CONTENTS Historical Sciences

64 HistoricalCONTENTS sciences

ARTICLES OF CRAFTSMEN – UNOFFICIAL SYMBOLS OF RUSSIA Shestakova A. Stavropol State University

The question about unofficial symbols of Russia is considered here. The idea that by no means all the handi- works mentioned in popular literature can be referred to “symbols” is declared. A brief description of the most relevant handiworks is given proceeding from the history of their origin. Some judgements of the author can seem to be disputable.

Not all tourists are aware of official our reckoning not all of them are equally symbols of the states, which they visit in noteworthy. This list can (and even should) their unqieted thirst for world cognition. And include Matryoshka nest-dolls, lapty (bast hardly anybody has the state flag or coat of shoes), valenky (felt boots) and Semenov arms for a keepsake to remember the visited spoons. And vice versa, exclude Uralian country by. But as for unofficial symbols or, malachite. Now in Russia mani malachite ar- as it is common to say, “brands” of the coun- ticles are made of imported material. Mala- tries, which they are going to visit, they are chite has long since ranked first among or- known to the majority of travelers. Let us put namental stones of the Urals. The Uralian aside the “eatable” symbols such as Italian malachite is considered to be the most valu- pizza, Swiss cheese, Russian pancakes, able one in the world market. But its deposits French croissants and other not less attractive (Mednorudnyanskoye, Gumishevskoye) have pleasures of the table. The food will leave been already depleted. There are large-scale only vivid gustatory sensations in the mem- deposits of malachite in Australia and the ory. But our attention is attracted by the ma- USA. In color and beauty of patterns there is terial traces remaining for long in hearth and nothing to be compared to the Uralian mala- home. It is unofficial symbols of Russia that chite. will be discussed in the present article. Unof- When speaking about the other unoffi- ficial symbols picturesquely remind of some cial symbols, each of them has its own history. natural, cultural and other peculiarities of a The Matryoshka doll is one of the visited country. They are, usually, souvenirs most popular and traditional Russia souve- – articles of craftsmen, or job shop-type pro- nirs. However, contrary to the established duction, the tourist goods. Many souvenirs opinion, a Matryoshka is not an original Rus- and articles of craftwork haven’t been used sian toy. Probably, one of the present-day for their intended purpose for a long time, but Matryoshka’s prototypes was a Japanese are still being in steady demand in tourists. figurine of a Buddhist wise man named Fu- First of all, it is connected with the fact that kurumu, inside of which there was a set of the majority of souvenirs has a pronounced smaller figurines in order of size [10]. An- national (folk) flavour. other prototype of the Matryoshka was the Perhaps, there will no one, who would “pisanka” – a hollow wooden hand-painted know nothing about Russian symbols, found. Easter egg made in Russia at all times. A As per the List quoted in one of authoritative bigger egg contained a smaller one, then a Russian editions, our country’s unofficial still smaller one, etc. [3]. The first Matryo- world famous and popular symbols are – the shka appeared in Russia at the end of XIX Khokhloma painting, crystal from Gus- century in Abramtsevo, near Sergiyev Posad Khrustalny, Palekh lacquered miniature, Pav- in the Moscow area. Nobody knows a firm lov Posad shawls, Gzhel porcelain, Uralian date of creating the Matryoshka. But in 1900 malachite, Vologda lacework, Tula samo- the Russian (Sergiyev Posad) Matryoshka vars, Orenburg woolen shawls, Dymkovo was successfully exhibited in the World Fair toys and Rostov enamel [4]. According to in Paris. In the 20-30-s of XX century the

