSN W 1.95 and CS 3.35). The fruits are ob­ groove has often disappeared in which case long, tapering towards the base. Charac­ the hilum is clearly visible on the surface of teristic is the whorl of eight bracts tightly the grain. Particularly on the dorsal side, enveloping the achene (involucel). The bracts remains of the long hairs are sometimes still terminate alternately in a long and a short preserved (the wall of oat caryopses is hairy), tooth. The subfossil fruits measure 3.6X lA suggesting a kind of striate surface pattern. A and 4.5Xl.O mm. characteristic feature is the triangular shape of At present, Cephalaria syriaca is a noxious the scutellum which, however, is not equally weed in grain fields. Because of the similarity distinct in all grains (fig. 26: I ,2,3). in size and shape to wheat grains, Cephalaria Only occasionally more than a few oat fruits are difficult to separate from the crop. grains were fo und. For dimensions and index The conspicuous scarcity of Cephalaria fruits values see table 29. The species identity of the at Ramad suggests that at the time this species naked Avena caryopses cannot be determined . was not yet a troublesome grain-field weed. A vena bat'bata Pott ex Link. and A. slerilis L. are both common in fields. 5.13. Gramineae Bromus spec. Flat fruits; the dorsal side is The examination of the wild grass caryopses usually domed in cross-section, the ventral must remain rather unsatisfactory. It is true side from more or less fla t to hollow that most of the charred grass fruits could be (channelled). Pointed basal end with a rather attributed to one of the types described below. small, narrow embryo. The linear hilum does However, most of these types include a fairly not reach the apex of the fruit . Various cary­ great number of species. Moreover, the opses have a glossy surface. The archaeo­ numbers of fruits listed as unidentified logical Bromus fr uits vary quite ma rkedly Gramineae are quite large in some samples. in size and shape. Rather narrow, oblong Some of the grass fruits could not be caryopses (4 to 5 times longer than broad) identified because of poor preservation, but occur, but obovate fruits with a compar­ most of them had to remain unidentified atively broad apex are equally present . Ex­ beca use no matching type was present in the amples of both Bromus fruit types are seed reference collection . . depicted in fig. 25 : 1,2, while in table 30 the dimensions of oblong and obovate type Aegilops. Dorso-ventrally compressed grains, caryopses are presented. In addition, fruits of elliptic in outline. The ventral side is flat with intermediate shape occur. It is clear that more a narrow groove; the dorsal side domed. than one Bromus species is involved. A great Rounded apical and basal ends (fig. I1:7 ). A number of Bromus species is reported for small number of Ramad samples yielded one Syria (Mouterde, vol. I, pp. IIS-130). or at most two Aegilops caryopses. For However, for lack of sufficient seed reference dimensions and index values see table 33. The material it was not possible to arrive at a more flatness of the grains finds expression in the accurate identification (species or group of low T / B index values. In addition to the naked fruits, two spikelet l;>ases were fo und (CSNW 2.45). The Table 29. Dimensions and index values of Avena caryopses caryopses point to a species of the Aegi/ops from Ramad C8 4.95 and 5.05 (N = 17) crassa Boiss. group. L B T LIB TIB

Avena. Caryopses elliptic to oblong in outline. Minimum 3.5 1.1 1.0 275 75 The greatest width is in the middle of the Average 4.73 1.39 1.19 334 85 grain, only slightly tapering towards the Maximum 6.0 1.7 1.5 379 95 220 W. VAN ZEIST & l.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

o o o

3 2

o o o o 5

4

, .�

:� o o ' J:, . o

I .- , \ ',: 7 6

o o o

8 9 o 5mm �'----�--�--��--�--�'

Fig. 26. I. A vena, Ramad C8 3.35; 2. Avena, Ramad C8 5.05; 3. Avena, Ramad M4 1.75; 4. unidentified type, Ramad M4 1.75; 5. Hordeum spec., Aswad West 1.60; 6. Lolium spec., Aswad West 1.80; 7. Slipa, Ramad M4 2.30; 8. Lolium remolum, Ramad C8 5.05; 9. Lolium remolum , Ramad C8 4.75. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 22 1

Table 30. Dimensions and index values of Bromus caryopses Table 32. Dimensions and. index values ofEr emopyron caryop- ses from Ramad M4 1.7 5 (N = 8) L B LIB L B T LIB T/B Oblong type Ramad C8 min. 4.5 1.0 407 Minimum 2.6 0.7 0.6 320 89 N=6 aver. 4.91 1.09 451 Average 3.05 0.81 0.76 378 94 max. 5.4 1.2 486 Maximum 3.6 0.9 0.9 450 100 Obovate type Aswad West 1.80 min. 2.4 0.9 269 N = 15 aver. 2.99 0.99 284 max. 3.3 1.1 364 Table 33. Dimensions and index values of Aegi/ops and Hor- deulll caryopses

L B T LIB T/B

species), and for that reason all brome-grass Aegi/ops caryopses (except those of B. sterilis) have Ramad C8 '2.95 4.5 2.6 1.4 175 53 been lumped together here in one group C8 3.35 4.2 2.2 1.3 193 59 (Bromus spec.). C8 3.55 4.6 2.5 1.2 187 48 C8 5.05 4.1 2.3 1.2 176 52 M4 1.80 4.6 2.7 1.4 168 50 Bromus sterilis L. Linear fruits, pointed at Hordeum spec. both ends, with longitudinal ribs (fig. 25:3). Aswad West 1.40 4.8 1.4 1.0 353 76 Only two caryopses of Bromus sterilis L. were 3.6 1.3 0.9 281 69 recovered (Ramad C8 3.35 and 4.75), the 3.4 1.1 0.7 300 64 dimensions of one of which could be 3.5 1.2 0.8 293 67 determined (6.9X 1.2 mm). West 1.60 3.4 1.0 0.7 331 69

Echinaria. Small, squat fruits, pointed at the lower end and rounded-truncated at the apical end. The radicle shield extends over about Y2 Eremopyron. Lanceolate fruits; the greatest of the dorsal side (fig. 25:5). For the width is in t he lower half of t he grain, slight­ dimensions see table 31. ly tapering towards the rounded apex. Only one Echinaria species is reported Characteristic of this grass fruit type is the for Syria, viz, E. capitata (L.) Desf. (Mout­ longitudinal keel on the dorsal side (fig. 25 :4). erde, vol. I, p. 91). This wild species is fa irly The keel is even more pronounced on the well represented at Ramad, particularly in the finely papillose lemma, parts of which are phase 11 samples. preserved in some specimens. The dimensions are presented in table 32. This caryopsis type is represented at Ramad and Aswad, but not at Ghoraife. Eremopyron Table 31. Dimensions and index values of Echinaria caryopses buonapartis (Spreng.) Nevski is common in from Ramad Syria. L B T LIB T/B Hordeum spec. Oblong, rather flat fruits, with M4 1.75 min. 1.0 0.6 0.6 129 86 truncated upper end. The dorsal side shows N= 32 aver. 1.28 0.84 0.87 155 104 a median ridge (fig. 26:5). In swollen fruits max. 1.5 1.1 1.0 189 122 this ridge and the ventral groove have dis­ M4 2.30 min. 1.3 0.8 0.9 129 92 appeared . The hilum extends to or almost N= 21 aver. 1.41 0.96 0.99 149 106 max. 1.7 1.1 1.2 173 118 to the apex. For dimensions and index values see table 33. This type is ascribed to a wild C8 3.35 min. 1.4 0.8 0.9 123 86 Hordeum species other than Hordeum N= 22 aver. 1.43 0.98 1.00 147 102 max. 1.5 1.1 1.1 173 120 sp ontaneum. Ramad yielded a few fruits of this type. 0.8 140 100 C8 4.95 min. 1.0 0.7 Hordeum N= 16 aver. 1.32 0.87 0.94 152 107 is slightly better represented at max. 1.6 1.0 1.1 190 120 Aswad. 222 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 34. Dimensions and index values of Lolium spec. caryop- the Ramad samples made it clear that more ses. than one type was present. A subsequent re­ L B T LIB T/B examination of a 11 fruits identified as Lolium spec. showed that those from Aswad and Ramad M4 4.05 min. 3.4 1.2 0.8 253 58 Ghoraife are of uniform shape and may N = 23 aver. 4.01 1.41 1.01 284 72 confidently be attributed to the Lolium max. 4.6 1.6 1.1 312 81 perenne/rigidum -type. On the other hand, at min. Ramad C8 4.75 3.0 1.0 0.7 242 53 Ramad Lolium temu/enfum -type grains are N=45 aver. 3.85 1.30 0.90 299 70 quite common. Lolium femulenfum caryopses max. 5.4 1.6 1.2 408 100 from Ramad (fig. 26 :8, 9) are as a rule smaller Ramad C8 5.05 min. 2.9 1.0 0.7 235 58 and plumper than those of Lo/ium spec. This N = 31 aver. 3.69 1.28 0.89 288 70 finds expression in the comparison of the max. 4.6 1.6 1.0 367 87 dimensions and L/ B index values of both Aswad West 2.20 min. 2.7 1.0 0.6 241 61 types (tables 34 and 35). In uddition, the fruit N = 73 aver. 3.44 1.21 0.88 286 73 wall of the temu/entum caryopses is more max. 4.2 1.6 1.1 367 92 L. glossy. As in L. perenne/rigidum , parts of the finely papillose bracts may still adhere to the grains. The hilum ends at some distance from the apex. L.' femu/enfum (darnel) is a wide­ Lolium spec . Dorso-ventrally compressed spread weed in grain fields . ca ryopses with flat ventral side and more or The fa ilure to recognize at first the Lolium less domed dorsal side. The .greatest width is femu/enfum caryopses as such must partly be in the middle of the grain, slightly tapering ascribed to the small size of these grains. towards the upper and lower ends. The apex is Charred darnel fruits from ot her archaeo­ rounded to truncated. In many specimens logical sites are usually considerably larger, parts of rough enveloping bracts (finely wit h an average lengt h of 3.5 to 4 mm (e.g. papillose) are still preserved (fig. 26 :6). Kisle\ , 1980, table 8; van Zeist & Heeres, Lolium is well represented in all three sites. 1973, table 5). The dimensions and index values of Lolium fruits from Aswad and Ramad are shown in N.B. After the manuscript had gone to the table 34 and fig. 27. Lolium perenne L. as well printer, the publication of H.J., Kroll (Kasta­ as L. rigidum Gaud. come into consideration. nas. Ausgrabungen in einem Sied/ungshiige/ del' Bronze-und Eisenzeit Makedoniens 1975- Lolium temulenfum L. The distinction 1979. Die fj7anzenfunde. Berlin, 1983) appear­ between Lolium perenne/ rigidum - type cary­ ed. From Kroll's paper it became evident that opses and those attributed to Lolium femu­ the Lolium femu/entum-type grains from lenfum L. presented difficulties. At fi rst Ramad should be attributed to Lolium remo­ no Lolium temulentum-type fruits were dis­ tum Schrank. tinguished, but these fruits were included in the category of Lolium spec. An inspection of Pha/aris. Laterally compressed fruits, with the Lolium caryopses recovered from some of longitudinally curved ventral and dorsal sides

n lfngth LIB liB n

II "

" "

" , ,' r "j n n

" Fig. 27. Frequency distribution histograms' for " " Lolium spec. Upper row: Aswad West 2.20 • " (N=73); lower row: Ramad 'C8 4.75+5.05 �: "1 (N=76). Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 223

(fig. 25 : 6,7). There is no ventral groove. A caryopses is 8 to 9 mm, the greatest diameter hilum cannot be observed in the carbonized about I mm. grains. The radicle shield is relatively large, extending over 1/4 to 1/3 of the dorsal side. Gramineae type A. Oblong fruits, the greatest The Ph alaris caryopses found at Ramad, width in the middle or lower part of the grain. Ghoraife and Aswad are all of the same size Slightly tapering towards the rounded apex. class (table 36). The lateral compression finds In va rious specimens the lateral sides are expression in the high T / B index values. Only almost parallel over the greater part of the Aswad yielded fairly great numbers of grain. In some fruits a rather narrow ventral Phalaris fruits. Most likely the caryopses are groove is present; in most of the grains the of Ph alaris paradoxa L., which is common in groove has disappeared as a result of swelling. fields and on roadsides (Mouterde, vo!. I, p. The hilum ends at a short distance from the 49). apex. The scutellum margin enfolding the germ is conspicuously broad (fig. 26:4). In Stipa . Of the linear-cylind rical caryopses of some of the fruits, remains of the finely Stipa, a fe w broken specimens were found at papillos� bracts are preserved . For dimensions Ramad (fig. 26 :7). The estimated length of the and index values see table 37. The identity of this grass fruit-type, which is well represented at Ramad, is still puzzling.

Table 35. Dimensions and index values of LoliulI1 temulentum caryopses from Ramad 5.14. Labiatae

L B T L/B T/B Te ucrium-type . Only Ramad yielded fruits of this type. Fruits obovate in outline. The hilar C8 3.90 min. 2.2 1.0 0.8 187 58 sca r covers 1/2 to 2/3 of the ventral side. The N = 18 aver. 2.74 1.28 0.97 215 75 dorsal side is domed. On the surface a max. 3.0 1.4 1.1 238 82 reticulate pattern (fig. 23:2). The distinction C8 4.75 min. 2.6 1.0 0.8 206 63 between the fruits of Te ucrium and Ajuga N = 13 aver. 2.95 1.27 0.90 233 71 max. 3.4 1.4 1.1 254 79 may be rather arbitrary. The Ramad speci­ mens have been attributed to Te ucrium be­ C8 5.05 min. 2.6 1.1 0.7 211 60 cause of the surface structure: the lumina N= 17 aver. 2.93 1.24 0.90 236 72 max. 3.5 1.5 1.1 264 93 are not longitudinally elongated towards the base of the fruit. Dimensions of 8 fruits: 1 .65( 1 .5- 1 .8)X 1 .08( 1.0-1.2) mm.

Table 36. Dimensions and index values of Phalaris caryopses Ziziphora. Fruits obovate in outline, apical fr om Aswad end rounded, pointed at the base, with prominent basal depressions. Only few Zizi­ L B T L/B T/B phora fruits were recovered. Dimensions: West 2.20 min. 1.4 0.5 0.7 200 100 I.4XO.65 and 1.3XO.65 mm for 2 fruits from N = 28 aver. 1.56 0.65 0.89 242 139 Ramad, and 1.55XO.7, 1.5XO.6 and 1.3XO.6 max. 2.0 0.9 1.0 367 183 mm for 3 specimens from Aswad. Ziziphora West 2.00 min. 1.4 0.6 0.7 162 91 fruits from Erbaba (Turkey) are depicted in N= 47 aver. 1.68 0.75 0.95 227 128 van Zeist & Buitenhuis (1983, fig. 10: I). max. 2.2 1.0 1.1 338 163 A fe w Ziziphora species occur in Syria (Mouterde, vo!. 3, pp. 181-183; Post & Dinsmore, vo!. 2, p. 347) of which Z. tenuior L. is reported for fields and waste places. Table 37. Dimensions and index values of Gramineae type A caryopses from Ramad M4 1.75 (N = 35) 5. 15. Leguminosae L B T L/B T/B Astragalus. Seeds attributed to Astragalus are Minimum 2.8 0.8 0.8 292 63 variable as to shape and size (table 38). Average 3.84 1.01 0.93 384 93 Typical specimens are laterally compressed, Maximum 5.0 1.3 1.2 500 110 obliquely quadrangular in outline. Most 224 W. VAN ZEIST & J .A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

' :: ''.�.� .

