International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878 Dung (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) community structure across a forest-agriculture habitat ecotone in South Thomas Latha1,*, Thomas K. Sabu2

1Department of Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Belize, Belize 2Post Graduate and Research Department of Zoology, St. Joseph’s College, Devagiri, Kozhikode, , *Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract— Ecotones are zones of transition between biomes positive attribute, as original composition is altered or ecosystems. Ecotones, natural or anthropogenic, can to favor disturbance adapted species in the region. greatly affect community structure across habitats. Keywords— Agriculture habitat, community structure, Scarabaeinae dung are ideal biological indicators dung beetles, ecotone, forest, heliophiles, synanthropic that are used to study effects of habitat modification, species, South Western Ghats. fragmentation and edge effects on biodiversity. community structure across a forest-agriculture habitat I. INTRODUCTION ecotone in South Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot in Deforestation over the past half century, has resulted in the India was studied. Dung baited pitfall traps were used to loss of more than a third of all forest cover worldwide collect dung beetles from forest, ecotone and agriculture (Hansen et al., 2013). Nearly 70% of the world’s remaining habitat. Community attributes such as species richness, forests, lies within 1km of an edge and is in close proximity abundance, diversity, indicator and detector species were to human modified landscapes. These forest ecosystems are recorded in the study sites. Species composition varied influenced by human activities, altered microclimate, and between the three habitats. Greater similarity in species non-forest species invasion (Haddad et al., 2015). Reduced composition was observed between forest and ecotone. This fragment area, increased isolation, and increased edge, is attributed to the presence of heliophilic species in the initiate changes in the forest ecosystems which can have region, adapted to survive in forest and the open edge. unpredictable outcomes (Haddad et al., 2015). Though forest recorded higher abundance, ecotone and Anthropogenic edges created by habitat fragmentation agriculture habitat recorded higher species richness and affects biodiversity across ecotones (Laurance, 2000; diversity. Low diversity in forest resulted from decreased Murcia, 1995; Risser, 1995). Ecotones are zones of transition equitability in the overall forest assemblage resulting from between biomes or ecosystems (Hansen and di Castri,1992). increased dominance of few species such as Ecotones can be sharp or gradual and is characterized by furcillifer and O. pacificus. Higher species richness in unique sets of environmental conditions dissimilar from the ecotone and agriculture habitat was associated with adjacent habitats, collectively called edge effects (Murcia, heliophilic species that responded positively to disturbance, 1995). The intensity and direction of edge effects on whereas stenotopic species adapted to closed canopy such as population level of organisms can be extremely variable Ochicanthon mussardi was negatively affected in the region. across species. Different species respond positively, Onthophagus furcillifer, the indicator species in the forest negatively or neutrally to edges (Murcia, 1995; Baker et al., and ecotone was also the detector species in agriculture 2002). habitat. Presence of such species in the region that are Invertebrates such as has important functional role to adapted to survive in widely different habitat types is a result play in an ecosystem. Ecotones natural or anthropogenic, can of decades of forest degradation and fragmentation in the greatly affect insect abundance and diversity (Didham et Western Ghats which led to the establishment of heliophiles al.,1996); faunal movement (Yahner, 1988; Wiens et and synanthropic species in the region. Such increase in al.,1995, 1997; Desrochers and Fortin, 2000); population species richness in disturbed habitat is not considered a dynamics (Leopold, 1933); species interactions and