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY ʋ3 2009 Historical sciences 65 production of Matryoshkas was developed in ference between the left and the right one other Russian regions, which became later (like valenky). Lapty were not a long-lasting traditional centers of their manufacture – footwear. In winter a peasant wore one pair Vyatka (Kirov), Semenov and Polkhovsky of lapty not longer than 10 days, and in Maidan (Nizhny Novgorod Region). Later on summer he treaded them down for 4 days. Matryoshkas became manufactured in Vo- Nowadays, the lapty lessened up to the ronezh, Tver and Novokuznetsk. Traditional size of a palm are weaved in many regions of Matryoshkas produced on the shop floors of Russia. Coins and banknotes are put inside the national artistic trades have their artistic such souvenir lapty by exotic lovers – “for features and hallmarks. Matryoshaks’ names luck”. depend on the place of their production. Valenky – is a unique know-how of In parallel with the output of tradi- the Russian people. The advantage of tional Matryoshkas inmany regions of Russia valenky is that they are made without a sin- there appeared authors’ Matryoshkas. They gle stitch, and therefore they are soft and are different variants of a Russian peasant comfortable. For this ingenious plainness a girl in the folk clothing, Russian heroes, rep- naïve-to-foolishness person is called a resentatives of pre-revolutionary nobility and “valenok” in the popular folklore. The first merchantry. There are Matryoshkas “a la records about Russian valenky occur in the Gzhel”, “a la Zhostovo”, “a la Palekh”; Ma- chronicle of “The Lay of Igor’s Warfare”, tryoshkas – characters of tales - “Kolobok” XII century [9]. Originally valenky were (“Dough-boy”), “Repka” (“Turnip”), “Tere- short with cloth boot-tops. And only in XVIII mok” (“Palace”) and others. A new event in century they acquired a customary look for the Russian Matryoshka painting is a “politi- us. The countrymen found valenky to be to cal” Matryoshka, which depicts Russian their liking. Before that, as it is known, peo- Tsars, Russian and foreign political and pub- ple in the country wore lapty summer and lic figures, popular actors, etc. winter alike, they being frayed soon. Valenky Lapty, also being considered a “sym- were expensive. They were passed from one bol“ of Russia, figure in a multitude of say- generation to another. The rural family, ings and proverbs. In Russian folklore the where all the members wore valenky was word “lapot” denotes a simpleton, an unedu- thought to be a prosperous one. In other cated person. At the beginning of XX century families there could be only one pair of Russia was often called a “lapot” country. valenky for all. And it was not by incident. All Russian coun- Today there are factories to produce tryside exclusive of the Siberia and Cossack valenky in Russia and three CIS countries – areas wore lapty all the year round. Lapty Kazakhstan, Ukraine and Byelorussia. Usu- were traditionally considered to be the shoes ally valenky are made of sheep hair. But of the underprivileged – the poorest part of there can be goat, camel and even dog population [5]. valenky. To make a pair of valenky (depend- Making lapty was a winter occupation ing on the size) takes from 4 to 7 kg of wool. of peasants being free from the field works. The souvenir and “glamour” valenky are Lapty were weaved from the bark of many made of any wool. There are orange, green, foliage trees: linden, birch, elm, oak, etc. The violet, burgundy valenky; embroidered bast lapty, weaved from the linden bast, were valenky; valenky decorated with fur, strasses thought to be the most durable and soft. For and tapestry [9]. There are Valenky Muse- durability and warmth the prosperous peas- ums in Moscow, the city of Myshkin (Yaro- ants sewed on a leather sole to their lapty. slavl Region) and village of Urusovo (Mor- Lapty were fixed on the foot with the help of dovia). A specialized store “Russian long strings or leather laces. Lapty were Valenky”, the main visitors of which are for- made on one shoetree and there was no dif-

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY ʋ3 2009 66 HistoricalCONTENTS sciences eigners, was opened in Moscow in winter, action of temperature becomes golden in 2005. color. Sometimes, instead of the aluminum The Semenov spoon – is a souvenir powder the tin one is uses, and then a “sil- having become a world famous brand [8]. In ver” article is obtained. The Khokhloma to- olden times the spoons, which peasants used day – is wooden dishware, furniture, various in Russia, were solely made of wood. The souvenirs. center of spoon production was the city of The crystal from Gus-Khrustalny. Semenov, which was called the “Spoon capi- The Gus Crystal Plant was founded in 1756 tal” of Russia. The spoons were made by by a merchant from Oryol Akim Maltsov. thousands of handicraftsmen-peasants living Crystal and glass were founded at the plant. in the city and neighboring villages. Each of It worked on domestic raw materials. The ar- them had his own speciality: spoon-carvers, ticles of the plant were awarded the highest painters engaged in painting the “cloth” and premium “Grand Prix” at the World Fair in lacquerers engaged in surfacing [2]. The Paris in 1900. The well-known Gus flagons availability of wood, closeness of trade cen- with roosters and bouquets brought the world ters, entrepreneurial spirit and virtuosity of fame to the plant. The best articles made by local handymen promoted the craft develop- the plant craftsmen are exhibited at both do- ment. Nowadays there are various painting mestic and foreign fairs. Nowadays the plant motives on Semenov spoons: rowan-berries, keeps the status of an artistic production and raspberries, cherries and golden leaves of is famous for its glass. The assortment of fanciful forms. The traditional motive – is a products is as follows: jugs, flagons (the twig with a bunch of berries in the midst of eminent ones with roosters and bouquets herbs or fantastic flowers. among them), tumblers, stemware, vases, etc. The Khokhloma. The name of the Excursions are organized to the plant. During painting comes from the village of Khok- an excursion one can get acquainted with the hloma in the Nizhny Novgorod Region. The production of colorless crystal and see the origin of the Khokhloma painting is referred entire technological process – from blowing- to 1659 – the time of the first records about out to packing. In the city of Gus-Khrustalny painted dishware [1]. The craft began from there is a museum of crystal. The collection the spoon business. In XVII century there of the museum contains the Gus Crystal were fairs held, where they traded with Plant’s specimen products beginning with the spoons and painted wooden dishware. The second part of XVIII century and up to the closeness of navigable rivers and trade routes present-day production specimens. helped the development of the craft. The The Palekh lacquered miniature. modern Kokhloma painting excels with the Palekh – is a village in the Ivanovo Region. combination of gold with red and black It appeared, according to the chronicles, be- (sometimes green) colors. The painting pat- fore XV century. Since XVII century the tern includes herbs, berries, fruits and birds. citizens of Palekh used to be famous as icon The floral pattern with red and black ele- painters. By the beginning of XX century the ments against the golden background is con- development of icon painting in Russia prac- sidered to be invented in the second part of tically passed away. In 1924 on the basis of XVIII century [8]. After the exhibition of ancient Russian icon painting traditions the 1889 held in Paris the turned dishware and “Workmen’s cooperative association of an- Semenov spoons became known to the whole cient painting” was organized. In the associa- world. In Germany a plant on the imitation of tion people occupied themselves with lac- Khokhloma cups, which only vaguely re- quered miniature painting on papier-mâché sembled the Khokhloma [6], was even built. articles. This art has retained up to our time. The secret of the Khokhloma “gold” – is in The painting is performed by tempera colors using the aluminum coating, which under the against the black (sometimes red) back-