0 , 0 003 0

o 4

6 CJO7 O

9

10 o 3mm

11

Fig. 28. I. Medicago radiata, Aswad West 1.60; 2. Trigonella astroites-type, Ramad C8 2.95; 3. Tr igonella astroites-type,

Ramad M4 2.80; 4. Medicago spec. , Ramad C8 4.75; 5. Onobrychis , Ramad C8 3.70; 6. Onobrychis, Ramad C8 5.05; 7. Astragalus, Aswad East 2.00; 8. Astragalus , Ramad C8 3.70; 9, 10. Melilotus, Ramad C8 5.05; I!. Tr ifolium-type, Ghoraife 3.60. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 225

Table 38. Dimensions and index values of Astragalus seeds Table 39. Dimensions of Medicago radiata seeds from Ramad L B L B LIB Ramad C8 3.35 min. 1.3 1.0 105 C8 3.70 min. 1.7 1.0 N= 80 aver. 1.73 1.21 143 N = 9 aver . 1.88 1.42 max. 2.6 1.8 192 max. 2.1 1.7 C8 3.70 min. 1.4 1.0 105 C8 4.75 min. 1.5 1.4 N = 100 aver. 1.79 1.30 138 N = 12 aver. 2.17 1.69 rnax. 2. 3 1.7 179 max. 2.6 1.9

M4 2.80 min . 1.3 1.0 107 M4 2.80 min. 1.5 1.2 N= 100 aver. 1.80 1.34 136 N= 17 aver. 1.99 1.52 max. 2.6 2.0 186 max. 2.4 1.8

Aswad

East 2.00 min. 2.0 1.6 N = 12 aver. 2.33 1.88 characteristic is the hilar notch, t he inden­ max. 2.7 2.2 tation with the hilum, on one of the long sides (fig. 28 : 7,8). Ramad yielded large numbers of Astragalus seeds, but in GhoraiH: this type is scarcely represented. Aswad is in Table 40. Dimensions of Medicago spec. seeds from Ramad an intermed iate position in this respect. L B A great number of Astragalus species is C8 3.35 min. 1.8 reported for lowland Syria (c! Post & 0.8 Dinsmore, vol. I, pp. 373-408; Mouterde, vol. N = 15 aver. 2.18 1.07 2, pp. 315-374). Representatives of this genus max. 2.7 1.4 occur particularly in steppe vegetations, but C8 4.75 min. 1.7 0.8 field weeds include also various Astragalus N= 24 aver. 2.21 1.14 max. species. 2.6 1.4

Coronilla. Baculiform seeds, with rounded upper and lower end. Smooth surface. Ramad yielded a small number of Coronilla seeds. In side, have been preserved in the charred only one seed a circular hilum could be seeds. Moreover, most carbonized seeds are observed; of various seeds the wall had swollen to some extent. For the dimensions disappeared completely. Dimensions of three see table 40 . The shape of the seeds of various seeds (with wall); 3. 1 X 1.0, 2.7XO.65 and 2.6X Medicago species conforms to that of the 0.65 mm. prehistoric specimens, so it is not possible to determine the species of the latter ones. Medicago radiata L. (Trigonella radiata (L.) Medicago -type seeds are quite common in Boiss.). Laterally compressed seeds, ovate to Ramad, but rare in Aswad and Ghoraife . almost circular in outline. A conspicuous Various Medicago species occur as weeds in feature are the prominent ridges and grooves fields (Zohary & Feinbrun-Dothan, vol. 2, pp. on the seed surface (fig. 28: I). The dimensions 139- 1 53). are shown in table 39. Fairly common in Aswad and Ramad, but absent in Ghoraife . Melilotus. Seeds elliptic in outline. The shape Medicago radiata is a species from steppe and of the seeds conforms to that of modern desert-steppe vegetations (Davis, vol. 3, p. Melilotus seeds, although the latter are 486; Zohary & Feinbrun-Dothan, vol. 2, p. ' laterally more compressed. The carbonization 139). resulted in some degree of puffing of the seeds (increase in thickness). The radicle is clearly Me dicago spec. Crescent-shaped seeds, later­ recognizable which is due to the fact that the ally compressed (fig. 28 : 4), Only occasional­ seed wall had usually disappeared (fig. 28:9, ly the wall and the circular hilum, which in 10). Melilotus seeds were found in all three Me dicago is found on the intruded inner sites, in a few samples . in considerable 226 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 41. Dimensions and index values of Melilotus seeds Table 42. Dimensions of Trigone/la astl'oites·type seeds

L B LIB L B

Ramad Ramad C8 4.75 min. 1.3 0.8 130 C8 2.95 min. lA 0.6 N = 33 aver. 1.78 1.16 154 N = 65 aver. 1.67 0.78 max. 2.2 1.4 185 max. 2.1 1.1 C8 5.05 min. 1.4 1.0 127 M4 2.80 min. 1.4 0.6 N= 39 aver. 1.79 1.18 152 N = 67 aver. 1.68 0.79 max. 2.1 1.4 179 max. 2.2 1.1

Ghoraife 1974 Aswad 3.50 min. 1.3 0.9 119 East 2.00 min. 1.4 0.7 N= 76 aver. 1.66 1.15 145 N = 73 aver. 1.66 0.85 max. 2.1 1.4 175 max. 1.9 1.0

numbers. There are no great diffe rences in the The latter fea ture may not be present in dimensions of the Melilotus seeds from charred seeds due to deformation. The surface Ghoraife and Ramad (table 41). is tuberculate, i.e. covered with low, rounded The wall, which in a few charred seeds had processes (fig. 28:2, 3). For the dimensions see partly been preserved, has a somewhat rough table 42. The prehistoric seeds conform to (finely papillose) surface, such as is fo und in those of Trigonella astroites Fisch. et Mey. Melilotus indicus (L.) All. However, no However, it is very well possible that other attempt has been made here to attribute the Trigonella species have similar seeds, so the Melilotus seeds to a particular species, nor is it prehistoric seeds are ind icated here as suggested that e.g. Melilotus indicus is Trigonella astroites-type. Trigonella astroites represented in the charred seeds. Moreover, itself occurs in steppe vegetations as well as on some of the leguminous seeds may incorrectly cultivated land, and other Tr igonella species have been assigned to Melilotus. The show a similar behaviour. distinction between small Melilotus-type seeds Great numbers of Trigonella astroites-type and the seeds of some Tr ifolium species must seeds were found in Aswad and Ramad, but remain rather arbitrary in charred material. this type is conspicuously absent in Ghoraife .

Onobrychis . Seeds la terally compressed, From Ghoraife a damaged Tr igonella seed, obliquely semi-circular in outline (fig. 28 : 5). with a finely granular surface structure ([.45X The hilum which in some seeds has been 0.75 mm), was recovered. This seed has preserved is round ; the seed wall is smooth. tentatively been identified as Tr igonella caele­ One On obrychis seed was fo und in Aswad; s.1'riaca Boiss. Ramad yielded a few more seeds of this type. For 7 seeds from various samples the Vicia spec. Vetch seeds were found regularly, dimensions were obtained: 2, 1O(2.0-2.2.)X in some samples in fa irly great numbers. Vicia 1.57(1.5-1.6) mm. One seed is still partly seeds show a large variation in shape: almost enveloped by the remains of the pod (fig. spherical to compressed (bi-convex) types 28 :6). occur, some specimens are rounded-cubical, while other seeds have one or two flat sides. [n Tr([olium. Only Ghoraife yielded a small a few seeds the hilum or part of it was still number of Trifolium seeds. The seeds are preserved. The size of the seeds is also quite obovate in outline (fig. 28 : 11). The circular variable, which finds expression in the hilum is on the upper side. Rough seed wall. measurements (table 43). It has already been Dimensions of 7 seeds: 1.15 ( 1 .0- 1 . 3)XO.99 mentioned (4.9. and 4. 10.) that in some (0.9- 1.2) mm. instances it was difficult to make a distinction between lentiform vetches and lentil seeds and

Trigonel/a astroites-type. Oblong seeds with between small peas and large , spherical vetch obliquely truncated upper and lower ends. seeds. No attempt has been made to arrive at a Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 227

Table 43. Greatest dimension of seeds of Vicia spec.

" " Ramad [10" 10 C8 3.35 min. 1.5 \01 N= 49 aver. 2.23 n max. 3.0 Fig. 29 . Frequency distribution of the greatest"1 dimension of Bellevalia seeds from Ramad C8 3.90 C8 4.75 min. 1.7 (N=lOO). N= 18 aver. 2.35 max. 2.7 M4 1.90, 2.30 min. 1.7 N = 16 aver. 2.12 seeds display a fa irly large vanatlOn in size: max. 2.6 the greatest dimension of 100 seeds from Ramad C8 3.90 varies from 1.0 to 2.5 mm Aswad (mean 1.76 mm). The frequency distribution West 2.00 min. 1.6 N= 18 aver. 2.10 of the dimensions (fig. 29) does not suggest max. 2.6 that more than one species is represented. Belleva/ia ciliata (Cyr.) Nees and B. trifoliata West 2.20 min. 1.5 N = 31 aver. 2.16 Boiss. occur as weeds in fields. max. 3.0 cf Ornithogalum. Irregularly shaped seeds: elliptic to ovate to semi-circular/ triangular in outline, often with one or more flattened faces species identification of one or more of the (fig. 24:9). The seed wall has an alveolate­ vetch-seed types. Various Vicia species must reticulate surface pattern. In various seeds a be represented in the charred seed record . hole is visible at the apex, whereas a round to A considerable number of Vicia species is elliptic, hollow hilar scar is frequently present found in Syria (Post & Dinsmore, vol. I, pp. at the base. The dimensions are shown in table 416-425; Mouterde, vol. 2, pp. 396-4 14). 44. Vetches form part of the natural vegetation, The identity of this seed type is still but they are also found in and along fields and enigmatic. The hole at the apex points to in other disturbed habitats. Liliaceae. The best match among Liliaceae seeds are those of Ornithogalum. It should , Unidentified Leguminosae. A fairly great however, be emphasized that there is by no number of leguminous seeds remained means a sufficiently close match, so that the unidentified. This is partly due to poor fossil seeds may very well be of another preservation (serious deformations). Other liliaceous genus or even of another fa mily. For seeds are in principle identifiable but no that reason the indication as cf Ornithogalum matching reference seeds were available. The is not wholly justified as it may too easily very large number of leguminous species in suggest that this seed type is of Ornithogalum the Near Eastern flora reduces in no small or a closely related genus. measure the ecological information provided The seed type is represented in all three sites by the charred seeds. Most of the types in the Damascus basin. Various Ramad sam­ distinguished include species from different ples yielded great numbers of (/ Ornitho­ habitats. galum seeds, indicating that the species con-

5.16. Liliaceae Table 44. Dimensions of cf. Ornithogalum seeds from Ramad Bellevalia. Almost globular seeds, somewhat irregularly shaped. Characteristic of the car­ L B bonized seeds is a hole which in some specimens runs from the apex to the base. In C8 3.35 min. 1.4 1.0 N =.100 aver. 1.71 1.37 other seeds the remains of the embryo are max. 2.4 1.8 visible in the hole (fig. 24 : 10). The smooth seed wall has mostly disappeared. C8 5.05 min. 1.3 1.0 N = 100 aver. 1.71 1.38 Bellevalia is represented in various samples, max. 2.2 1.8 occasionally by a great number of seeds. The 228 W. VAN ZEIST & J .A.H. BAKKER-HEERES cerned must have been quite common in the consideration. Fig is reported for Pre-Pottery vicinity of the site. Neolithic A Jericho (Hopf, 1969).

5.17. Malvaceae 5.19. Papaveraceae Ma lva. Only one Malva seed was recovered Fu maria. Bi-convex fruits, almost circular in (Ramad C8 5.05). The reniform seed has a outline, sharp (slightly winged) margin. A deep hilar notch; the surfaces are slightly characteristic feature are two rounded holes at concave. The seed is thinnest at the inner the base of the fruit (fig. 30:2). The surface is (ventral) side (fig. 24: 11). Smooth seed wall. rough. Altogether three fruits of this type have Dimensions: I.4X I .3X 1.0 mm. The shape and been recovered, one from Aswad and two the size of the carbonized seed point to Malva from Ramad (1.7- 1.8 mm). The subfossil aegyp tica L. fruits resemble those of Fumaria densiJ70ra DC., but other species may likewise come into consideration. 5. 18. Moraceae Ficus. Laterally compressed pips, ovate ' in Glaucium aleppicum-type. Only one Glau­ outline, pointed at the apex. The small cium seed was found (Ramad C8 3.70). The circular hilum below the apex has often not seed is semi-circular in outline, with rounded been preserved in the charred pips (fig. 30: I). dorsal side and straight ventral side. Reti­ Surface smooth. Fig is well represented at culate surface pattern: concentric rows of Aswad and Ramad; GhoraiH: yielded only a luminae (fig. 30:3). Size: 1.3Xl.lX1.0 mm. few pips. One must assume that wild fig is The shape and the surface structure conform concerned here. There are no significant size to those of Glaucium aleppicum Boiss. et diffe rences between the pips from Aswad and Hausskn., but G. corniculatum (L.) J.N. Rud. Ramad (table 45). may likewise come into consideration. In addition to the pips, one fruit base of fig was found (Ramad C8 5.05). In evaluating the 5.20. Plantaginaceae role of fig as a wild food plant the great number of pips per fruit should be taken into Plantago. Seeds elliptic in outline, with ounded upper and lower ends. Dorsal side in cross-section domed; at the ventral side a broad furrow. Smooth surface. Plantago is Table 45. Dimensions of Ficus pips represented at Ramad by a small number of L B seeds. Two types have been distinguished . Plantago /agopus-type: in the ventral fur­ Ramad row is a longitudinal ridge (fig. 30:5). Three C8 3.35 min. 1.1 0.9 N= 15 aver. 1.19 1.00 samples yielded · each one seed (1.45XO.75, max. 1.3 1.1 1.9XO.7, 1.75XO.6 mm). Plantago psyllium-type: no longitudinal C8 4.75 min. 1.1 0.9 N= 13 aver. 1.22 1.01 ridge; near one end the seed is somewhat max . 1.3 1.1 broader than near the other end (fig. 30:4). In C8 5.60 min. 1.0 0.9 two samples one seed (1.95XO.9, 2.25XO.95 N = 12 aver. 1.13 0.96 mm). max. 1.2 1.1 Both plantain species are found in disturbed habitats, such as fa llow fields. Aswad Two Plantago seeds from Ramad (M4 1.80 . 1.0 0.9 East 2.40 min and M4 2. 10) and one from Ghoraife (1.60 m) N= 15 aver. 1.23 1.00 max. 1.4 1.1 have not been attributed to a particular type. Plantain is not represented at Aswad. East 2.90 min. 1.0 0.9 N= 20 aver. 1.22 1.02 max. 1.4 1.2 5.2 I. Polygonaceae West 0.80 min. 1.0 0.9 N=7 aver. 1.19 1.00 Polygonum. Triquetrous nutlets, ovate in max . 1.4 1.2 outline, pointed at the apex. Near the apex Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant 1 229

Table 46. Dimensions of Polygonum fruits fr om Aswad principle be possible to determine the species of a t least some of the Rumex spec. fruits. West 1.60 min. 1.0 0.7 N = 12 aver. 1.17 0.82 max. 1.3 1.0 5.22. Primulaceae East 2.00 min. 1.1 0.6 N = 16 aver. 1.30 0.87 Androsace maxima L. Three-sided seeds with max. 1.5 1.0 sharp margins, elliptic in outline, rather point­ ed at upper and lower end. A character­ istic feature are the prominent, transversal ridges and grooves on the surface of the seed Table 47. Dimensions ofAnd rosace maxima seeds from Ramad (fig. 30:8). Average length and breadth L B are about 1.5 and 1.0 mm, respective­ ly (table 47). The carbonized seeds are iden­ C8 2.95 min. 1.3 0.7 N= 64 aver. 1.52 0.95 tical to those of Androsace maxima L., a max. 2.0 1.2 steppe plant which is also found in fields. Androsace maxima is fa irly well repre­ M4 2.80 min. 1.3 0.8 N= 84 aver. 1.51 0.99 sented at Ramad, a few samples yielded max. 1.9 1.2 rather large numbers of seeds. For G[lOraife, on the other hand, no Androsace could be established, while Aswad yielded only a few seeds of this type. rather sharp edges (fig. 30:7). Surface smooth, in some of the carbonized fruits still glossy. 5.23. Ranunculaceae This type is well represented at Aswad, whereas Ramad yielded only a few Poly­ Adonis. Bi-convex fruits, margin with a kee!. gonum fruits. The dimensions are shown in Ovate to almost circular in outline. Rugose­ table 46. reticulate surface pattern, with usually The species identification of the Polygonum prominent ribs (fig. 30:9, 10). Small numbers nutlets poses some problems. The shape of the of Adonis fruits were recovered from Aswad, subfossil specimens conforms to that of the Ghoraife and Ramad samples. Diffe rences in fruits of Polygonum venantianum Clem. size and surface structure suggest that more (Mouterde, vo!. I, p. 40 I) present in the seed than one Adonis species may be involved. As reference collection. However, this species is for the size, typical small specimens measure not mentioned in Post & Dinsmore (vo!. 2, pp. 1.3X 1.3X 1.2 mm, whereas for large-sized 469-475) and accord ing to Davis (vo!. 2, pp. Adonis fruits dimensions of 2.5X2.3X 1.9 mm

278-279) the status of P. venantianum ( = P. were obtained. The majority of the nutlets arenarium Waldst. et Kit.) is very uncertain. measure from 1.6X1.4X 1.2 to 2.0X 1.8X 1.6 According to Mouterde P. venantianum is mm. found in disturbed habitats. Some Adonis species are common weeds in fields: Rumex. Various Ramad samples yielded one or a few Rumex nutlets. One Rumex fruit was 5.24. Rosaceae recovered from Aswad (West 2.00) and none from Ghoraife . Most of the Rumex nut lets Amygdalus. Only fragmented almond fruit have been attributed to Rumex pulcher L. The stones were recovered . The thick-walled three-sided fruits have ridged margins. fragments have a pitted and grooved surfa ce. Triangular in outline, acute at the apex and The fragments are too small to provide an with a broad ba'se (fig. 30:6). The fruit wall indication of the dimensions of the whole fruit has a fine, but distinct striate surface pattern. stones. One must assume that wild almond Dimensions for 8 fruits: 1.60( 1.4-2.0)X is concerned here. Amygdalus communis 1.29(1.0- 1 .6)mm. Rumex pulcher is common L. as well as A. korschinskii (Hand.-Mazz.) in distur bed habitats and damp places. Bornm. come into consideration (see also Rumex nutlets that differ in shape and 7.4. 1.). surface pattern from those of R. pulcher are For estimating the numbers of fruits stones indicated here as Rumex spec. It should in represented by the fragments the average 230 W. VAN ZEIST & I.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

o 3 o .0 5 4 2

o 9 6 7 v. \}

12

14

o 3mm �! ----�----�----�!