www.ijeab.com Page | 1879 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878 community structure (Didham et al.,1998). Scarabaeinae The vegetation in the forest habitat is characterized by west dung beetles are a group of predominantly dung feeding coast semi-evergreen forest consisting of a mixture of detritivorous beetles, abundant and widely distributed in the evergreen and deciduous trees (Kerala Forests and Wildlife terrestrial ecosystems (Halffter and Mathews, 1966). Department, 2004). Mammalian fauna in the region consists Through their dung feeding and dung burial activities, they of Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 (elephant), Bos gaurus increase soil fertility (Bertone, 2004; Bang et al., 2005; Smith, 1827 (gaur), Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792 (sambar Losey and Vaughan, 2006), soil permeability (Bang et al., deer), Sus scrofa scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 (wild boar), 2005); plant growth (Galbiati et al., 1995, Bang et al., 2005); Semnopithecus sp.(langur), Macaca silenus silenus seed dispersal (Andresen and Levy, 2004) and control Linnaeus, 1758 (lion tailed macaque), Martes gwatkinsii populations of disease causing parasites (Hingston, 1923; Corbet and Hill, 1992 (), Petinomys Miller et al., 1961).They are ideal biological indicators that fuscocapillus Jerdon, 1847 (small Travancore flying are effectively used to study the effects of habitat squirrel), Herpestes fuscus Thomas, 1924 (brown modification, fragmentation and edge effects on biodiversity mongoose), Viverra megaspila Blyth, 1862 (Malabar civet) (Duraes et al., 2005; Feer, 2008; Filgueiras et al., 2015; (Kerala Forests and Wildlife Department, 2004). The study Klein, 1989; Nichols et al., 2008; Spector and Ayzama, sites consisted of a 971 hectare reserve forest, 372 hectare 2003). agriculture habitat of banana and orange plantations and a The Western Ghats in the Indian subcontinent is one of the well-defined ecotone separating the two habitats, 34 biodiversity ‘hotspots’ of the world (Myers , 2003; characterized by scattered trees and less undergrowth. Traps Mittermeier et al., 2004). Nearly three-fourths of the natural were placed in the reserve forest, ecotone and in the portion vegetation in the ecoregion are cleared or converted. Due to of the agriculture habitat with the banana plantation (Fig. 2). their fragility, biological richness, high rates of endemis m 2.2 Sampling and multiple anthropogenic threats, the remaining severely Dung beetles were collected using dung baited pit fall traps fragmented forests of the Western Ghats are of major in the year 2007-08. Three collections were made during the conservation priority on a global scale (Pascal, 1991). There study period (monsoon, presummer, summer). Each is very limited information on effects of habitat collection effort involved placing ten traps each in the three fragmentation and creation of anthropogenic edges on habitats (forest, ecotone and agriculture habitat). Traps were ecologically important insect communities in the region. In placed along ten transverse transects. Each transect was the present study, dung beetle community structure attributes composed of three traps, one trap was placed in forest, one in such as species richness, abundance, species composition ecotone and one in agriculture habitat. The traps were and diversity was investigated across a forest-agriculture separated by a distance of 50 m. Each transect was separated habitat ecotone in South Western Ghats. We hypothesize that by a distance of 50 m. Traps were baited with 200g fresh cow dung beetle community structure attributes will vary across dung. A 25 x 25 cm plastic sheet was set over each trap to the habitats. protect it from rain and sun. The trap contents were collected at 12 h interval (6:00-18:00h and 18:00-6:00h). The collected II. MATERIALS AND METHODS beetles were identified to species levels using taxonomic 2.1 Study site keys available in Arrow (1931) and Balthasar (1963 a, b) and The study site is located on the “edge” of also by verifying with type specimens available in the Palghat gap in South Western Ghats (Pearson and Ghorpade, Coleoptera collections of St. Joseph’s College, Devagiri, 1989). The collection site in Nelliampathi is located Kozhikode. at 100 31’N longitude and 760 40’E latitude, at an elevation 2.3 Data analysis of 960 msl (Fig. 1). Though extensive in area, Nelliampathi For the purpose of data analysis, the diurnal and nocturnal forests presents a fragmented landscape interspersed by large collections and the three seasonal collections for each habitat number of plantations, dams, and roads. It is an ecologically were pooled. Sample based species accumulation curves high sensitive area forming a corridor for the movement of were plotted for each habitat to assess sampling adequacy long ranging species such as Panthera tigris Linnaeus, 1758 (Gotelli and Colwell, 2001). Nonparametric species richness (tiger), Panthera pardus Linnaeus, 1758 (leopard), Bos estimator Chao 2 was used to compare observed species gaurus Smith, 1827 (wild gaur), and is also a crucial richness (Sobs) to estimated species richness (Gotteli and migratory route for Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 Colwell, 2001). Estimate Sv9 was used for both analyses. (elephant) (Sukumar and Easa, 2006). Indicator and detector species for each habitat was selected

www.ijeab.com Page | 1880 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878 by Indicator Value Method (IndVal) (Dufrêne and Legendre, edge and Caccobius meridionalis and Onthophagus 1997). Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H’) (Shannon and furcillifer in agriculture habitat (Fig 4). Weaver, 1949) was computed for each habitat. Bray-Curtis Shannon-Weaver diversity (H’) values did not vary similarity coefficient (Bray and Curtis 1957) was used to significantly between habitats but were highest in ecotone quantify and compare the similarity of dung beetle species and lowest in forest (H= 3.24, df= 2, p=>0.05) (Table 1; composition among habitats. SIMPER analysis was Fig.5). Bray Curtis similarity coefficient showed highest performed to assess the average percent contribution of similarity between the dung beetle assemblages of forest and individual species to dissimilarity between habitats (Clarke, ecotone (77.30%) followed by ecotone and agriculture 1993). Analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) was used to test habitat (56.59%) and least similarity between agriculture differences in species composition between habitats. PAST 3 habitat and forest (45.80%) (Fig.6). Percentage contribution was used to compute all diversity analysis. Patterns in species of each species towards dissimilarity between habitats is composition of dung beetle assemblages were analysed by provided in Table 2. Highest average dissimilarity was constructing species-abundance plot for each habitat observed between forest and agriculture habitat (54.20%) (Whittaker, 1965). These graphs are also useful to explore contributed mainly by the species Onthophagus pacificus attributes of the assemblage, such as species richness (13.79 %), Caccobius meridionalis (11.03%) and (number of points), evenness (slope) and number of rare Onthophagus fasciatus (10.12%). Ecotone and agriculture species (tail of the curve). habitat showed a dissimilarity of 43.38%, largely contributed All data used for statistical analysis were tested for normality by Caccobius meridionalis (13.32%) and Onthophagus using Anderson-Darling test. Since the data was not normally fasciatus (10.80%). Forest and edge showed a dissimilarity distributed, non-parametric statistics, Kruskal-Wallis H tests of 22.69% principally contributed by Onthophagus pacificus was used to test the significant levels of variation in (14.32%). Composition of assemblage varied significantly abundance and diversity between habitats (Sachs, 1992). between habitats (ANOSIM; R= 0.34, p = 0.0001). Rank Differences with a p-value <0.05 was compared using Mann- abundance plot in all the three habitats showed a steep slope Whitney Test. Statistical analysis was performed using as a result of dominance of few species and a long tail of Megastat version 10.0 (Orris, 2005). several rare species (Fig.7).

III. RESULTS IV. DISCUSSION A total of 1425 dung beetles were collected from the three In the present study, species composition varied between habitats during the study period; 622 beetles from forest, 460 habitats. Ecotone shared species with forest and agriculture from ecotone and 343 from agriculture habitat. Twenty one habitat, and least similarity existed between forest and species and seven genera were collected from forest; 25 agriculture habitat. Similarity in species composition and species and eight genera were collected from agriculture abundance between forest and ecotone is in contrast to results habitat; and 25 species and eight genera were collected from of earlier studies done across a forest-savanna ecotone in ecotone (Table 1). Species accumulation curve for forest did Bolivia (Spector and Ayzama, 2003), forest- cerrado ecotone not reach an asymptote (Fig. 3). Chao 2 values for ecotone in Brazil (Duraes et al., 2005), bushland and agriculture and agriculture habitat showed 86% inventory completeness habitat in Tanzania (Nielsen, 2007), forest-savanna edge and but for forest only 44.6% inventory completeness indicating forest-roadside edge in French Guiana (Feer, 2008) and that more species could be collected in forest with additional forest-pasture edges in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve (Diaz sampling effort. Overall abundance varied significantly et al., 2010), where species composition and abundance between habitats (H= 11.31, df=2, p=<0.05).Abundance varied between forest and edge with significant decrease in between forest and ecotone; ecotone and agriculture habitat abundance observed in edge. showed no significant difference (p=>0.05) but between Forest edges have a relatively higher temperature, lower forest and agriculture habitat showed significant difference humidity and is exposed to higher solar radiation when (p=<0.05). Onthophagus furcillifer and O. pacificus were the compared to forest interior and this impacts organisms indicator species in forest; O. furcillifer in edge and O. (Kapos, 1989; Brown, 1993). Though ecotone in fasciatus in agriculture habitat. repertus and Nelliampathi had less shade and higher sun exposure, such Paracopris cribratus were the detector species in forest, microclimatic conditions did not deter forest dung beetles in Onthophagus bronzeus, O. pacificus and Copris repertus in the region from colonizing the edge habitat. Decades of anthropogenic pressures such as fragmentation, logging and