Fig. 30. I. Ficus, Ramad CS 4.75; 2. Fumaria densiflora, Ramad CS 5.60; 3. Glaucium aleppicum-type, Ramad CS 3.70; 4. Plantago psyllium -type, Ramad CS 4.35; 5. Plantago lagopus-type, Ramad CS 2.25; 6. Rumex pulcher, Ramad CS 5.05; 7. Po lygonum , Aswad West 1.60; S. Androsace maxima, Ramad CS4.35; 9. Adonis, Ramad M4 2.30; 10. Adonis, Ramad CS 4.55; 11. Amml majus, Ramad CS 3.35; 12. Ammi majus, Ramad M4 I.SO; 13. Bi/ora testiculata , Ramad CSNW 2.45; 14. To rilis-type, Ramad CS 3.35. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 231 weight of non-carbonized, completely dry, subfossil specimen). On the ventral side of the wild almond fruit stones was taken as a charred fruit, short white lines are present. measure (0.9 gram: based upon 5 specimens). Size: c. 2.2X0.85 mm. If the fragments equal less than half an almond , this is indicated in tables 5, 6 and 7 Galium spec. Hemispherical fruits, with a with a plus-sign (+). Amygdalus is well round concavity on the ventral side indicating represented at Rarriad, but of the other two the position of the hilum. Some fruits show a sites, only Aswad yielded one fragment. finely reticula te surface pattern, whereas in other fruits no distinct pattern can be Crataegus . Hemispherical to three-faced fruit observed. Moreover, there is a large variation stones. In most of the fruit stones the domed in fruit size: from 1.2 to 3.0 mm (mean dorsal side has longitudinal grooves; the greatest dimension of 36 fruits from Ramad: ventral side is flat or roof-shaped (fig. 21: I, 2, 2. 14 mm). The dimensions of the Aswad and 3). Dimensions of 10 fruit stones from Ramad Ghoraife fruits are within the limits of those C8 4.75: 7.02(6.3-7.8)X5.74(5.0-6.6)X from Ramad. Probably more than one 4.37(3.8-5.3) mm. Crataegus fruit-stone Galium species is represented. No attempt has fragments have been converted to whole been made to arrive at a species identifica­ specimens on the basis of 0.06 gram per stone tion. (the average weight of 29 complete, carbon­ Galium fruits are not particularly numerous ized specimens). A plus-sign (+) ind icates in the sites under discussion. Some Ramad that less than half a hawthorn fruit stone is samples yielded more than only a few fruits of represented by the fragments. this type. Crataegus remains are quite common at Ramad, but scarce at Aswad and Ghoraife . Galium mollugo -type. One Galium fruit (in Most likely the fruit stones are of Crataegus Ramad C8 4.95) is very diffe rent from the aronia (L.) Bosc. ex DC. This is not only the others. The fruit is elliptic in outline. The most common hawthorn species of the area, domed dorsal side shows some longitud inal but the fact that the fr uit stones are hemispherical grooves. The greater part of the ventral side is as well as three-faced points also to C. aronia taken up by a broad, elliptic furrow in which a (Zohary & Feinbrun-Dothan, vo!. 2, pp. longitud inal ridge is found. Size: 1.6XO.9 mm. 19-20). This fruit type is strongly reminiscent of that of Galium mol/ugo L. without the wrinkled Pyrus. Ramad C8 3.35 yielded a fe w larger outer fruit wall (which may easily disappear fragments of a pear pip. Pyrus syriaea Boiss. is through ca rbonization). the only wild pear species in the Syro­ Palestinian region. 5.26. Thymelaeaceae Rubus. Only one Rubus fruit stone was Thymelaea. Fruits acuminate (tapering to a recovered (Aswad West 2.20). The stone is long point), rounded at the base. Thymelaea half-circular in outline, with a coarse reti­ fruits from Erbaba in Turkey ate depicted in culate-rugulate surface pattern. Dimensions: van Zeist & Buitenhuis (1983, fig. 10: 7). The 2.3X 1.4 mm. Raspberries may have grown fruit wall is smooth; at a magnification 0[50 in the thickets along streams. times a finely reticulate surface pattern is visible. Aswad and Ghoraife each yielded one fruit of this type: 1.9X 1.05 and 1.85XO.95 5.25. Rubiaceae mm. The subfossil fruits could be of 771y­ Crueianel/a. On ly one, slightly damaged Cru­ melaea pubeseens (L.) Meissn., which species eianel/a fruit was recovered (Ramad M4 is found in dry fa llow'fields. 1.75). The fruit is elliptic in outline, rounded at one end and more pointed at the other end. 5.27. Umbelliferae The dorsal side is domed in cross-section. At the ventral side a broad fu rrow, in which is a Ammi majus L. Oblong fruits, laterally longitud inal ridge (the fruit shows resem­ compressed, with prominent, winged ribs (fig. blance to PlantaKo seeds). The surface is 30: 11). The surface is smooth. Dimensions of fi'nely papillose (partly preserved in the 12 ' fru its from va rious sa mples (remains 232 W. V AN ZEIST & J .A.H. BAKKER-HEERES of style base not included): 2.01 (1.6-2.2)X The Ramad ·fruits show some resemblance 0.62 (0.5-0.75) mm. The subfossil fruits con­ to those of Torilis nodosa (L.) Gaertn., a fo rm to those of Ammi majus L., a species species from fields, waste places and roadsides from disturbed habitats, such as fields and (Zohary & Feinbrun-Dothan, vol. 2, p. 397). roadsides (Zohary & Feinbrun-Dothan, vol. As other species may likewise come into 2, pp. 417-4 18; Mouterde, vol. 2, p. 628). consideration this fruit type is indicated as Various Ammi fruits were unripe and To rilis nodosa-type. connate, i.e. two fruits still joined together (fig. 30: 12). Among modern seed reference material of Ammi majus a fairly great 5.28. Verbenaceae proportion of unripe, connate fruits was Verbena. Only one Verbena fruit was found noted. (Ramad M4 1.75). The fruit (0.95XO.5 mm) is oblong in outline with rounded upper and Bifora . Only three characteristic fruits of lower end. On the dorsal side longitudinal ribs Bi/ora (but at first sight not particularly which in the upper part of the fruit coalesce reminiscent of umbelliferous fruits!) have into a coarse reticulate pattern. Most likely been found. Almost globular fruits. The flat Ve rbena officinalis L., a common plant of inner or ventral side (the surface of contact roads ides and fallow fields, is concerned here. between two fruits before maturity) is rather small, with a large hole, pointed at the upper end (fig. 30: 13). The surface is considerably 5.29. Vitaceae wrinkled. Dimensions of the Ramad fruits: Vitis. Aswad West 2.20 yielded 4 carbonized 2.4X 1.9, 2.6X2.2 and 3.0X2.6 mm. Most grape pips. The pips are of the plump type, likely the fruits are of Bi/ora testiculata Roth., with a very short stalk, indicative of wild although modern fruits of this species are grape: Vitis vini/era L. ssp. silvestris Gmelin. larger (c. 4.3X3.5 mm) than the subfossil Two pips measure 3.6X3.3 and 3.6X3.0 mm. specimens. Wild grape could have grown along the streams in the area. Bup/eurum �pec. Only one fruit in Ramad C8 2.95. The fruit is laterally compressed, with 5 narrow ridges. Surface tuberculate. Size: 6. THE NATURE OF THE SAMPLES 1.7XO.7 mm. 6. 1. The limitations of the material studied Torilis nodosa-type. Fruits elliptic in outline; on each of the four valleculae at the dorsal A great number of questions can be put to the side (the areas between the primary ribs) 2 to 3 archaeobotanist about the vegetable material rows of bristles. In the carbonized fruits the recovered from settlement sites, such as: bristles have largely disappeared (fig. 30:4). - Which plant species were cultivated, what Many specimens show no more remains of was the importance of plant growing in the bristles, which at first seriously hampered the economy of the site and what was the relative identification. Fruits without bristles are importance of each of the crop plants? oblong in outline. The dimensions of the - Wha t was the role of wild plants in the diet subfossil fruits are shown in table 48. of the inhabitants of the site? - For what other purposes than as human food were wild and cultivated plants used Table 48. Dimensions of Torilis nodosa-type fruits from (animal fodder, fuel, roof thatching, floor Ramad. Dimensions without (remains of) bristles litter, etc. )?

L B -Do the plant remains provide information on the tillage of the fields (ploughing, C8 3.35 min. 2.0 0.6 weeding, irrigation, fa llowing) and on har­ N=8 aver. 2.35 0.69 vesting methods? max. 2.8 0.8 - What can be concluded about cro"p M4 1.75 min. 1.8 0.6 processing (such as threshing, dehusking, crop N =9 aver. 2.07 0.68 cleaning) and food preparation? max. 2.6 0.7 - Is there a relation between archaeological Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 233

features observed in the field and the origin, in other words, that they originated composition of plant remains recovered from from various types of domestic activities. It those features? goes without saying that this circumstance is a - What was the vegetation in the vicinity of serious handicap in the interpretation of the the site? palaeobotanical data beyond establishing Although this enumeration is far frcun which domesticated and wild species are exhaustive, it will' already be clear that present and commenting upon their possible usually only a minor part of these questions economic and ecological implications. Only can be solved satisfactorily. One should guard for Ramad would it have been possible, in against too high expectations. The extent to principle, to collect samples from distinct which the botanical examination of a fea tures if somebody had done this during particular site can provide information on field campaigns after 1965. However, the need the plant husbandry depends, among other for this kind of samples was felt only after things, on the nature of the samples. The best excavations at Ramad had come to an end results are to be expected from samples of (3.2. 1.). which the botanical content represents one specific activity or one specific stage in crop 6.2. The deposition of plant remainS In processing. Also in that case it should be settlement sites taken into consideration that the burning of the plant material must have affected the How did the seeds, fruits and other plant composition of the charred remains. remains arrive in the settlement? For the crop It has already been mentioned (3. 1.) that the plants the answer is obvious. After harvesting samples discussed in this paper have usually and probably also threshing on the field, the not been taken from particular features. The products were brought to the site for further Aswad and Ghora ife samples are from processing. Carbonization of crop plant seeds exposed sections. Most of the Ramad samples and fruits could have been brought about by a (C8SE series) were collected in extending a conflagration or less dramatically in the squa re excavated the previous season. Only preparation of food, grains may have fa llen from Ramad square M4, samples were taken into the fire and thus have become carbon­ during excavation, but with one exception the ized. An accident during parching of glume features from which these samples originate wheat spikelets prior to dehusking may also were rather vague, such as ashy soil. Sample have resulted in charred grains and chaff. M4 2.10 was collected from what is described Chaff may also have been used for kindling as 'a basin filled with carbonized seeds and the fire. Hillman (1984) has drawn attention delimited by a brown line, probably a wooden to the fact that only those items which, when box fo r storing fo od' (une cuvette remp/ie de exposed to fire, are small and dense enough to graines carbonisees et delimitee par une /igne drop into the ashes may become charred brune, probablement un receptacle en bois rather than being burned to ash themselves. pour conserver les provisions (de Contenson The sturdy spikelet forks and glume bases & van Liere, 1966, p. 169)). However, the comply with this requirement. results of the examination of this sample There can be no doubt that wild fruits, such suggest that there is no possibility here of a as pistachio, almond and fig, were collected cereal grain supply stored for food prepar­ purposely and brought to the settlement. But ation. The mixed seed content and particular­ what about the remains of other wild plant ly the great numbers of spikelet forks and species? Some of the seeds and fruits may have glume bases ind icate that at least part of arrived at the site by accident, e.g. attached to the sample represents the residue of crop­ the skin of domestic animals or to the clothes processing activities, such as dehusking. of man. It is tempting to assume that the Thus, the samples are not from particular plants of which the seeds occur in great fea tures which could provide indications on numbers were brought in purposely or that the possible nature of the plant remains the' seeds themselves were collected by (storage products, kitchen refuse, crop-pro­ prehistoric man. Unfortunately, of many wild cessing products and by-products). The ex­ species ascertained for Ramad, Ghoraife and amination of the samples has .made it clear Aswad their role in the economy of ancient that the plant remains are generally of mixed man is obscure, or at least various hypotheses 234 w. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES are possible or have already been brought of the site of valuable sources of wild food forward . Thus, the great numbers of seeds and (vegetable fa ts and proteins). It is tempting to fruits of some wild legumes (Astragalus, assume that also in the sites under discussion Melilotus, Trigonella astroites) and grasses dung fuel was commonly used and that an (Lolium) could point to intentional harvesting unknown proportion of the charred seeds for human consumption (see also 7.4.2.). At recovered from these sites was brought to the least the numerous Astragalus seeds could settlement in the digestive tract of domestic also· be explained in another way. In steppe animals. This could, for example, explain the areas various perennial woody plants, so­ exceptionally great numbers of cyperaceous called dwarf shrubs, such as Noaea, Artemisia fruits (sedge and bulrush) in Aswad . In and Astragalus, a re collected fo r fu el. It is not grazing the nearby marshes (the only green likely that Artemisia and Noaea seeds would fodder in the middle of the summer) the escape from being burned to as h, but animals must have eaten many fruits attached Astragalus seeds are more likely to be charred. to these common marsh plants and sub­ Thus, the anomalously great number· of sequently excreted part of them in their Astragalus seeds in Ramad M4 2.80 could droppings. However, curiously enough no point (but n, ot necessarily!) to the use of this domestic animals would have been kept by the plant as fuel. One could imagine that also inhabitants of aceramic Aswad, Ghoraife and annual plants from the steppe and the fields Ramad (2.2., 2.4.), so that animal dung would were collected for fuel. However, the presence not or hard ly have come into consideration as of sometimes great numbers of seeds of a a source of fuel. pa rticular species remains difficult to interpret In the fo llowing discussion of the archaeo­ as the result of some kind of domestic botanical data (section 7) the way the plant activities. remains may have arrived in the settlement Attention has been drawn to the possi­ will not or hard ly be taken into considera­ ble contribution of dung fuel to the charred tion. For uncontested human food plants seeds and fruits in archaeological deposits. this is clear, whereas for the other species Particularly Miller (1982) has stressed this it rema ins a matter of speculation. potential source of charred seeds. In areas with a scarcity of wood, dung is generally used 6.3. Seed frequencies for heating purposes. The examination of fresh dung has demonstrated that various The numbers of seeds and fruits per sample seeds pass through the digestive tract of sheep vary greatly (tables 5 to 10). This is not and ca ttle undamaged (see also Bottema, particularly astonishing as the deposition of 1984). The animal dung may be burned as charred vegetable material in a settlement did such (sheep, goat, camel), but of cattle dung not occur randomly. Some places will so-called dung cakes are made. Part of· the regula rly have been cleaned, whereas other seeds in these dung cakes may have beeri places served as refuse dumps. However, in attached to the straw or other vegetable addition to the va rying numbers of seeds per material used in the manufacture of the ca kes. sample , it tu rned out that there are The burning of dung and dung cakes may consistent differences in seed frequencies result in the charring of cereal grains and between sites and between areas and/ or levels other seeds and fruits incorporated in this (phases) within one site. As the volumes of the kind of fuel. As a consequence the presence of samples that have been floated are not the quite considerable numbers of charred seeds same for all sites, the numbers of seeds have in archaeological sites may have been due to been converted to 10 litre samples (table 49). this practice. This should facilitate the comparison of seed Wood must have been a scarce commodity frequencies per unit of soil volume. in the vicinity of Aswad and Ghoraife. It goes without saying that the figures Although more wood was available · near shown in table 49 are approximations. The Ramad, that was situated in the almond­ volume of the Ghoraife and of the Aswad pistachio forest-steppe, it may not have been West samples was 13 litres (the contents of enough to meet the demands for fuel. one rubber basket), but for some samples it Moreover, excessive cutting of pistachio and may have been somewhat Ies�. The same almond would have deprived the inhabitants applies to Aswad East, with 26 litre samples Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 235