www.ijeab.com Page | 1881 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878 habitat conversion exerted on the forests in the Western patches of Gautemala (Avendano-Mendoza et al., 2005), in Ghats (Sukumar and Easa, 2006; Latha and Unnikrishnan, pastures of Central America (Horgan, 2007), isolated 2007; Prabhakaran, 2011) had led to the establishment of fragmented forest and disturbed forests of Belize (Latha et heliophilic species in the forest of the region which are al., 2016 a, b). Low diversity values in the forest is due to adapted to tolerate the warmer microclimatic conditions of decreased equitability in the overall assemblage resulting the edge. Earlier studies done in forest and modified habitats from increased dominance of certain species (Davis et al., had revealed the presence of heliophilic species in the region 2001) such as O. furcillifer and O. pacificus in the forest of (Vinod, 2009; Sabu et al., 2011, Venugopal, 2012). In Nelliampathi whereas stenotopic species adapted to closed addition, intrusions of wild from forest into the edge canopy such as Ochicanthon mussardi was negatively provides adequate food resource for dung beetles of ecotone. affected in the region. This is because the forests in the region is fragmented, this The indicator species selected for each habitat are highly results in frequent incursions of long ranging herbivorous specific to that particular environment (McGeoch et al., mammals such as elephant, gaur into forest edges and even 2002), and are therefore more susceptible to changes in a agriculture habitats in the region. habitat while detector species possess moderate specificity, High species richness and Shannon-Weaver diversity in with different degrees of preference among various ecotone and agriculture habitat when compared to forest is in ecological states (McGeoch et al., 2002).The presence of O. contrast to records from Borneo (Davis et al., 2001), furcillifer, as the indicator species for both forest and ecotone Neotropics (Avendaño-Mendoza et al., 2005), Southeast and detector species in agriculture habitat indicates the Asia (Shahabuddin et al. 2005), Africa (Nielsen, 2007), and establishment of heliophilic beetles tolerant to open habitat Wayanad (Vinod, 2009). Studies have shown that increase in in the forests of Nelliampathi. species richness in disturbed habitats is associated with species that respond positively to disturbance whereas V. CONCLUSION stenotopic species adapted to closed canopy are negatively The is the first reported study on the effects of habitat affected (Davis et al., 2001, Janzen, 1987). Such increase in fragmentation and creation of anthropogenic edges on dung species richness in disturbed habitat is not considered a beetle community structure across habitats in South Western positive attribute, as original species composition is altered Ghats. Decades of anthropogenic disturbance in the region to favor disturbance adapted species in the region (Davis et has resulted in the establishment of heliophiles and al.,2001). synanthropic species. Further deterioration of the forests can Nelliampathi is a mosaic of forest fragments and agriculture lead to species loss in the region (Sabu et al., 2011). Hence, habitats. Decades of habitat degradation in the region has it is recommended to conduct similar studies to fully negatively affected the community attributes of dung beetles understand the effects of anthropogenic disturbance on in the forest habitats of Nelliampathi. High species richness biodiversity of the South Western Ghats, as such studies and diversity in ecotone and agriculture habitat is attributed assists to plan adequate conservation strategies for the region to arrival of tourist species, adapted to disturbance, from in the future. remnant forest habitats into ecotone and agriculture habitat. Such species are molossus, Copris repertus, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Onthophagus amphicoma, O. andrewesi, O. bronzeus O. We wish to thank the University Grants Commission, India ensifer, O. favrei, O furcillifer, O. insignicollis, O. laevis, O. for the financial assistance, St. Josephs College, Devagiri, for manipurensis, O. pacificus, O. turbatus, Paracopris the laboratory facility; Vinod, Shiju, Nithya for statistical and cribratus, Tibiodrepanus setosus. In addition, synanthropic technical assistance. species with preference towards cow dung, such as Caccobius meridionalis, C. gallinus, C. ultor, Onthophagus REFERENCES fasciatus and Paracopris davisoni were absent in forest but [1] Andresen E. and Levey D.J. (2004). Effects of dung and recorded from agriculture habitat and/or ecotone. Such seed size on secondary dispersal, seed predation and movement of tourist species (Avendaño-Mendoza et al., seedling establishment of rainforest trees. Oecologia.139 2005, Estrada et al., 1998, Filguieras et al.,2015, Quintero (1): 45-54. and Rosalin, 2005; Quintero and Halffter, 2009) and [2] Arrow G.J. (1931). The Fauna of British India including establishment of synanthropic species in a region were Ceylon and Burma, Coleoptera: Lamellicornia observed in forests of Colombia (Escobar, 2004), in guamil (Coprinae). Taylor and Francis. London. 3: pp. i-xii+428.

www.ijeab.com Page | 1882 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878 [3] Avendano-Mendoza C., Moron-Rios A., Cano E.B. and [14] Díaz A., Galante E., Favila M.E. (2010). The effect of the Leon-Cortes J. (2005). Dung beetle community landscape matrix on the distribution of dung and carrion (Coleoptera: : Scarabaeinae) in a tropical beetles in a fragmented tropical rain forest. Journal of landscape at the Lachua Region, Guatemala. Biodiversity Insect Science, 10: 1-81. conservation, 14: 801-822. [15] DidhamR . K., Ghazoul J, Stork N. E. and Davis A. J. [4] Baker J., French K. and Whelan R.J. (2002). The edge (1996). Insects in fragmented forests: a functional effect and ecotonal species: Bird communities across a approach. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 11, 255-260. natural edge in southeastern Australia. Ecology, 83: [16] Didham R.K., Lawton J.H., Hammond P.M. and 3048-3059. Eggleton P. (1998). Trophic structure stability and [5] Balthasar V. (1963a). Monographic der Scarabaeidae extinction dynamics of beetles (Coleoptera) in tropical und Aphodiidae der Palaearktischen Und Orientalischen forest fragments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Region (Coleoptera: Lamellicornia). Volume 1, Verlag Society, London. Biological Sciences, 353: 437-451. der Tschechoslowakischen Akademie der [17] Dufrêne M. and Legendre P. (1997). Species assemblages Wissenschaften. Prag, 391 pp,PI. XXIV and indicator species: the need for a flexible [6] Balthasar V. (1963b). Monographic der Scarabaeidae asymmetrical approach. Ecological Monographs. 67: und Aphodiidae der Palaearktischen und Orientalischen 345-366. Region (Coleoptera: Lamellicornia). Volume 2. Verlag [18] Durães R., Martins W.P. and Vaz-de-Mello F.Z. (2005). der Tschechoslowakischen Akademie der Dung Beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) assemblages Wissenschaften. Prag, 627 pp,PI. XVI. across a natural forest-cerrado ecotone in Minas Gerais, [7] Bang H.S, Lee J.H., Kwon O.S., Na Y.E., Jang Y.S. and Brazil. Neotropical Entomology. 34(5): 721-731. Kim W.H. (2005). Effects of paracoprid dung beetles [19] Escobar F. (2004). Diversity and composition of dung (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) on the growth of pasture beetle (Scarabaeinae) assemblages in a heterogeneous herbage and on the underlying soil. Applied Soil Ecology. Andean landscape. Tropical Zoology. 17: 123-136. 29:165-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2004.11.001 [20] Estrada A., Coates-Estrada R., Anzures A. and [8] Bertone M., Green J., Washburn S., Poore M., Sorenson Cammarano P. (1998). Dung and carrion beetles in C. and Watson D.W. (2005). Seasonal activity and tropical rainy forest fragments and agricultural habitats at species composition of dung beetles (Coleoptera: Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 14: Scarabaeidae and Geotrupidae) inhabiting cattle pastures 577-593. in North Carolina. Annals of Entomological Society of [21] Feer F. (2008). Responses of dung beetle assemblages to America. 98(3):309-321. characteristics of rain forest edges. Ecotropica,14: 49-62. [9] Bray J.R. and Curtis J.T. (1957). An ordination of the [22] Filgueiras B.K.C., Tabarelli, M., Leal I.R., Vaz-de- Mello upland forest communities of Southern Wisconsin. F.Z. and Iannuzzi L. (2015). Dung beetle persistence in Ecological Monographs. 27: 325-349. human-modified landscapes: combining indicator species [10] Brown N. (1993). The implications of climate and gap with anthropogenic land use and fragmentation-related microclimate for seedling growth conditions in a Bornean effects. Ecological Indicators. 55, 65-73. lowland rainforest. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 9 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.02.032 (2):153-168. [23] Galbiati C., Bensi C., Conceição C.H.C., Florcovski J.L., [11] Clarke K.R. (1993). Non-parametric multivariate Calafiori M.H. and Tobias, A.C.T. (1995). Estudo analyses of changes in community structure. Australian comparativo entre besouros do esterco Journal of Ecology. 18:117-143. anaglypticus (Mann, 1829). Ecossistema 20, 109-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1993.tb00438.x [24] Gotelli N.J and Colwell R.K. (2001). Quantifying [12] Davis A.J., Holloway J.D., Huijbregts H., Kirk-Spriggs biodiversity procedures and pitfalls in the measurement A.H. and Sutton S.L. (2001). Dung beetles as indicators and comparison of species richness. Ecology Letters. 4, of change in the forests of northern Borneo. Journal of 379-391. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1461 - Applied Ecology, 38: 593-616. 0248.2001.00230.x [13] Desrochers, A. and Fortin, M.J. (2000). Understanding [25] Haddad, N. M. et al. (2015). Habitat fragmentation and avian responses to forest boundaries: a case study with its lasting impact on Earth’s ecosystems. Science chickadee winter flocks. Oikos. 91:376- 384. Advances1, e1500052.