Table 49. Estimated numbers of seeds and fruits pet 10 litres Table 49 (contillued). of soil Ghoraife Ramad Phase II 1.20 49 Phase I 3.80 8 C8, phase II 1.10 161 C8, phase I 5.25 175 1.40 30 4.00 8 1.20 9 5.35 56 1.60 69 4.20 12 1.55 55 5.40 46 1.80 13 4.40 33 ' 1:65 182 5.55 95 2.00 58 4.60 8 1.70 69 5.60 48 2.20 61 4.80 6 1.90 99 5.70 28 2.40 78 5.00 10 2.25 251 2.60 176 5.20 8 Mean 75 2.45 206 2.80 48 5.40 8 2.70 557 3.00 62 5.60 17 2.95 793 3.20 59 5.80 7 3.15 57 3.40 123 6.00 12 3.35 2291 3.60 130 Mean 11 3.55 1491 Mean 74 3.60 469 · 3.70 1276 * 2.80 m excluded 3.90 979 4.05 482 4.35 404 4.55 211 4.75 2057 (two baskets). The numbers of seeds per 10 I 4.95 2052 of soil at Ghoraife and Aswad are minimum 5.05 1 789 values: for samples of less than 13 or 26 litres Mean 725 of soil the seed frequencies are higher than indicated in table 49, but not very much M4, phase II 1.75 2102 M4 , phase I 2.80 2998 higher. The least accurate are the seed fre­ 1.80 761 3.00 37 quency figures for Ramad. The soil volumes 1.90 697 3.10 74 here ranged from 10 to 20 litres, but no 2.10 783 3.45 79 2.30 431 3.65 152 actual volumes have been recorded. The 4.05 201 calculation of the Ramad seed frequencies is Mean 955 4.30 116 based upon the average soil volume of 15 Mean 522 litres. The deviations from the figures given in 110'" table 49 are at most -25% (if the sample was 20 1) and +50% (if the sample was only \0 1). Aswad For instance, the number of seeds per \0 litres East, phase 11 0.20 63 West, phase II 0.40 137 of soil of C8 2.70 is between 557 �25% is 418 0.40 68 0.60 280 0.60 118 0.80 149 and 557+50% is 836. 0.80 197 1.00 103 It is needless to remark that the seed 1.00 261 1.20 348 frequency figures refer only to the soil that 1.20 208 1.40 945 was collected and that they do not give a kind 1.40 203 1.60 2309 of mean value for the whole of the layer or 1.60 101 1.80 829 feature. In addition to the seed frequency 2.00 3057 Mean 152 2.20 3487 figures per sample, mean figures are given per 2.40 806 area and per p,hase. 2.60 103 Compared to Ramad and Aswad, the 2.80 7 Ghoraife samples show consistently low seed Mean 966 frequencies. What could this mean? Was only relatively little vegetable material brought to East, phase I 1.80 40 2.00 251 the site or has there been a more rapid 2.20 14 accumulation of soil than at Ramad and 2.40 54 Aswad? One should also take into consid­ 2.70 172 eration that the seed frequencies per 10 I of 2.90 138 soil established for Ghoraife may not be 3.10 53 representative for the whole of the site. In 3.30 15 other areas · of the site the concentration of 3.60 29 charred seeds in the occupational fill may be Mean 85 236 W. VAN ZEIST & l.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

quite different. In this connection the seed 7. THE PLANT HUSBANDRY frequencies in Aswad East and Aswad West are illustrative. Phase II samples from Aswad 7. 1 Cultivated plants West give a mean seed frequency of 966, whereas at Aswad East, on average, only 7.1. 1. Mean percentages 152 seeds were recovered from 10 litres of soil The aceramic Neolithic habitation of Aswad of the same archaeological phase. This GhoraiH: and Ramad covers about 2000 year� difference in mean numbers of seeds could be and t �e ecological conditions in the vicinity of due to differences in soil accumulation rates. the sites were not identical (2.1. 1., 2.1.2., The phase II levels in both areas do not 2 1.3.). C nsequently one could expect necessarily cover the same time span. Un­ : ? differences In the crop plants grown and/ or in fortunately, there is no way of determining the proportions of the crop plants between the rates of seed deposition per unit of time. Other three sites. Moreover, there may be differences hypotheses could be brought forward to bet een habitation phases within one site. In explain the differences in seed frequencies in � section 4 attention has already been devoted to bo�h area , but that would be sheer specu­ � the beh viour of the individual crop plant latIOn, which does not briJ1g us any further. . � species; In this section emphasis will be laid on At GhoraiH:, there are also marked the crop plant assortment. In order to obtain differences in seed concentration in the lower some insight in possible changes in the and upper levels. The seed frequencies in the composition of the crop plant remains, the hase I� deposits are, on average, about 6.5 � samples of one phase are taken together. In this times higher than those in phase I samples. connection it should be remembered that in Ramad shows the same phenomenon. At each of the sites two main aceramic habitation Ramad C8, the average seed frequency in the phases are distinguished. The correlation of phase II samples is 9-10 times higher than in the these phases in shown in fig. 6. phase I samples. For phase I at Ramad M4 For a comparison of the proportions of crop the average seed frequency is biassed by the plant remains mean percentages seem most anomalously great numbers of Astragalus and appropriate. As has been discussed in an earlier Helianthemum seeds in M4 2.80. If this paper (van Zeist & Buitenhuis, 1983) a suitable sample is left out, the seed frequencies of way to determine the mean percentages is as phases I and 11 differ by a factor 8 to 9. At follows. For each sample of the phase Aswad East, the difference in mean seed concerned the percentages are calculated frequencies between phases I and 11 is less on the basis of the total number of crop plant pronounced . seeds and fruits in that particular sample. Which significance should be attached to Thereupon, for each of the seed types the the lower seed frequencies in the phase 1 levels percentages are added and the mean of the sites under discussion? Lower fre­ percentages are determined by dividing the quencies are not bound to a particular time . total pe centage by the number of samples of penod. Phases I at Aswad, Ghoraife and : the particular group. Samples with less than 20 Ramad differ in time by many hundreds of crop plant seeds are left out, so that the number years. W s the habitation perhaps more � of samples included in this operation may be scattered In the early stages .of a site, with a less than the total number of samples of the smaller number of inhabitants, which could phase concerned. account for the lower numbers of seeds The above method of determining mean ?eposited? Could these lower seed frequencies p rcentages was also applied for the sites under In one way or another not be of primary but of � . diSCUSSion (table 50). However for the econdary nature? The crop plant proportions ' � Ghoraife phase I samples it did not work In the phase 1 levels give occasion to think of b cause none of the samples of this group differential preservation (7.1.2.). Be this as it � Ylelde d at least 20 crop plant seeds and fruits. may, no satisfactory explanation for the lower . In thiS case no other choice was left than seed frequencies in the phase 1 levels can _yet adding. the ctual numbers of crop plant seeds be proposed.' . � and frUIts In the samples of this group and subsequently determining the percentages. As here the numbers of crop plant seeds per Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 237

sample are always low the result should be barley have been established. On the other satisfactory: the percentages are not affected by hand, it must be admitted that for Ghoraife an extraordinarily great number of seeds of a phase I only 8 identifiable cereal grains were particular species in one of the samples. That found , which number is markedly higher at this method seems to be justified in the case of Aswad phase I (table 50). With some reserve it not too greatly varying numbers of seeds per may be assumed that it was not until phase 11 at sample is also suggested by' the phase I samples Aswad that Tr iticum monococcum, Tr iticum at Aswad East. Of the nine samples of this durum/ aestivum and Hordeum vulgare var. group only five have more than 20 crop plant coeleste were introduced and became part of seeds and fruits. The mean percentages based the crop plant assortment of the Neolithic upon the percentages in each of the five fa rmers in the Da mascus basin. Linseed samples are shown in table 50. The mean cultivation did not start either until phase 11 at percentages calculated on the basis of the total Aswad, that is to say, not until the beginning of numbers of seeds and fruits in all nine samples the seventh millennium B. C. are also presented in table 50. The mean Comparison of the percentages in phases I percentages obtained in both ways show only and II at Aswad suggests a quite considerable slight differences, indicating that under certain decrease in pulse crop proportions. It looks as circumstances the latter method leads to results if in the ea rly stages of the habitation pea and compara ble to those of the 'percentage-based' lentil were proportionally of much more method. importance than afterwards. However, some caution in drawing this kind of conclusion . 7. 1.2. Crop plant proportions should be observed A similar decrease in pulse crop proportions is seen between phases For the oldest Neolithic habitation phase I and II at Ghoraife and phases I and 11 at attested for the Damascus basin, viz . for Ramad C8. Consequently, one wonders phase I at Aswad, only one domesticated whether this behaviour of the pulse crop per­ cereal species, Tr iticum dicoccum , could be centages could in one way or another be an established with certainty. As for Hordeum, artifact of the charred seed preservation. In the kernels are not particularly informative this connection it is perhaps not without whether H. distichum or H. sp ontaneum is significance that in the levels with high pulse concerned. Some of the barley grains are crop proportions the numbers of seeds and distinctly of the wild barley type, but it is likely fr uits of cultivated as well as of wild plants are that the other barley grains include H. comparatively small. spontaneum as well (4.5). Only one of the Among the cereals, emmer wheat usually barley rachis internodes in an Aswad phase I shows the highest percentages. Only at Aswad sample is of the non-brittle type (East I.80) . phase I does ba rley have the mean percentage Even if most of the barley was of the value equal to that of emmer wheat. [t is self­ morphologically wild type, it is tempting to evident that the predominant emmer wheat assume that it was cultivated. Oflentil and field pe rcentages do not necessarily imply that this pea it cannot be ascertained whether they are of was quantitatively the most importa nt cereal the wild or of the domesticated type, but it is crop plant. However, we can only deal with assumed that they were already cultivated by the crop plant seed frequencies and possible earliest farmers at Aswad. No remains of free­ diffe rences in proportions. As for diffe re nces threshing wheat (Triticum durum/ aestivum), ill crop plant proportions between sites or naked barley (Hordeum vulgare var. coeles te) hetween phases within one site, again the or einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum) necessary caution should be observed. Dif­ were found, but in view of the rather small ferences between sites or between phases of numbers of crop plant seeds and fruits in Aswad one site may be of the same magnitude as phase I, this is no absolute proof that these diffe rences between two areas in the same site. species were not grown there during that time. Th� mean percentages in phase II at Aswad In this connection attention is drawn to phase I East and Aswad West are largely similar, but at Ghoraife in which the species mentioned squares C8 and M4 and Ramad show some above are likewise absent, although for the distinct differences in the crop plant pro­ contemporaneous Aswad phase 11 levels portions. Thus, in phase I free-threshing einkorn wheat, free-threshing wheat and naked wheat has a much higher proportion in C8 238 W. VAN ZEIST & I.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Table 50. Mean percentages of crop plant seeds and fruits per archaeological phase. For the calculation of the mean percentages, see 7.1.1

� % = total percentage per archaeological phase, N = total number of seeds or fruits per archaeological phase.

Aswad East Aswad East Aswad West Ghoraife Phase I II II I Number of samples 5 9 8 12 12 �% Mean % N Mean % �% Mean % �% Mean % N Mean %

Triticum monococcum 2.2 0.3 1.5 0.1 Triticum dicoccum 43.0 8.6 23'12 6.2 142.7 17.8 196.0 16.3 5 8.3 Triticum durum/aestivum 6.4 0.8 11.3 0.9 Hordeum distichum/spontaneum 42.4 8.5 32 8.4 18.9 2.4 51.7 4.3 3 5.0 Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste 0.6 0.1 2.8 0.2 Cereal grain fragments 359.6 71.9 281 73.8 622.6 77.8 916.9 76.4 27 45.0 � Cereals 89.0 88.4 99.2 98.2 58.3 Pisum 44.5 8.9 38'12 10.1 4.7 0.6 8.9 0.7 16 26.7 Lens 10.6 2.1 6 1.6 0.8 0.1 7.2 0.6 3 5.0 Cicer 3 5.0 � Pulses 11.0 11.7 0.7 1.3 37.7 Unum (usitatissimum) 4.1 0.3 3 5.0 'Sum of seeds and fruits 381 60

than in M4 (2.S and 0.4%, respectively), millennium B.C levels (Aswad 11 to Ramad whereas in phase 11 the reverse can be 11). observed : nearly four times higher in M4 than The palaeobotanical data do not allow in CS. Both squares show marked differences conclusions on the quantitative contribution in emmer wheat proportions in phase I and in of cultivated plants in the food economy of hulled barley values in phase 11. It will be clear the sites concerned . Low numbers of crop that if between areas in one site already ' plant remains (and also those of wild plants) do considerable diffe rences in crop plant pro­ not so much point to lower production of crop portions can occur, differences between sites plants per head of the population (6.3.), but may not be of much significance. Had the are due rather to mor e rapid accumulation samples been taken in another area the results of occupational debris and/ or less dense may hav e been diffe rent. habitation. On the other hand , one wonders The data obtained for Aswad, Ghoraife whether it would be possible to say something and Ramad seem to justify the following on the importance of wild plant collecting conclusions. From Aswad phase 11 (early relative to plant cultivation. This aspect of the seventh millennium B.C.) on 5 cereal species, plant husbandry will be discussed in section field pea, lentil and linseed were cult ivated in 7.4. Fir st some remarks will be made on the Da mascus basin. Chick-pea (Ch'er) possible indications of agricultural practices. appears later in the charred seed record, but its role in the plant husbandry was most 7.2. The fields probably of minor importance. The per­ centages suggest that einkorn wheat and The present-day annual precIpitation in the naked barley were grown on a smaller scale area of Aswad and GhoraW: is below 200 mm. than emmer wheat and hulled barley. This is considered too low to rely on for dry­ Tr iticum durum/aestivum seems to have been farming. If in early-Holocene times, 8th and of less importance at Aswad phase 11 than it 7th millennia B.C, precipitation was not wa s in phase 11 levels at Ghoraife and at appreciably higher, plant cultivation under Ramad. This could point to an increased dry-farming conditions must have been very appreciation of free-threshing wheat in later margihal at Aswad and Ghoraife. Whether or pe riods. As explained above, it may be wise to not the early Holocene climate of the Levant refrain from drawing more conclusions from was moister than at present is still a the crop plantseed proportions in the seventh controversial issue (2, 1 .4.). For Ramad a Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 239

- Ghoraife Ramad C8 Ramad M4 Ramad C8 Ramad M4 Ramad C8NW II I I 11 11 III 10 13 6 6 21 5 6 };% MClan % N Mean % };% Mean % };% Mean % L% Mean % };% Mean % L % . Mean %