www.ijeab.com Page | 1883 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878 [26] Halffter G., Mathews E.G. (1966). The natural history of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food dung beetles of the sub family Scarabaeinae (Coleoptera, Technology (IOSR-JESTFT). 10 (7) 24- 30. Scarabaeidae). Folia Entomologica Mexicana. 12-14: 1- [39] Laurance W.F. (2000). Mega-development trends in the 132. Amazon: implications for global change. Environmental [27] Hamer K.C., Hill J.K., Lace L.A. and Langhan A.M. Monitoring and Assessment. 61: 113-122. (1997). Ecological and biogeographical effects of forest [40] Leopold A. 1933. Game Management. Charles Scribner’s disturbance on tropical butterflies of Sumba, Indonesia. Sons, New York, 481 pp. Journal of Biogeography, 24: 67-75. [41] Losey JE, Vaughan M. (2006). The economic value of [28] Hansen, A. and di Castri, F. (1992). Landscape ecological services provided by insects. Bioscience. boundaries: consequences for biotic diversity and 56:311-323. ecological flows. Scientific Committee on Problems of the [42] McGeoch M.A. (2002). Insect conservation in South Environment book series, Springer Verlag, NewYork. Africa: An overview, African Entomology. 10, 1-10. [29] Hansen M. C., Potapov P. V., Moore R., Hancher M., [43] Miller A. (1961). The mouthparts and digestive tract of Turubanova S. A., Tyukavina A., Thau D., Stehman S. adult dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabeidae) with V., Goetz S. J., Loveland T. R., Kommareddy A., Egorov reference to the ingestion of helminth eggs. Journal of A., Chini L., Justice C. O. and Townshend J. R. G. Parasitology. 47, 735-744. (2013). High-resolution global maps of 21st-century [44] Mittermeier R.A., Robles-Gil P., Hoffmann M., Pilgrim forest cover change.342, 850-853. J.D., Brooks T.M., Mittermeier C.G., Lamoreux J.L. and [30] Hingston R.W.G. 1923. A Naturalist in Hindustan. H.F. Fonseca G. 2004. Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial and G. Witharby, London, 292 pp. Ecoregions. CEMEX, Mexico City. [31] Horgan F.G. (2007). Dung beetles in pasture landscapes [45] Murcia C. (1995). Edge effects in fragmented forests: of Central America: proliferation of synanthropogenic Implications for conservation. Tree, 10: 58–62. species and decline of forest specialists. Biodiversity and [46] Myers N. (2003). Biodiversity hotspots revisited. Conservation, 16: 2149-2165. Bioscience, 53: 916-917. [32] Janzen, D.H. (1987) Insect diversity of a Costa Rican dry [47] Nichols E., Spector S., Louzada J., Larsen T., Amezquita, forest: why keep it, and how? Biological Journal of the S., Favila M.E., The Scarabaeinae Research Network. Linnean Society.30, 343-356. (2008). Ecological functions and ecosystem services [33] Kapos, V. (1989). Effects of isolation on the water status provided by Scarabaeinae dung beetles. Biological of forest patches in the Brazilian Amazon. Journalof Conservation. 141: 1461-1474. Tropical Ecology.5:173-185. [48] Nielsen S.T. (2007). Deforestation and biodiversity: [34] Kerala Forests and Wildlife Department, Government of effects of bushland cultivation on dung beetles in semi- Kerala. (2004). Accessed on March 30, 2009. arid Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16: 2753- http://www.keralaforest.gov.in/html/flora/index.htm. 2768. [35] Klein B.C. (1989). Effects of forest fragmentation on [49] Orris J.B. (2005). Megastat version 10.0. Butler dung and carrion beetle communities in central University, College of Business Administration, 4600 Amazonia. Ecology.70: 1715-1725. Sunset Ave, Indianapolis. Distributed by McGraw-Hill. [36] Latha A., Unnikrishnan S. (2007). RBO driven campaign Available online: http://www.mhhe.com/support. to preserve downstream ecological flows of a Western [50] Pascal J.P. (1991). Floristic composition and distribution Ghats river. Accessed on March 10, 2010. of evergreen forests in the Western Gh ats, India. www.riversymposium.com. Palaeobotanist, 39(1): 110-126. [37] Latha T., Huang P., Perez G.A. and Paquiul IO. (2016). [51] Pearson D.L. and Ghorpade K. (1989). Geographical Dung beetle assemblage in a protected area of Belize: A distribution and ecological history of tiger beetles study on the consequence of forest fragmentation and (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) of the Indian subcontinent. isolation. Journal of Entomology and Zoology studies. 4 Journal of Biogeography. 16: 333-344. (1), 2016, 457- 463. [52] Prabhakaran G. (2011). 27 Nelliampathi estates broke [38] Latha T., Young E., Salazar D. and Caballero C. (2016). rules, says report. The Hindu, July 15. Effects of anthropogenic disturbance on dung beetle [53] Quintero I., Halffter G. (2009). Temporal changes in a (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) community structure in the community of dung beetles (Insecta: Coleoptera: Central Belize corridor, Belize. IOSR Journal of Scarabaeinae) resulting from the modification and