29.2 2.9 13 2.9 14.8 2.5 11.7 0.6 4.6 0.9 5.4 0.9 198.9 19.9 94Y2 21.2 68.6 11.4 165.9 27.7 399.8 19.0 95.0 19.0 101.3 16.9 119. 1 11.9 48 10.8 9.1 1.5 2.5 0.4 103.5 4.9 82.7 16.5 22.7 3.8 25.8 2.6 10'h. 2.4 17.3 2.9 22.7 3.8 68.1 3.2 33.9 6.8 50.7 8.5 6.1 0.6 3 0.7 0.7 0.1 3.5 0.2 0.7 0.1 4.6 0.8 570.2 57.0 256 57.5 291.3 48.6 355.7 59.3 1335.0 63.6 250.6 50.1 322.7 53.8 94.9 95.5 64.5 93.7 91.5 93.4 84.7 11.6 1.2 6 1.3 65.7 11.0 58.0 2.8 4.0 0.8 26.7 4.5 136.7 22.8 16.0 2.7 99.0 4.7 17.5 3.5 61.0 10.2 1.3 0.1 1.7 0.3 2.1 0.4 1.2 1.3 33.8 2.7 7.6 4.6 15.1 39.4 3.9 14'h. 3.3 10.5 1.8 22.4 3.7 19.4 0.9 8.7 1 .7 2.4 0.4 445%

mean annual preCIpitation of c. 250 mm is the lake and the marshes extended as fa r as infe rred; at present dry-farming as well as the site of Aswad, in other words, that Aswad irrigation farming is practised in the area. had been established near the edge of the marshes of Lake Aateibe. It cannot be excluded that Carex and Scirpus fruits were 7.2. 1. Thepo ssible exploitation of surfa ce gathered for human consumption. Some of water these fruits may have arrived in the set tlement In a previous paper (van Zeist & Bakker­ adhering to rushes and sedges used for Heeres, 1979) the possible implications of the thatching or as litter. It would be attractive to unusually great numbers of Carex arid assume that most of the charred cyperaceous Scirpus maritimus fruits at Aswad have fruits at Aswad were due to the burning of already been discussed. The great numbers of dung, that the marsh vegetation was grazed by fruits of these species point to marsh vege­ domestic animals, but, alas, no domestic tations at a short distance from the site. animals are attested for Aswad (2.2.). At present no marshes occur in the vicinity of The nearby marshes offered the Aswad the site, but two freshwater lakes, Bahret fa rmers an oppor tunity to compensate for Hijjane and Bahr el Aateibe, are found c. 15 insufficient precipitation. They could have km to the south-southeast and to the north­ laid out their fields in the marshy zone, thus northeast of T�ll Aswad, respectively (fig. 1). providing the crop with several weeks of extra Up to the middle of the last century Lake moisture at thy beginning of the dry season. A Aateibe extended up to the site of Aswad as is similar exploitation of surface water has been also indicated in fig. 31. The extent of the lake suggested by Helbaek (1969) for the Bus around A.D. 1850 is shown on the Map of Mordeh phase at Ali Kosh in Southwest Iran. Damascus, Hauran and the Lebanon Moun­ It should be emphasized that there is no proof tains published by Porter (1855) . In addition, for the utilization of the marshy zone for plant Porter who visited the area in November cultivation by the inhabitants of Tell Aswad. 1852, gives an accurate travel account which The palaeobotanical record ind icates only confirms the extent of the lake as shown on that here conditions must have been fa vour­ his map. Porter's observations point to the able for this. presence of extensive marsh vegetations inter­ Precipitation at Ghoraife is about the same spersed with patches of open water. as at Aswad, implying that also at Ghoraife It is likely that also in early Neolithic time dry fa rming may have been marginal. Fruits 240 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

mers had no opportunity of growing their crop plants in soil with a high groundwater table. It is possible that the water of the small stream at the foot of the site was used for irrigating fields, as is done at present. Similarly the inhabitants of Ghoraife may have diverted water from the Barada river to their fields. Whether small-scale irrigation farming was already practised by Neolithic farmers in the Damascus basin remains questionable.

L­I

I ,,- I Jda'ldet el Khass , / I 7.2.2. Field weeds I ®xj( Aswad I \ I At least some of the weeds in cultivated fields I / \ " / " are ind icative of soil conditions and/ or agricultural practices. Consequently, it is self­ evident that attempts are made to draw inferences from the seeds and fruits of weeds in archaeological sites about agricultural practices of the past . Unfortunately, but on second thoughts not very astonishingly, the fa rther one goes back in time the less informative wild plant species are with respect to questions such as tilling of the soil, fallowing, etc. In the case of the Neolithic sites Fig. 31. On this map the extent of Lake Aateibe around in the Damascus basin, various wild plants AD.1850 is ind icatea by a broken line. Tell Aswad is may have been present in the fields while at situated near the former lake border. the same time they formed part of the natural steppe and forest-steppe vegetation. In this connection it should be remembered that most of the field weeds originate from steppe of marsh plant species, viz. Carex, Eleocharis vegetations. Various steppe plants intruded and SCifPUS maritimus, were recovered at the fields of the Neolithic fa rmers and adapted ' GhoraiH:,al though in much smaller numbers themselves to the particular conditions in than at Aswad. However, in this respect it cultivated fields by natural selection of should be taken into account that in general mutants most suitable for the new environ­ the numbers of seeds and fruits recovered ment. However, some reserve in this res­ from the Ghoraife samples are much smaller pect may not be amiss. M. Zohary (1973, p. than those from the Aswad samples. The 648) mentions that of a great number of charred seed concentration in the Ghoraife segetal plants which are often referred to as of deposits is usually low .. Relative to the East Mediterranean or Southwest Asian numbers of crop plant seeds and fruits, origin, no natural habitats are known. They cyperaceous fruits are not less numerous at are exclusively found in secondary habitats, Ghoraife than they are at Aswad. Extensive i.e. on disturbed soil, in ruderal places, on marshes were not present in the immediate roadsides, etc. vicinity of Ghoraife. The marshes of Lake An additional problem is created by the fact Aateibe were at least 5 kilometres away. In that a great number of seeds and fruits of wild spite of this considerable distance, marsh plants could not be identified to the species vegetations must nevertheless have played a level. No ecological conclusions can be drawn part in the economy of the site as is attested by from seed types which may include species the cyperaceous fruits. from ' different habitats. Undeniable field In contrast to Aswad and Ghoraife, at weeds are not particularly numerous in the Ramad only small numbers of Carex and seed record of the sites under discussion. Of Scirpus fruits were found. The Ramad fa r- Va ccaria pyramidata, a weed in winter crops, Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 241 rather small numbers of seeds were found in vicinity of the sites, but this does not the three sites. Cephalaria syriaca, which in necessarily imply that they were field weeds. many areas of the Near East is a noxious weed From the field weeds no other conclusion in grain fields, is represented at Ramad by can be drawn than that (part of) the crop was only two fruits. Aegilops cf. crassa is also autumn sown, which is not surprising. This scarcely represented: a small number of rather meagre information on agricultural caryopses in Ra rriad. The fruits of Lolium practices may in part be due to our igno­ temulentum, which in Near' Eastern primitive rance in defining proper questions and to grain fields is one of the most common weeds, insufficient information on the ecology of the were found only in Ramad, but in this case in species. It is striking that at Ramad, field quite considerable numbers. One can only weeds and potential field weeds are much speculate why darnel is not represented at better represented than at Ghoraife and Aswad and Ghoraife. Were the climatic Aswad; various taxa occur only in Ramad. It conditions there not suitable for this species is true that from Ramad considerably greater or was it not until the last centuries of the 7th numbers of seeds have been recovered than millennium B.C. that Lolium temulentum had from the other sites, implying that the chances of arrived in the area? See, however, note under finding rare types are better, but, on the other 5. 13. hand, it seems justified to conclude that It is likely that Bellevalia occurred in the Ramad had a richer field weed flora than fields; particularly at Ramad it must have Ghoraife and Aswad. This could be due to the been a common weed. Androsace maxima more favourable climatic conditions at must have occurred frequently in the fields of Ramad (higher precipitation), but it also is the Ramad fa rmers. Helianthemum cf. tempting to suggest that with the development ledifolium , another potential field weed, is of agriculture the number of field weed species also confined to Ramad. Ammi majus, To rilis in the Damascus area increased. This could and Convolvulus are other taxa which could have been brought about by the immigration have formed part of the weed flora of the of weeds from other areas. Direct and indirect Ramad fields, but they may also have been contacts between fa rming communities must fo und in other disturbed habitats. Lolium have facilitated the migration of synanthropic (rigidum) and Phalaris (paradoxa) can both species. occur in fields. Ryegrass must have been a widespread weed, undoubtedly not confined 7.3. Tail grain or prime grain to fields. In the vicinity of Aswad conditions for Phalaris seem to have been particularly Quite a lot of time has been invested in favourable. A vena barbata and/ or Avena measuring great numbers of cereal grains. The sterilis were probably also present in the fields dimensions of the kernels should inform us of the Neolithic farmers in the Damascus about the quality of the grain in terms of size, basin, especially at Ramad. Other probable and the dimensions and index values should field weeds include Adonis and Si/ene. permit comparisons between samples from the The role of the leguminous taxa in the field same site as well as comparisons between weed flora is rather obscure. Medicago sites. However, one may wonder whether radiata seems to occur only in steppe and irrespective of the effect of the carbonization desert-steppe vegetations, but the other on the dimensions, the size ranges established leguminous seed types include species which for the cereal grains from Ramad, Ghoraife at present are found in fields. Thus, vetches and Aswad provide a correct picture of the (Vicia) are common field weeds, Medicago quality of the crop. The same applies to lentil and Melilotus species are frequently found in and pea, but this discussion will remain fields, and various Astragalus species, par­ confined to cereals. ticularly annual types, are well adapted to In the sites mentioned above no traces were the ecological conditions in cultivated fields. found of any grain storage pits or other Whether, and if so to what extent, wild deposits of almost pure grains indicative of legumes were constituents of the field weed the storage of grain ready for food pre­ flora must remain undecided. The charred paration or being sown. Nearly all charred seed record suggests that some leguminous grains are from refuse layers and ashy species must have been quite common in the deposits or from occupational fill without any 242 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

particular characteristics. This leaves us with the question whether perhaps the majority of these grains may represent the waste fraction. In a rather far advanced stage of crop HUMBERS OF GRAINS /. processing, the product is passed through a TAIL GRAIH , / sieve which separates the prime grain from the -� smaller tail grain, weed seeds and most other contaminants. The traditional crop processing t MAX. OIAMETERS OF GRAINS of cereals has been described expertly and MESH DIAME HR clearly (by means of flow diagrams) by Fig. 32. The frequency distribution of the maximum Hillman (1981; 1984). For further details the diameter (greatest width or height) of unsorted cereal reader is referred to Hillman's papers. grains is of Gaussian form. Sieving results in the The grains from storage supplies, either separation of prime grain and ta il grain (the grains that pass through the sieve). As some of the small grains will found in primary position, e.g. in a storage pit or vessel, or in secondary position, usually remain with the prime grain, the prime grain curve e.g. extends to beyond the sieve mesh diameter (indicated by shovelled in a pit or spread out over some area an arrow). After Hillman (1984). after the conflagration (more or less pure charred grain deposits), will primarily repre­ sent prime grain. One could argue that n the cereal grains from refuse layers, where n they are mixed with great numbers of seeds of " field weeds and other wild plants, with rachis 11 11 remains and chaff, should exclusively or for · ..... the most part consist of tail grain. On the '.100 [: ""1 other hand, the tail grain, the by-prod uct of " crop processing, was not merely a waste 11 "·"""111 product, to be thrown away or burned, but it EI8ABA 1151 served as animal fodder (also as famine food .. 91 " f: 11 for humans). Consequently, tail grain did not automatically end up in refuse deposits and the cereal grains in the Ramad, Ghoraife and EI8ABA 911 [� "'6 Aswad samples may for the greater part be "'] prime grain. Could the size distribution of the , ca rbonized grains provide indications as to the class of grain (prime grain or tail grain)? RAMAO ca 5.05 �� "90 As for distinguishing the two classes of ,'� 11 grain in charred remains, H illman (1984) has '1 drawn attention to the fo llowing. As has RAMAD ca 1.75 already been mentioned, tail grain and prime �:" _E1I6 JI grain are separated by sieving. The mesh 11 '�, diameters of the sieves used determine the size ".. . of the grains which pass through. It is the Fig. 33.�" Frequency distribution histograms for the maximum breadth (or height) of the grain and maximum diameter of Tr iticum dicoccum grains from not the length which determines whether or various sites. not the grain can pass through the sieve. The maximum diameters (breadth or heights) of a grain sample before sieving will show a normal distribution (Gaussian curve). In abruptly curtailed to the right. This is sieving some of the small grains which in illustrated in fig. 32. theory could pass through will be retained on The frequency distributions of the maxi­ the sieve together with the prime grain. mum diameters of emmer wheat and Nevertheless, the theoretical frequency dis­ naked wheat grains from Ramad are shown as tribution of the maximum diameters of tail histograms in figs. 33 and 34. The distri­ grains should show a distinctly asymmetrical butions obtained differ distinctly from the curve with a long tail to the left and rather theoretical frequency distribution of the maxi- Table 51. Dimensions in mi1limetersand index values of Triticum durum/aestivum and T.dicoccum fr om various Near Eastern sites

Date Length Breadth Thickness 100L:B 100T:B N Sample context'

Triticum durum/aestivum Korucutepe1 2600-2300 BC 4.87 (3.6-6.2) 3.14 (2.2-3.7) 2.55 (1.8-3.2) 156 (122-196) 81 (65-98) 100 Charred grain deposit Tepecik1 Early Bronze 4.18 (3.3-5.5) 2.62 (2.0-3.3) 2.17 (1.5-2.9) . 160 (134-197) 83 (69-97) 100 Almost pure n!lked wheat sample Erbaba 9312 c.5800 BC 5.21 (3.4-6.3) . 2.86 (2.0-3.6) 2.36 (1 .7-3.0) 183 (150-232) 83 (58-107) 100 Mixed sample fr om occupational fill Erbaba 13182 c.5800 BC 5.31 (4.0-6.6) 2.97 (2.1-3.6) 2.44 (1.6-3.0) 180 (135-221) 82 (64-103) 99 Mixed sample fr om occupational fill Erbaba 13592 c.5800 BC 5.12 (3.6-6.3) 2.82 (2.2-3.4) 2.38 (1.6-3.1) 183 (131-242) 85 (56-1 13) 88 Mixed sample f,om occupational fill Hacilar3 c.5250 BC 4.89 (2.5-6.3) 3.06 (1.5-3.8) 2.46 (1.5-3.3) -160 - 80 50 Mixed cereals and pulses Beycesultan IV4 13th cent. BC 3.62 (2.3-5.2) 2.26 (1.3-3.2) 1.84 (1.2-2.6) -160 - 81 100 Contents of pithos Beycesultan VI4 13th cent. BC 5.48 (3.7-6.8) 2.98 (2.2-3.7) 2.54 (1.7-3.0) -184 - 85 100 Contents of wooden bin s Lachish 700 BC 4.76 (3.7-5.9) 3.18 (2.6-3.7) 2.56 (2.2-3.3) 149 (1 16-192) 82 (68-100) 50 Predominantly naked wheat sample 6 Deu'AlliF612 . 1200-1 150 BC 4.29 (3.4-5.2) 2.09 (1.4-2.6) 1.93 (1.5-2.3) 206 (161-272) 92 (71-1 11) 100 Almost pure naked wheat sample r'AlIa M204a6 Dei 1200-1 150 BC 4.86 (4.2-5.4) 3.17 (2.4-3.8) 2.81 (2.2-3.4) 154 (128-186) 89 (71-98) 100 Almost pure naked wheat sample � .... DeirjAlIa BB41 8b6 7th-5th cent. BC 4.16 (3.4-4.9) 2.86 (2.2�3.6) 2.50 (1.9-3.1) 146 (121-177) 88 (75-100) 100 Almost pure naked wheat sample n Rarnad C8 3.35 4.34 (3.4-5.4) 2.66 (2.0-3.3) 2.20 (1.6-2.9) 162 (127-204) 83 (67-100) 78 if(1) 0 RarnadC8 4.75, 5.05 4.31 (3.4-6.0) 2.73 (1.9-3.4) 2.28 (1.6-2.9) 159 (124-238) 84 (71-97) 57 <::t- o l:3' Triticum dicoccum � Korucutepe1 2600-2300 BC 6.20 (4.9-7.4) 2.87 (2.3-3.9) 2.54 (2.0-3.2) 217 (174-263) 89 (69-107) 100 Almost pure emmer wheat sample �r .... Erbaba 9312 c.5800 BC 5.57 (4.2-6.7) 2.40 (1.5-3.0) 1.99 (1 .2-2.6) 234 (188-300) 83 (62-1 10) 96 Mixed sample fr om occupational fill '" ... Erbaba 426J(2)2 c.5800 BC 5.62 (4.7-6.4) 2.54 (2.0-3.1) 2.04 (1.5-2.6) 223 (175-280) 83 (6 1-100) 99 Mixed sample fr om occupational till l::: � Erbaba 426J(3)2 c.5800 BC 5.63 (4.0-6.3) 2.51 (1.9-3.1) 2.05 (1.6-2.6) 225 (186-268) 82 (63-103) 100 Mixed sample from occupational till