www.ijeab.com Page | 1884 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878 fragmentation of tropical rain forest. Acta Zoológica a Bolivian Neotropical forest–Savanna Ecotone. Mexicana (nuevaserie), 25: 625-649. Biotropica, 35(3): 394-404. [54] Quintero I. and Roslin T. (2005). Rapid recovery of dung [61] Sukumar R. and Easa P.S. (2006). Elephant conservation beetle communities following habitat fragmentation in in : issues and recommendations. Gajah, 25: central Amazonia. Ecology, 86 (12): 3303-3311. 71-86. [55] Risser P.G. (1995). The status of the science examining [62] Venugopal K.S., Thomas S.K., and Flemming A.T. ecotones. Bio Science, 45: 318-325. (2012). Diversity and community structure of dung [56] Sabu T.K., Nithya S. and Vinod K.V. (2011). Faunal Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) associated with semi- survey, endemism and possible species loss of urban fragmented agricultural land in the Malabar cast in Scarabaeinae (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in the western southern India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4 (7): 2685- slopes of the moist South Western Ghats, South India. 2692. Zootaxa,2830: 29-38. [63] Vinod K.V. (2009). Studies on the Systematics and [57] Sachs L. (1992). Angewandte Statistik. Springer, Berlin, Distribution of Dung Beetles (Scarabaeinae: Coleoptera) Heidelberg. in the Forests and Agricultural Fields of Wayanad. Ph.D. [58] Shahabuddin, Schulze C.H. and Tscharntke T. (2005). Thesis, Forest Research Institute University. Changes of dung beetle communities from rain forests [64] Wiens J.A., Crist T.O., Wiht K.A. and Milne B.T. (1995). towards agroforestry systems and annual cultures in Fractal patterns of insect movement in microlandscape Sulawesi (Indonesia). Biodiversity conservation. 14: 863- mosaics. Ecology. 76:663-666. doi:10.2307/1941226. 877. [65] Wiens J.A, Schooley R.L. and Weeks Jnr. R.D. (1997). [59] Shannon C.E. and Weaver W. (1949). The Mathematical Patchy landscape and movements: do beetles Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press, percolate? Oikos. 78 (2): 257-264. 117 pp. [66] Whittaker R.H. (1965). Dominance and diversity in land [60] Spector S. and Ayzama S. (2003). Rapid turnover and plant communities. Science, 147: 250-260. edge effects in dung beetle assemblages (Scarabaeidae) at [67] Yahner, R.H. (1988). Changes in wildlife communities near edges. Conservation Biology 2:333-39.

Fig. 1: A. Map showing Western Ghats; B. Map of study region Nelliampathi.

www.ijeab.com Page | 1885 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878

Fig. 2: Habitat types under study in Nelliampathi in South Western Ghats, A. Semi-evergreen forest; B. Ecotone; C. Agriculture habitat. 30

25

20

15

No. No. species of 10

5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

No. of samples

SEG ECO AGR

Fig. 3: Sample based species accumulation curve (Mao Tau) for dung beetles collected from a semi-evergreen forest (SEG), ecotone (ECO) and agriculture habitat (AGR) of Nelliampathi in South Western Ghats for the 2007-08 study period.

100 93.3 86.7 90 80 76.67 80 70 60 56.7 56.7 56.7 60 60 53.3 53.3 46.7 50 43.3 43.3 40 30 30 16.7 20 6.7 3.33

Indicatorspecies in% value 10 0 0 0 0 Paracopris Copris repertus Onthophagus Onthophagus Caccobius Onthophagus Onthophagus cribratus bronzeus pacificus meridionalis furcillifer fasciatus

SEG ECO AGRI

Fig. 4: Indicator and detector species of dung beetles in a semi-evergreen forest (SEG), ecotone (ECO) and agriculture habitat (AGR) of Nelliampathi in South Western Ghats for the 2007-08 study period. www.ijeab.com Page | 1886 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878

Fig. 5: Shannon-Weaver diversity Index (H’) values in a semi-evergreen forest (SEG), ecotone (ECO) and agriculture habitat (AGR) of Nelliampathi in South Western Ghats for the 2007-08 study period.