�;s 1. Van Zeist & Bakker-Heeres, 1975b ... 2. Van Zeist & Buitenhuis, 1983 ...... 3. Helbaek, 1970 4. Helbaek, 1961 5. Helbaek, 1958 6. Van Zeist & Heeres, 1973

N """ w 244 w. VAN ZEIST & J .A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

concerned. The maximum diameters of the II Ramad emmer wheat grains do not differ 11 significantly from those in Erbaba 93 1. " Similarly the maximum diameters of the " Ramad naked wheat are not smaller than EIBABA 1319 11 those of various naked wheat samples from ••!! " � other sites. Very striking are the diffe rences in the maximum diameters of naked wheat in the

ERBABA 1311 three Deir 'Alia samples. These samples are :"f� .·99 almost pure naked wheat deposits, indicating " that they are the charred remains of fully E processed wheat supplies ready for con­ 11 sumption. The maximum diameters of the !Of" Ramad emmer wheat and naked wheat grains do not suggest that most of it is tail grain. On the contrary, the Ramad grains may give a fa ir " picture of the product of the fa rmers of this " site. ' The Ramad emmer wheat is, on average, ''F"f �� :�HADSI Cl m.l.ol shorter than that from Korucutepe, Erbaba liE and Hacilar (table 51). As for the free­ threshing wheat, the Ramad grains are rather " RAHAO Cl 131 1.11 small, on average, but samples from other " sites yielded grains of about the same length or are even smaller. It must be left undecided Olll 'mi H ZOlo "f !,100 whether the size differences are due to " different strains of wheat, to differences in soil " conditions or to differences in climate (par­ ticularly precipitation). The Ramad wheat samples may give an average picture, perhaps "

:!11 covering various years, whereas the samples " from grain supplies represent the crop of one particular year, maybe even of one field. om 'Alli F 61Z In conclusion, it seems justified to assume !.100 " that the Ramad crop plant seeds and II"I

" fruits-and the same applies to Ghoraife and Aswad- are not the waste fraction, the " cleanings from fine sieving, but that they are representative of the crop of the Neolithic Fig. 34. Frequency distribution hist ograms for the farmers in the Damascus basin. maximum diameter of Triticum durum/ aestivum grains from various"r sites. 7.4. Wild food plants mum diameters of tail grain; they show a In addition to cultivated plants, various wild more or less normal distribution. For plant species may have played a part in the comparison the frequency distribution graphs diet of Neolithic man in the Damascus area. of emmer wheat and naked wheat samples Only wild plants of which the seeds were from other Near Eastern sites are shown in consumed by prehistoric man have a fa ir figs. 33 and 34. For the latter samples it may chance of being represented in the occu­ safely be assumed that the grains are from pational deposits. Unfortunately, for most stored supplies which were burned. Some of the potential wild food plants it is not particulars about the contexts of the samples possible to demonstrate whether or not they are given in table 51 which presents the were consumed by the inhabitants of the site dime:nsions and index values of the grains concerned. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 245

7.4. 1. Wild fr uit trees and shrubs generally indicated as C. azarolus , but at present a separate species? C. aronia , is In contrast to the other wild plants repre­ distinguished (Y24.). AccordIng to Davls, (vol. sented in the sites under discussion, for 4, pp. 139- 140), C. azarolus is an European . wild fruit trees and shrubs it is almost certain species, whereas the closely related C. aroma that their fruits were collected for human is typically Near Eastern. The fact that the consumption . Let us first have a look at the . · hawthorn fruit stones at Ramad are hemI­ wild fruits at Ramad. Pistacia and Amygdalus spherical as well as three-fa�ed would also must have been of considerable economic point to C. aronia. The frUIts of the latter importance because of their highly nutritive species contain to 3 stones (pyrenes) and fruits. It is likely that both wild fruits could be 2 those of C. azarolus usually 2 (according to collected in the vicinity of Ramad. As has Zohary Feinbrun-Dothan, vo\. 2, pp. been discussed in section 2. 3., an open f or­ & 1. 19-20). The yellow fruits of C. aronia �re est-steppe vegetation with Crataegus aronia, edible and are still sold in the markets. WIld Pyrus syriaca, Amygdalus korschinskii, pear, Pyrus syriaca, of which only a few pip Rhamnus palaestinus and Pistacia atlantica fragments were recovered, must also have is assumed to be the climax vegetation in been a constituent of the forest steppe. the Ramad area under the present-day Wild fig, probably wild Ficus .carica �., climatic conditions. Thus, if the climate of must likewise have been an apprecIated fruIt. 8000 years ago did not differ too mu�h fro� For many thousands of years fig has been that of to-day, wild almond and pIstachIO cultivated which has resulted in a large were present in the area. number of different forms. Except for the size It has been mentioned (5.2.) that the and the succulence of the fruits, cultivated figs pistachio nutshells recovered at Ramad could generally do not diffe r moq�hol?gically from be of Pistacia atlantica as well as of/Po wild forms. Therefore true wIld fIgs cannot be palaestina. The fruits of bo h speci s are � � distinguished from th�se esca�ed fr?m edible and are at present stIli sold In the cultivation. At oresent fIg grows In a WIde markets (Zohary & Feinbrun-Dothan, vol. 2, range of enviro�mental conditions: in damp p. 298). Pistacia palaestina, which is one of the forest along river banks, in open sunny and most important constituents of the r;2uercus dry localities and in rock crevices (Davis, vol. calliprinos- Pistacia pafaestina maqUls asso­ 7, p. 644). This indicates that in the Damascus ciation of the Levant, could only have been area wild fig could have occurred on the dry found in the vicinity of Neolithic Ramad uplands as well as in stream valleys. if the climate had been considerably more It is not possible to evaluate the absolute humid. Consequently, it is assumed here that economic importance of wild fruit collecting. the pistachios collected by the inhabitants of On the other hand, one could attempt to Ramad were of P. atlantica. As for the determine whether possible differences in the almonds, one could at most wonder whether importance of fruit collecting relative to plant in addition to Amygdalus korschinskii and A. cultivation existed between sites and/ or be­ webbii, wild A. communis occurred in the area, tween archaeological phases of one site. To although according to M. Zohary (1973, p. that end the proportions ot crop plants and 373) this is the most mesic wil? almond wild fruits have been calculated per site and species. ated and As this species is wi.dely cultl� per archaeological period (table 52). The grows subspontaneously I� �aq�ls, �s �n percentages are based upon the total numbers escape from cultivation, Its Indlgenelty In of seeds and fruits of cultivated plants and various areas is questionable. wild fruit trees and shrubs. As in one fig fruit a Wild almond and pistachio must have been very great number of pips are found� 25 pips a valuable source of vegetable fats. Almonds have arbitrarily been counted as one fIg. Thus, contain up to over 50% of fa ts: No figure of the fig pips in the samples of one archaeo­ t the oil con ent of the fruit flesh of Pistacia logical phase have been added up and sub­ atlantica or palaestina could be found. . se quently divided by 25. The numbers of Ha wthorn fruits could also be collected In Amygdafus shown in table. 5� are �omewhat the surroundings of the site. Crataegus aronia higher than one would obtaIn In addIng up the formed part of the forest steppe of the Ramad numbers presented in tables 5-7. In Amyg­ area. FormerlY this hawthorn species was dalus the weights of the shell fragments l Table 52. Numbers and mean percentages of wild fruit types. For discussion, see 7.4.1. IV .j:>. N = total number of seeds or fruits per archaeological phase. % = mean percentage. 0-

Aswad East Aswad East Aswad West Ghoraife Ghoraife Ramad C8 Ramad M4 Ramad C8 Ramad M4 Ramad C8NW Phase I 11 11 I 11 I I 11 11 III Number of samples 9 8 13 12 13 6 7 22 5 7 N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

� Cultivated plants 381 83.0 2491V2 99.7 8873 99.5 60 95.2 445V2 100 342 95.4 764 98.1 14473 97.5 4854 98.6 844V2 94.9 Pi stacia 64 13.9 5V2 0.2 20 0.2 2 3.2 + + 6V2 1.8 3V2 0.4 232V2 1.6 36 0.7 38 4.3 Amygdalus + + + + + + 2V2 0.3 11 0.07 3 0.06 3% 0.4 Crataegus 1 0.04 + + 1.6 5 1.4 8 1.0 115 0.8 27V2 0.6 3V2 0.4 Ficus 8 1.7 + + 4V2 0.05 + + 5 lA -'Iz 0.05 5 0.03 1'Iz 0.03 % 0.05 Capparis 6 1.3 19 0.2 Rubus 1 + Vitis 4 0.05 � Pyrus + + < � Wild fruits 78 17.0 6V2 0.3 48V2 0.5 3 4.8 + + 16V2 4.6 14V2 1.9 363V2 2.5 68 1.4 > Z Sum 459 2498 8921V2 63 445V2 358V2 778V2 14836V2 4922 890 N

u:>� ...., SI:<> ...... >

?::t:C > ;>:: ;>:: t"rl :;c

t"rl::l: t"rl :;c t"rl u:> Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 247 in each of the samples have first been added brought home. Capparis grows well in dis­ up and then the number of almond shells was turbed habitats. determined (on the basis of 0.9 gram per Both at Aswad West and Aswad East, the almond). The weights which in the individual proportions of wild fruits in phase 11 levels are samples resulted in a plus-sign contributed to very low, this in contrast to that in phase I the total weight. (only at Aswad East). This difference is largely Compared · to the crop plants, wild fruit accounted for by Pistacia. Th is could indicate percentages are quite low at Ramad. In the that after phase I time Pistacia disappeared phase I levels the total wild fruit proportions from the area as a result of a change in are somewhat higher than in the phase 11 climate. It is also possible that an intensi­ levels. However, this may not mean anything, fication of crop plant growing reduced the particularly because the differences between necessity of large-scale collecting of the nutri­ C8 and M4 are greater. A decline of pistachio tive pistachio fruits. yields as a result of the cutting of these trees The hypothesis that the drastic decline in for fuel seems to have been out of the pistachio percentages at Aswad could have question. been due to the disappearance of this tree The Aswad wild fruit record differs from from the area is invalidated by the compara­ that of Ramad in that almond and hawthorn tively high pistachio percentage in Ghoraife are hardly represented. This should be no I, largely contemporaneous with Aswad 11. surprise as these arboreal species do nOI Ad mittedly the numbers of seeds and fruits form part of the steppe vegetation which is in phase I at Ghoraife are very low (see also supposed to be the present-day natural table 9) which should call for some caution vegetation of the Aswad area. However, in drawing conclusions. The proportion of Pistacia (atlantica) is equally no constituent of fruits in phase 11 levels at Ghoraife is negli­ the steppe vegetation, but nevertheless the gible. proportion of pistachio is conspicuously high in phase I levels at Aswad. During phase I 7.4.2. Other potential wild fo od plants time was Pistacia quite common in the Aswad area, or was this fruit so highly valued that it One may safely assume that some of the wild was collected in great quantities at quite some plant species demonstrated for the sites under distance from the site? Pistacia could only discussion were exploited for food, for have grown in the Aswad area if the early medicinal purposes, as kitchen herbs, and so Holocene climate was different from that of on. It is, however, very difficult to prove the to-day, that is to say, if precipitation was use of wild herbaceous plants for particular purposes. Only circumstantial evidence can markedly higher (2. 1 .4.). For the time being ' the question of where pistachio fruits could provide indications in this respect, e.g. an have been collected by the inhabitants of accumulation of the seeds of a potential wild Aswad must remain unanswered. food plant in a storage pit or in (the remains As at Ramad, wild fig was collected by the of) a vessel. Only the use of the seeds of wild Aswad people. Rubus (blackberry) and Vitis plants for human consumption, as a condi­ (grape), which are both scarcely represented at ment or as a spice can under ' fa vourable Aswad, could have been found in the thickets circumstances be demonstrated or at least be along streams. The presence of Capparis seeds made likely. For plants of which the vegeta­ at Aswad could point to the collecting of the tive parts, such as leaves, roots and bulbs, fruits of this species. Two species come into were consumed, the chances of fi nding consideration, viz. Capparis spinosa L. and indications of their actual exploitation by the closely related C. ovata Desf. Capparis is a ancient man are very small, except in areas thorny shrub, with pear-shaped fleshy fruits with an extremely dry climate, such as Egypt, which are red when ripe. The flower buds of where plants are preserved in a desiccated Capparis sp inosa are collected and consumed condition. as pickles. The species is even cultivated for Even for wild plants the seeds of which that purpose. The fruits are not particularly could have been consumed there is no tasty, but they are eaten by children and convincing evidence that they were used as others who pass by. In ancient times the fruits such by the inhabitants of Aswad, Ghoraife may have been collected more intensively and and Ramad. Various potential wild food plant 248 W. VAN ZEIST & I.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES seeds occur in appreciable numbers in more constitute crop cleaning residues. However, if than one sample, but this is still no proof of cereals were reaped by cutting or breaking off their intentional harvesting. Although Carex the ears or by uprooting and pulses by picking and Scirpus fruits, which are rich in starch, the pods or pulling up the whole plants, not are not reported as being used for human many field weed seeds would have ended up in consumption, one should consider the possi­ the crop. It is tempting to assume that at least bility that these fruits played a part in the some of the charred leguminous seeds are diet of the inhabitants of Aswad. The the remains of food waste, but again there discussion of the possible role of wild food is no convincing evidence for the intentional plants will remain confined here to grasses harvesting of these seeds. If wild leguminous and legumes. Both groups of plants are rather species were already gathered by the inhab­ well represented in the sites under discussion itants of the sites we do not know for what and particularly Helbaek (1969) has stressed purpose. the potential importance of the seeds of wild Among the wild grass caryopses, those of grasses and legumes in the diet of ancient Lolium spec. are dominant in all sites (the man. high proportion of unidentified grasses in Just as for the crop plant species (7. 1.1., phase I at Aswad East is due to poor table 50), for the wild grass and leguminous preservation). Phalaris is fa irly common in seed types the mean percentages per site and phase II levels at Aswad, whereas Lolium per archaeological phase have been deter­ temulentum could only be established for mined. However, in this case no per­ Ramad, where it must have been a common centages but the numbers of seeds in each of the grain field weed. One may well doubt whether samples were added up, whereupon the per­ Lolium fruits were attractive as human food. centages were calculated upon of sum of The dehusking must have been a tedious and all grass or leguminous seeds in the group of strenuous task. On the other hand , the freeing samples concerned (table 53). Because of the of wild leguminous seeds from the hard­ anomalously Jarge number of Astragalus walled pods must equally have required much seeds in M4 2.80 this sample has been left out pounding. As with the leguminous seeds, it here. The dominant percentages are under­ must again be remarked that wild grass fruits lined. From table 50 it is clear that among could have been collected for human con­ the leguminous seed types, those of Tr igo­ sumption, but that the presence of sometimes nella astroites are most common at Aswad, quite considerable numbers of these fruits whereas at Ghoraife and Ramad the domi-' can also be explained in other ways. nant legumes are Melilotus and Astragalus, res­ Admittedly the discussion of wild grasses pectively. Irrespective of the possible eco­ and legumes as possible food plants of the nomic importance of the wild legumes, it seems inhabitants of Aswad, Ghoraife and Ramad is reasonable to conclude that there were ap­ disappointing in that the seeds themselves parently considerable differences in the fre­ and/ or the seed frequencies do not give any quencies of the various Leguminosae taxa in clues in this respect. As wild legumes and the vicinity of the sites concerned. It is un­ gramineous plants are nevertheless a valu­ likely that the conspicuous differences in able potential source of food, the frequencies the dominant seed type are wholly due to of these seed types have been compared differences in preference for particular species with those of the crop plants. For each of by the inhabitants of the sites. As has already the samples the proportions of crop plants, been mentioned (7.2.2.) most of the wild Gramineae and wild Leguminosae rel­ leguminous taxa shown in table 53 could have ative to the sum of the seeds and fruits of formed part of the natural (semi-)steppe these categories were determined. The results vegetation as well as of the field weed flora. If are presented in the triangular diagrams of the small leguminous seeds were from plants figs. 35-38. If the total number of seeds of of the natural vegetation, one could speculate these classes of plants was less than 20, the that they were deliberately brought to the site proportions were not determined and toe and the same could be true for field weeds. It sample was rejected. The purpose of this cannot be excluded that field weed remains operation was to establish whether there are arrived in the site as an admixture to the differences in the range of these proportions harvested crop and that the leguminous seeds (the distribution of circles and triangles in the Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 249

ASWAO • PHASE I EAST RAMAO M ( • PHASE I o PHASE 11 EAST OPHASE lI 6PHASE II WESI

Fig. 35. Triangular diagram showing the relative Fig. 37. Triangular diagram showing the relative proportions of crop plants, wild grasses and wild legumes proportions of crop plants, wild grasses and wild legumes for samples from Aswad. for samples from Ramad M4.

GHORAIFE PHASE 11 RAMAO CB .PHASE I oPHASE 11 6PHASE III

� 6RASS[� Fig. 36. Triangular diagram showing the relative Fig. 3S. Triangular diagram showing the relative proportions of crop plants, wild grasses and wild legumes proportions of crop plants, wild grasses and wild legumes for samples from Ghoraife. for samples from Ramad CS.

diagrams) between sites and between phases C8 samples, that is to say, the circles cluster and/ or squares in one site. There was also a nicely in one section of the diagram (fig. 38). faint hope that some more insight could be Grass seed proportions are always below 20% gained into the actual use of wild grasses and and mostly below 10%. The proportions of legumes as food plants. crop plants are up to over 90% and rarely Although, as could be expected, the pro­ bel6w 50% Wild legumes are well repre­ portions between crop plants, grasses and sented, with values of over 20%, in about 2/5 legumes display a rather wide scatter, some of the samples . In the phase I samples, crop distinct patterns can be observed. Most plant proportions are certainly not lower than consistent are the proportions in the Ramad in the phase 11 samples, so that at least these IV Table 53. Numbers and mean percentages of wild leguminous and gramineous seed types. For discussion, see 7.4.2. VI 0 N = total number of seeds or fruits per archaeological phase. % = mean percentage.

Aswad East Aswad East Aswad West Ghoraife Ramad C8 Ramad M4* Rarnad C8 Ramad M4 Rarnad C8NW** Phase I II II II I I II II III Number of samples 9 8 13 13 6 6 22 5 7 N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

Astragalus 41 4.6 12 6.1 75 6.2 4 1.1 45 54.9 54 68.4 2782 66.6 290 58.7 111 33.9 Coronilla 10 0.2 5 1.5 Lathyrus cf. cicera 1 0.2 Medicago radiata 29 3.3 18 9.2 66'h 5.5 4 4.9 1 1.3 185 4.4 12 2.4 8 2.4 Medicago spec. 1 0.5 1 0.1 5 1.4 6 7.3 89 2.1 17 3.4 40'1. 12.4 Melilotus 3 0. 3 34 17.3 23 1.9 291 80.7 7 8.5 11 13.9 189 4.5 4 0.8 16 4.9 Onobrychis 1 0.1 16 0.4 2 0.4 4 1.2 Trifolium 5 1.4 Trigonella astroites 757 85.3 107 54.6 72.9 4 4.9 1 1.3 602 14.4 68 13.8 82 25.0 � 879 <: Vicia (incl. V.ervilia) 50'h 5.7 21 10.7 150'h 12.5 29'h 8.2 13 15.9 12 15.2 262 6.3 83 16.8 41 12.5 :> Z Unidentified 3 1.5 0.9 26 7.2 3 3.7 41 1.0 17 3.4 20 6.1 6 0.7 11 N L Leguminosae 887'h 196 1206 360'h 82 79 4176 494 327'h CIlt:l Aegilops 6 0.3 1 0.2 + + >-j t«> Avena 1 0.6 9 0.3 0.5 3'h 12.3 68'h 4.0 22 3.5 4 3.7 ..... Bromus spec. 1'h 4.4 22% 14.4 83'h 3.2 1'h 0.8 1 0.5 38'h 2.2 4'h 0.7 1 0.9 > Bromus sterilis 2 5.9 2'h 0.1 p:: Echinaria 24 0.9 11 5.6 3.5 1 0.5 101 5.8 90 14.3 12 11.2 I::t' :> Eremopyron 1'h 4.4 2'h 1.6 8'h 0.3 18 1.0 22 3.5 6 5.6 � � Hordeum spec. 1 0.6 30 1.2 5 0.3 1 0.2 trl Lolium spec. 1 2.9 78'h 49.6 1763'h 67.8 167 85.2 20 70.2 141 71.9 964'h 55.8 41 6.5 33 30.8 ::0

Lolium temulentum 1 3.5 42 21.4 324 18.8 183 29.0 16 15.0 trl:l:: trl Phalaris 5 14.7 40 25 .3 595 22.9 7 3.6 2 1.0 15 0.9 3 0.5 5 4.7 ::0 trl Stipa 2 0.1 'h 0.1 4 3.7 CIl Type A 14 0.5 1 3.5 5 2.6 93 5.4 101'h 16.1 2 1.9 Unidentified 23 67.6 12'h 7.9 73'h 2.8 8'h 4.3 2 7.0 4 2.0 90 5.2 161 25.5 24 22.4 L Gramineae 34 158\4 2601 196 28'h 196 1728 630'h 107

* M4 2.80 not included ** Numbers corrected for sample at 2.15 m (see 7.5.) Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 25 1

proportions do not point to an increasing contrast to the aceramic phase I and 11 levels, importance of plant cultivation in the course phase III is pottery Neolithic, dated to the end of time. Curiously the proportions in the of the 6th millennium B.C. (2.4). Thus, there is Ramad M4 samples (fig. 37) scatter much a hiatus of 700 to 800 years between the end of more widely than those in the C8 samples, the phase 11 habitation and the phase III which demonstrates again that the data occupation of Ramad. Phase III levels have obtained from the investigation of one area been uncovered only in square C8, where pits (soundi ng) of a site are not necessarily in the phase 11 deposits have been dug by the representative for the whole of the site. phase III occupants. It has already been The Aswad phase I samples (triangular mentioned that the fill of these pits consists, at symbols) give a picture which differs from that least in part, of reworked phase 11 material. A of the phase 11 samples (open and black radiocarbon determination of charcoal from circles) (fig. 35). The grass seed proportions phase III gave a phase 11 date (GrN-4823: are nearly always below 10% and those of the 5930±55 B.C., table I). This does not wild legumes over 20% in most of the phase I necessarily imply that all plant remains in samples. Crop plant proportions are com­ phase III levels are of phase II origin. In this paratively low. In contrast, the majority connection it may be pointed out that the of the phase 11 samples have crop plant animal bones in phase III levels differ from proportions of over 70%. The phase 11 those in phase II levels in that domestic samples of both soundings (Aswad West and animals are represented (2.4.). At least some East) show no identical distribution, but of the charred seeds and fruits in the phase III nearly all of them are plotted in the upper part deposits may date from the pottery Neolithic of the triangular diagram, above the 60% crop habitation. plant frequency line. The Aswad data could It will be clear that the examination of suggest that in phase I, crop plant cultivation samples containing vegetable remains of was of less economic importance than in diffe rent periods can be of only limited value. phase 11 and that the collecting of wild It is possible that in phase I11 levels crop leguminous seeds played an important part. In plants and/ or wild plants occur not repre­ this connection it may be remembered that the sented in the aceramic levels. Conspicu­ proportion of wild pistachio fruits is cons­ ous diffe rences in the proportions of crop picuously high in phase I levels at Aswad plants and/ or wild plant taxa between (7.4. 1.). phase III and II levels could point to Because of the low numbers of seeds and diffe rences in plant exploitation and/ or to fruits no proportions could be determined for differences in environment. Instead of specu­ lating what kind of information could be the Ghoraife phase I samples. The phase II samples give a picture which is almost extracted from the mixed seed record, we will complementary to the Ramad C8 distribution take the practical line and examine whether pattern (fig. 36). Compared to the Ramad the phase III samples give occasion to samples, wild grass proportions are high at particular conclusions or comments. Ghoraife and those of crop plants generally It is most obvious to compare the seed and low. In the majority of the samples crop plants fruit proportions in the phase III samples score less than 50%. Could this imply that at (C8NW) with those of phase 11 at C8SE. The Ghoraife the collecting of wild legumes as well mean crop plaf\1 percentages for phase I11 as of wild grasses was of considerable diffe r from those of phase 11 in that in phase economic importance? Has plant cultivation III pulse crops are better represented : 15. 1 always been somewhat marginal at Ghoraife? against 7.6% (table 50). This could possibly Anyhow, the distribution patterns in the indicate that the phase III occupants laid triangular diagrams suggest that the plant more emphasis on the cultivation of pea and husbandry of the latter site differed quite lentil. There are no indications that the phase markedly from that at Ramad and Aswad. I11 occupants grew plants not cultivated by the aceramic Neolithic inhabitants of Ramad . On the other hand, it is possible that some of 7.5. Ramad phase III the crop plants of the phase 11 fa rmers were not grown by the pottery Neolithic people. So fa r the Ramad phase III samples have not There is even no absolute proof that any yet been included in the discussion. In plants were cultivated. 252 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

It is striking that the mean Pistacia value in 7.6. Other uses of wild plants phase 11 I is higher than in any of the other Ramad levels (C8 as well as M4). Could this As has been stated above, it is difficult to indicate that the phase III occupants utilized evaluate the role of potential wild vegetable much larger quantities of pistachio nuts than food resources other than wild fruit trees on the aceramic inhabitants (table 52)? the basis of the charred seed record. The same With respect to the wild grass and applies to most other fo rms of exploitation of leguminous mean percentages (table 53) the the wild flora. Only the use of wood as fuel fo llowing should be remarked . As of C8NW can satisfactorily be attested by the charcoal 2. 15 only 1/4 of the sample had been re mains. No systematic determinations of examined, the numbers of wild grass and charcoal have been ca rried out, but for leguminous seeds in this sample were Ramad the following wood types could be multiplied by four before the sums on which established: Prunus-type, Py rus/ Ma lus/ Cratae­ the percentages are based were determined gus, other Rosaceae, Quercus, Fraxinus, Ce ltis/ (7.4.2.). Among the wild legumes, Astragalus Ulmus and a type which could be of Pistacia. is predomina nt, but the mean percentage is Amygdalus is included in the Prunus-type. lower than that for the C8 phase 11 samples. Fr axinus and Ulmus could have occurred in the On the other hand, Tr igonella astroites-type river bank forest (2. 1.3). Ce ltis is less likely and Medicago spec. score higher in the phase because no fruit remains of this species were I11 levels. Mean wild grass percentages show found. Somewhat puzzling is the oak charcoal also some diffe rences between both phases. (Quercus). Oak is no constituent of the Thus, the phase III samples show higher almond-pistachio fo rest-steppe and at present Ph alaris and Echinaria values than those of the nearest oaks occur at quite some distance phase 11. The wild legume and grass from Ramad, on the east-facing flanks of the proportions seem to support the hypothesis Anti-Lebanon. Oak could only have grown in that the seeds and fruits in the phase III levels the surroundings of Neolithic Ramad if are not exclusively of secondary origin, but precipitation was considerably higher than that the pottery Neolithic habitation also nowadays. contributed to the seed content. It is likely that chaff was burned , but it The distri bution of the proportions between cannot be determined to what extent annual crop plants, wild legumes and grasses in the species and ligneous perennials, such as phase III samples fa lls within the scatter of the Astragalus and Artemisia , were used fo r phase 11 proportions (triangular diagram of heating. fig. 38). In this respect there is no clear One may assume that reeds and rushes were distinction between the phase III samples and utilized : At Aswad, lumps of baked clay with those of phase I I. ImpreSSions of reed stems, apparently frag­ A weak point in the above discussion is the ments of the walls of huts, have been fo und fact that the mean values for the phase III samples (see 2.2). No impressions of mats or charred have been compared with those for the whole ma t remains are report ed . of phase 11, whereas it might have been better The healing properties of various plants to compare them with the mean values for must certainly have been known, but indi­ phase 11 samples from only the upper 2.50 m, cations for the actual collecting of medi­ from where the redeposited material origi­ Cinal wild plants are non-existent. The nated. However, relatively few phase 11 sam­ single fruit of Verbena o. flicinalis , a well­ ples from between 1.00 and 2.50 m and none known medicinal plant recovered from from above 1.00 m (3.2. 1.) are available. Ra mad, can hardly be adduced as evidence of In conclusion, due to the mixed origin of its being collected for the preparation of fo lk the samples very little can be said about the medicine. There is little sense in enumerating plant husbandry of the phase III occupants. more possible uses of wild plants, if for each The utmost reserve should be maintained in case the conclusion must be that the drawing infe rences from the comparison archaeobotanical record is inconclusive in this between phase 'Ill and II samples. respect. Ad mittedly, this is somewhat dis­ appointing, but one should be well aware of the limitations of this field of research. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 253

8. SUMMARY (Vicia ervilia ) is hardly re presented suggesting that this species was not cultivated . In the present study the results of the In section 5 the seeds and fruits of the wild palaeobotanical examination of the Neolithic plant species found in the sites under sites of Aswad , Ghoraife and Ramad, in the discussion are described. The descriptions are Damascus basin (fig. I), are presented. In each supplemented by drawings (figs. 21-26, 28, of the sites two aceramic phases are 30). distinguished . The time spari covered by the There are marked diffe rences in average pre-pottery NeoTithic habitation is radio­ numbers of seeds and fruits per volume of soil carbon dated from c. 7800 B.C. (basal levels between the sites and between phases within of Aswad I) to c. 5950 B.C. (phase 11 at one site (table 49). Seed frequencies at Ramad). The chronological correlation be­ Ghoraife are lower than at Ramad and tween the sites is shown in fig. 6. Aswad and Aswad. In all three sites, phase I samples Ghoraife, with mean annual precipitation of yielded, on average, considerably lower less than 200 mm, are situated in the steppe numbers of seeds than phase II samples. These zone. The natural vegetation of the Ramad diffe rences in seed deposition are difficult to area, with 250 mm precipitation annually, is explain. Moreover, at Aswad phase II samples an almond-pistachio forest-steppe. from two sound ings diffe r conspicuously in Samples for palaeobotanical research were mean seed frequencies. taken mainly from exposed sections; only at The earliest Neolithic inhabitants of the Ramad part of the samples are from surfaces Damascus basin (Aswad, phase I) grew exposed during the 1965 excavation cam­ Tr iticum dicoccum and probably Hordeum paign. Charred plant remains were recover­ distichum" Pisum and Lens. In phase 11 at ed in the fi eld by means of manual wa ter nota­ Aswad, Tr iticum monOCOCCUI17, T. aesti­ tion. The results of the analyses are shown in vum/ durum, Ho rdeum vu/gare var. coe/este ta bles 5-10. and probably Linum (usitatissimumj were Crop plant remains were found in all levels added to the crop plant assort ment. Cicer examined (figs. 11, 1 4- 1 6, 1 8-20). In addition (chick-pea) appeared later in the charred to the grains of Tr iticum dicoccum and T. seed record and remained of minor import­ monococcum, large quantities of spikelet ance. Emmer wheat was probably the most forks and glume bases of hulled wheat were common cereal. The proport ion of free­ recovered. On the basis of the morphology threshing wheat increased in later periods and size frequency distribution no einkorn (phase II at Ghoraife and Ramad ). In all three wheat spikelet remains could be distinguished . sites, phase I levels have ma rkedly higher The identity of the free-threshing wheat. T. pulse crop proport ions than phase I I levels durum or T. aestivum, could not be (table 50). determined . Brittle- as well as tough-rachised The Aswad fa rmers may have laid out their two-rowed hulled barley is represented fields in the marshy zone of La ke Aateibe, (Hordeum sp ontaneum and H. distichum ). thus compensating for the low precipitation. Ped icellate lateral florets occur also in H. A fa irly great number of wild plants attested distichum. There is a discrepancy between for Aswad, Ghoraife and Ramad could have the proportions of wild barley-type rachis inter­ occurred as field weeds while at the same nodes and wild barley-type grains (table 18). time fo rming part of the natural vegetation. The naked barley is ascribed to the six-rowed Typical field weeds, such as Vaccaria species H. vu/gare var. coe/es te. pyramidata, Cepha/aria syriaca and Aegi/ops The Ramad linseeds are attributed to cf. crassa, are scarcely represented. Ramad Linum usitatissimul17. The identity of the seems to have had a richer field weed flora Linum seeds from Aswad and Ghoraife , than Aswad and Ghoraife. Although most of which are smaller, is not certain (wild or the samples are from refuse deposits, it is cultivated). The lentil seeds at Ramad likely that the cereal grains are mainly not tail certainly belong to the domesticated type . gra'in of the waste fraction but prime grain. Those at Aswad are, on average, smaller Of the wild fruit trees, Pistacia (at/antica) which could imply an early stage of lentil and Ficus (carica) are represented in all three cultivation. Peas are, with some reserve, sites. Amygda/us and Crataegus (aronia) attributed to Pisum sativul17 . Bitter vetch remains were hardly fo und at Ghoraife and 254 W. VAN ZEIST & J.A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