Fig.6: Cluster diagram of Bray Curtis Similarity Index between semi-evergreen forest (SEG), ecotone (ECO) and agriculture habitat (AGR) of Nelliampathi in South Western Ghats for the 2007-08 study period.

www.ijeab.com Page | 1887 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878

Fig. 7: Species abundance curve for dung beetle species in a semi-evergreen forest (SEG), ecotone (ECO) and agriculture habitat (AGR) of Nelliampathi in South Western Ghats for the 2007-08 study period.

www.ijeab.com Page | 1888 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878 Table 1: Dung beetle species abundance, overall abundance, species richness, Chao 2, Shannon -Weaver diversity index (H’) values in a semi-evergreen forest (SEG), ecotone (ECO) and agriculture habitat (AGR) of Nelliampath i in South Western Ghats for the 2007-08 study period. Species SEG ECO AGR Caccobius gallinus 0 2 5 Caccobius meridionalis 0 0 88 Caccobius ultor 0 0 3 1 7 12 Copris repertus 28 29 27 indicus 0 0 1 Ochicanthon mussardi 0 3 0 subopacus 0 0 1 Onthophagus amphicoma 1 21 3 Onthophagus andrewesi 8 7 1 Onthophagus bronzeus 29 39 2 Onthophagus castetsi 16 9 0 Onthophagus cavia 1 1 0 Onthophagus centricornis 1 0 0 Onthophagus deflexicollis 0 2 0 Onthophagus ensifer 3 13 12 Onthophagus fasciatus 0 1 74 Onthophagus favrei 2 6 5 Onthophagus furcillifer 155 91 44 Onthophagus insignicollis 1 2 2 Onthophagus laevis 18 17 4 Onthophagus manipurensis 19 28 8 Onthophagus pacificus 235 96 13 Onthophagus porcus 0 0 1 Onthophagus rectecornutus 0 0 1 Onthophagus turbatus 16 36 12 Onthophagus vladimiri 7 4 0 Paracopris cribratus 40 18 7 Paracopris davisoni 0 7 6 Paracopris surdus 0 1 0 Paragymnopleurus sinuatus 1 0 0 araneolus 39 15 0 Tibiodrepanus setosus 1 1 10 Tibiodrepanus sinicus 0 0 1 Abundance 622 460 343 Species Richness 21 25 25 Chao 2 44.68 2903 28.8 (47%) (86%) (86.8%) Shannon-Weaver diversity (H’) 1.97 2.55 2.3

www.ijeab.com Page | 1889 International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-3, Issue- 5, Sept-Oct- 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.5.41 ISSN: 2456-1878 Table 2: Percentage contribution of species towards dissimilarity between a semi- evergreen forest, ecotone and agriculture habitat of Nelliampathi in South Western Ghats for the 2007-08 study period. Species Semi-evergreen forest v/s Ecotone v/s Semi-evergreen forest v/s Ecotone Agriculture Agriculture habitat habitat Caccobius gallinus 3.63 1.17 2.63 Caccobius meridionalis 0 13.32 11.03 Caccobiu sultor 0 2.46 2.04 Catharsius molossus 4.22 1.16 2.9 Copris repertus 0.24 0.27 0.11 Liatongus indicus 0 1.42 1.18 Ochicanthon mussardi 4.44 2.46 0 Onitis subopacus 0 1.42 1.18 Onthophagus amphicoma 9.19 4.05 0.86 Onthophagus andrewesi 0.86 3.07 2.15 Onthophagus bronzeus 3.01 7.3 4.67 Onthophagus castetsi 2.56 4.26 4.7 Onthophagu scavia 0 1.42 1.18 Onthophagus centricornis 2.56 0 1.18 Onthophagus deflexicollis 3.63 2.01 0 Onthophagus ensifer 4.8 0.2 2.04 Onthophagus fasciatus 2.56 10.8 10.12 Onthophagus favrei 1.5 0.34 0.97 Onthophagus furcillifer 7.46 4.13 6.84 Onthophagus insignicollis 1.88 0.45 0.49 Onthophagus laevis 0.62 2.84 2.64 Onthophagus manipurensis 2.39 3.5 1.8 Onthophagus pacificus 14.32 8.72 13.79 Onthophagus porcus 0 1.42 1.18 Onthophagus rectecornutus 0 1.42 1.18 Onthophagus turbatus 5.13 3.6 0.63 Onthophagus vladimiri 1.66 2.84 3.11 Paracopris cribratus 5.34 2.27 4.33 Paracopris davisoni 6.79 0.28 2.88 Paracopris surdus 2.56 1.42 0 Paragymnopleurus sinuatus 2.56 0 1.18 Sisyphus araneolus 6.08 5.5 7.34 Tibiodrepanus setosus 0 3.07 2.54 Tibiodrepanus sinicus 0 1.42 1.18

www.ijeab.com Page | 1890