Aswad, but are fairly common at Ramad. CONTENSON, H. DE, 1973. Chronologie absolue de Tell Capparis is confined to Aswad . Wild fruit Aswad (Dasmascene, Syrie). Bulletin de /a Societe 70, 253-256. percentages are very low in phase II levels at Preh is torique Fra n�·ai.le pp. Aswad and Ghoraife (table 52). CONTENSON, H. DE, 1974. Huitieme campagne de Mean wild grass and leguminous seed fo uilles a Tell Rall1ad en 1973. Rapport preli­ minaire. Anna/es Archeu/u�iqlles Arahes Sl'riel1- percentages have been determined per sound­ nI's 24, pp. 1 7-24. ing and per archaeological phase (table 53). CONTENSON, H. DE, 1975a. Les fouilles a Ghoraife en AmclI1g the wild legumes, Astragalus is most 1974. A nl1a/es Arche% giques de S)'rie 25, pp. common at Ramad, whereas at Ghoraife 17-32. CONTENSON, H. 1975b. phase 1I and Aswad the dominant leguminous DE. Ghoraife et la chronologie seed types are Me lilotus and Trigonella astroites ­ du Neolithique damascenien. Anna/es Archeo­ type, respectively. Among the wild grasses, /ogiques de S)'rie 25, pp. 183- 184. CONTE NSON, H. DE, 1976a. NoU\'elles donnees sur le Lolium spec. is usually the dominant type. Neolithique preccramique dans la region de Damas The proportions between crop plants, wild (Syrie) d'apres les fouilles a Ghoraife en 1974. legumes and wild grasses in each of the samples Bulletin de /a Societe Prehistorique Fr an('aise 73, are plotted in the triangular diagrams of figs. pp. 80-82. 35-38. There are marked differences in the CONTENSON, H. DE, 1976b. Precisions sur la strati­ distribution patterns of the proportions graphic de Tell Aswad (Syrie), Bulll'tin de la Societe Pn;his/(}rique Fra l/('ai.le 73, pp. In-199. between sites and sometimes also between CONTENSOI\', H. DE, 1978. Rec herches sur le Neolithique phases and/ or sound ings at one site. The de Syrie (1967 - 1976). Comptes rendues de possible role of the seeds and fruits of wild /'Acac/hllie des Inscriptiuns I't Be 111'.1'- Le 11 1'1.'.1' 1978, grasses and wild legumes in the diet of the pp. 820-825. aceramic Neolithic inhabitants of the sites CONTENSON, H. DE, 1979. Tell Aswad (Damascene). cannot be determined. Pa/eorient 5, pp. 1 53- 1 56. CONTENSON, H. VAN LlERE, 1964. seed content of the Ramad phase DE & W.J. Sondages The III a Te ll Ramad en 1963. Rapport preliminaire. levels (pottery Neolithic) is at least in part Anna/es Arche% giques de Srrie 14, pp. 109- 1 24. redeposited phase II material. This fact makes CONTENSON, H. DE & W.J. VAN LlERE, 1966. Seconde it very difficult to draw conclusions on the campagne a Tell Ramad, 1965. Rapport preli­ plant husbandry of the phase III occupants. minaire. Anna/es Arc/ll;u/oKiqlles AraiJes Srrien­ There is no evidence of crop plants that had not nI'S , 16, pp. 167- 1 72. DAvls, H been grown already by phase farmers. P. . (ed.), 1965-. Flora of' Tu rkey and the Los1 II Aegean Is /ands . V ol. I. 1965: vol. 2, 1967: 101. .1 . 1970: vo l. 4, 1972; vo l. 5, 1975; vol. 6, 1978; vol. 7. 1982. Edinburgh. 9. REFERENCES FRENCH, D . H . , G.c. HILLMAN, S. PAYNE & R.J. PAYI\'E, 1972. Excava tions at Ca n Hasan III 1969- 1970. In: BOHEMA, S., 1975-77. A pollen diagram from the E.S. Higgs (ed.). Papers in economic prehistory. Syrian Anti Lebanon. Paleoriel7f 3, pp. 259-268. Cambridge, pp. 1 8 1 - 190. BOTTEMA, S., 1984. The composition of modern charred HELLlAEK, H., 1952. Ea rly crops in southern England. seed assemblages. In: W. va n Zeist & W.A. Casparie Proceedings of'. the Prehistoric Societ,l' 18, pp. (eds.), Planrs and ancien t man. Rotterdam, pp. 194-233. 207-2 12. HELLlAEK, H., 1958. Plant economy in ancient Lachish. BOTTEMA, S. & Y. BARKOUDAH, 1979. Modern pollen In: 0 Tufnell, Lachish IV (Tell ed- DulVeir). The precipita tion in Syria and Lebanon and its relation BrullZe AKe. Land on-New Y ork-Toronto, pp. 309- to vegetation. Pollen et Sp ores 21, pp. 427-480. 317. BRAIDWOOD, R.J., 1975. Prehistoric mel/, 8th ed. H ELBAEK, H .. 1959a . Domestication of food plants in the Glenview, Ill. Old World . Science 130, pp. 365-372. HELBAEK, H., BROUWER, W. & A. STAHLlN, 1955. Handbuch del' 1959b. Notes on the evolution and history Samenkunde. Frankfurt a.M. or Lin LII 11. Kum/ 1959. pp. 103- 1 29. CA UVIN, M.-C., 1974. Outillage et chronologie a Te ll HELLlAEK, H., 1961. Late Bronze Age and Byza ntine Aswad (Damascene, Syrie). Paieorienr 2, pp. crops at Beycesultan in Anatolia. Anatolian Studies 429-436. 11, pp. 77-97. CAUVIN, M . -C., 1979. Etude compa ra tive d'apres HELIl AEK, H., 1964. First impressions of the (atal H l'outillage lithique. Paleoriel7f 5, pp. 157- 160. iiyii k plant husbandry. Anatolian St udies 14, pp. CONTENSON, H. D E , 1971. Tell Ramad, a village of Syria 1 2,1- 1 24. HELBAEK, H., of the 7th and 6th millennia B.C. Archae% g)' 24, 1966. Pre-pottery Neolithic fa rming at pp. 278-285. Beidha. Palestine Exp /oration Quarterly 98, pp. CONTENSON, H. D E , 1972. Tell Aswad. Fouilles de 1971. 61-66. HELBAEK, H., Anna/es Arche% giques Arahes Sy riennes 22, pp. 1969. Plant collecting, d ry-farming and 75-84. Archaeobotanical studies in the Levant I 255

irrigation agriculture in prehistoric Deh Luran. In: M ILLER, N. F.. 1982. Ec onolllr and el1l'ironlllent of' F. Hole, K.V. Flannery & J.A. Neely (eds.l, Malran , a third lIIillenniulII B.C. urhall cellter ill Prehistor)' and human ecology of the Deh Luran SOli/hem Iran . Ph.D. dissertation (Anthrop.). The Pla in (=: Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. U ni,". UnIversity of Michigan, I). Ann Anbor, pp. Microfilms. Ann Arbor. 382-426. MOUTERDE, P . . 1966-. Nouvelle Flore du Lihan et de la 1966; vo!. 2. 1970: 3. 1978- H ELBAEK, H., 1970. Th.e plant husbandry of Hacila r. In: Sy rie. Vo!. I, vo!. J. Mellaart ·(ed.), E'(cavations at Haci/ar. Edinburgh, Beyrouth. pp. 189-244. PORTE R, J. L., 1855. Five years in Damascus. Including HELBAEK, H., 1972. Samarra n irrigation agriculture at an accoul1l ... lI'ith tra vels and researches in Choga Mami in Iraq. Iraq 34, pp. 35-48. Pa llllyra, Lebanon and the Hauran. 2 vols. London. HILLMA , G.c., 1978. On the origins of domestic POST, G.E. & J.E. DII\'SMORE. 1932. Flora of'."Sl'ria, 2 rye- Secale cereale: the finds from aceramic Ca n Palestine and Sinai. vols. Beirut. Hasan III in Tu rkey. Anatolian St udies 28, pp. SCH IEMANN. E., 1948. Wei:::en, Roggen, Gente. 157- 1 74. Sy stematik, Geschichte und Ver ll'endun/? Jena. HILLMA " G.c., 1981. Reconstructing crop husbandry VILLARET-VON ROCHOW, M . . 1967. Frucht- und practices from charred remains of crops. In: R. Samenreste aus der neolith ischen Station Seeberg. & H. Mercer (ed.), Fa rming practice in British prehistory. Burg�schisee-Slid. In: H.-G. Ba ndi M(iller­ Ed inburgh, pp. 1 23- 1 62. Bec k (eds.). Seeberg, Burgaschisee-Slid. I V. HILLMAN, G.C.. 1984. Interpretation of archaeological Ch l'Onologie und Um ll'elt (= Acta Be rnensia 2), plant rema ins: the application of ethnographic Bern, pp. 2 1 -64. models from Turkey. In: W. va n Zeist & W .A. VOGEL, J.c. & H.T. WATERBOLK, 1967. Groningen 9, Caspa rie (ed s. J, Plal1ls and ancient man. Rotterdam. Radiocarbon Dates VII. Radiocarbon pp. pp. 1-41. 107- 1 55. HOPF, M., 1969. Pla nt remains and early fa rming in WI Rl H, E. 1971. Sy rien, Eine geographische Landes- Jericho. In: P. J. Ucko & G. W. Dimbleby (eds.J. The kunde. Darmstadt. W. AN 1970. domestication and exploitation of' plal1ls and ZEIST. V . The Orienta l Institute excava tions animals. Lond on. pp. 355-3 59. at Mureybit. Syria: Preliminary report on the 1965 HOPF, M., 1978. Plant remains. Strata V-I. In: R. Ca mpaign. Part Ill: The palaeobotany. Journal of Amiran, Early Arad I. The chalcolithic settlement Near Ea stern Studies 29. pp. 167- 1 76. and Early Bronze city. Is rael Exploration Journal28, ZEIST, W. VAN, 1972. Palaeobota nical results of the 1970 pp. 64-77. season at <;:ayonli, Turkey. HeliniulII 12. pp. 3- 19. ZEIST, W. VAN, 1974. JARRIGE, J.-F. & R. H. M EA DOW , 1980. The antecedents Palaeobotanical stud ies of of civilization in the Indus Valley. Sciel1l(f'ic settlement sites In the coastal area of the 16. 223-383. American 243, No. 2, pp. 102- 1 10. Netherlands. Palaeohistoria pp. KAISER, K., E.K. KEMPF, Arl. LEROI-GOURHAN & ZEIST. W. V AN , 1976. On macroscopic traces of food H. SCH O n, 1973. Qua rta rstratigraphische Unter­ plants in southwestern Asia (with some reference to suchungen aus dem Damaskus-Becken und seiner pollen datal. Ph ilosophical Tra nsactions of the Umgebung. Zeitschri/ifiir Geol11orphologie N. F. 17. Royal Society London B 275, pp. 27-4 1. pp. 263-353. ZEIST. W. VAN & J.A.H. BA KKER-HEERES, i975a. KEELEY, H.M.C., 1978. The cost-effectiveness of certain Ev idence for linseed cultivation before 6000 b.c. methods of recovering macroscopic organic remains Journal of Archaeological Sciellce 2. pp. 2 1 5 -2 1 9. ZEIST, W. VAN & BOTTEMA, 1982. from archaeological deposits. Jo urnal 0/ Archaeo­ S. Vegetational history logical Science 5, pp. 1 79- 1 83. of the Eastern Mediterra nean and the Near East 20.000 & W. KISLEV, M.E.. 1979/ 80. Tr iticum parvicocculIl sp. nov .. during the last ycars. In: J.L. Bintliff the oldest naked wheat. Is rael Journalof Botany 28. van Zeist (eds.l, Palaeoclimates, palaeoenvironments pp. 95- 107. and hUlllan cO/1/munities in the Eastern Medi­ KISLEV, M. E., 1980. Contenu d'un silo a ble de I'epoquc terranean region ill later prehistory ( = B.A. R. Inter­ 133). 277-3 23. du fer ancien. In: J. Briend & J.-B. Humbert. Te ll national Series Oxford . pp. ZEIST. W. VAN & I E N I S 1983. Keisan (1 971-1976), une cite phenicienne en Galil(;e. H. B U T HU , A pa laeo­ Fribourg-Gottingen-Paris, pp. 36 1 -379. bota n ical study of Neolithic Erbaba. Turkey. Ana­ KISLEV, M.E., 1981. The history of evolution of' na ked tolii'a 10. pp. 47-89. wheats. Zeitschriji /iir Archdologie 15. pp. 57 64. ZEIST, W. VAN & W.A. CASPARIE. 1968. Wild einkorn KNORZER, K.-H., 1967. Subfossile POanzenreste \'on wheat and barley from Tell Mureybit in northern band keramischen Fundstellen im Rheinland. Syria. Acta Botanica Neerlandica 17, pp. 44-53. Archaeo- Physika 2, pp. 3'- 29. ZEIST. W. VAN & J.A.H. HEERES, 1973. Palaeobotanical KNORZER, K.-H., 1971. POanzliche Grossreste aus der Stud ies of Deir 'Alia , Jordan. Paleorient I, pp 21-37. rossenerzeitlichen Siedlung bei Langweiler. Kreis ZOHARY, D., 1969. The progenitors of wheat and barley Jiilich. Bonner Jahrbiicher 171. pp. 9-33. in relation to domestication and agricultural & LiERE, W.J. VAN, 1960-61. Observations on the dispersal in the Old World. In: P.J. Ucko G.W. i Quaternary of Syria . Berichten van de Rijksdienst Dimb eb (eds.l, The dOll1estication and exploit­ y 47-66. voor het Oudheidk un dig Bodemonderzoek 10-1 I. ation of plal1ls and animals. London, pp. pp. 7-69. 256 W. VAN ZEIST & J .A.H. BAKKER-HEERES

ZOHARY, D., 1971. Origin of south-west Asiatic cereals: in the Old World. Science 182, pp. 887-894. wheats, barley, oats and rye. In: P.H. Davis (ed.), ZOHARY, M. 1973. Ge obotanical fo undations of the Plant qe of south-Ivest Asia. Edinburgh, pp. Middle Eas t. 2 vols. Stuttgart-Amsterdam.

235-263. ZOHARY, M. & N. FEINBRUN-DoTHAN, 1966- . Flora ZOHARY, D., 1973. The origin of cultivated cereals and Palaesfina. Vol. I, 1966; vol. 2, 1972; vol. 3, 1978 pulses in the Near Ea st. Ch romosomes To day 4, pp. Jerusalem. 307-320. ZOHARY, D. & M. HOPF, 1973. Domestication of pulses Manuscript completed in 1983.