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY ʋ3 2009 Historical sciences 67 ground. The shading – “incision” by gold or rich in clays and craftsmen, had become the whites is applied. The ornament is painted in supplier of the Tsar Yard. Peasants “zhgly” gold or silver and is the finishing element of (“burned”) the dishware, toys and ceramic the miniature. The Palekh miniature is called tiles. In the middle of XVIII century the fame “fairy”. Caskets, powder-boxes, brooches, of a big ceramic region producing artistic wall boards are painted on the topics of fairy- majolica with multicolored painting in the tales, Russian folk tales and songs. The most white ground came to Gzhel. Five colors popular motive is the Firebird – a favorite were used in the painting – yellow, green, character of Russian folk tales. In Palekh brown, wine-colored and blue. Fantastic there is the Museum of Palekh Art, which plants, cities and animals were depicted in contains a collection of lacquered miniature. the articles. Often the painting was comple- The Pavlov Posad shawls. From an- mented with stucco figures of humans, ani- cient times the shawl in Russia was a part of mals and birds. At the beginning of XIX cen- ladies’ wear. Peasant women weaved shawls, tury majolica gave the way to semifaience. decorated them with embroideries, stained The Gzhel porcelain with a traditional paint- patterns on them. Pavlov Posad is one of the ing – cobalt blue in the white ground, was oldest Russian textile centers. The first allu- created in the 50-s of XX century. In 1980-s sions about the shawls and wraps with bright the majolica renaissance started. Nowadays floral prints are referred to 1795. A real fame the Gzhel craft unites the big and small vil- came to the shawls in the second part of XIX lages located near Moscow and producing century. In 1854 in Pavlov Posad a shawl- both majolica and porcelain (the “Gzhel print factory was opened. Originally, the pat- Company”). A floral pattern is considered to terns were hand printed onto the shawl fabric be the Gzhel “trademark” one. Every article using wooden blocks. The design and color of is hand painted. Only cobalt paint is applied, the shawl depended on the carved picture of it becoming blue in color, when burnt. In print boards, where the pattern was printed some articles the “incision” by gold is used. onto the cloth from. Every color was printed The assortment is as follows: tea and coffee from a separate board. The number of boards sets, vases, bottles of 1,23 liter, caskets, achieved several tens. Since the end of 1950-s timepieces, lamps, etc. Excursions are organ- the handicraft techniques had been gradually ized to the shop floor. During the excursions substituted by printing machines. Nowadays one can get acquainted with the production at the Pavlov Posad Shawl Manufactory more traditions of the famous craft. Tourists are of- than 200 kinds of shawls, wraps and scarves fered not only to see the artists’ studios, visit have been produced. Luxurious floral bou- the museum and the company shop, but also quets with leaves prevail in the patterns. In the to drink tea from the Gzhel dishware. corners of the shawl there are big flowers, and The Vologda lacework. The Vologda the center contains small ones in the black, lace craft was formed at the turn of XVIII- champagne, green, red, navy blue and wine- XIX centuries. Before XIX century tatting colored ground. Natural fabrics – silk, wool, was a home art. In the 20-s of XIX century cotton, are used for the shawls production. On there was a lace manufactory, where bond- the shop floor there is a museum with a col- maids worked, was founded in the neighbor- lection of Pavlov Posad shawls and wraps. hood of Vologda. The lace craft of the The Gzhel porcelain. The origin of the Vlogda Province achieved its prosperity in word “gzhel” is connected with the verb the second part of XIX century. Thousands “zhech”(“burn”-“burn clay”). The first offi- of craftswomen were already occupied with cial allusion about Gzhel as the center of pot- tatting. The art of Vologda craftswomen was tery industry was recorded in the clerical marked out at many domestic and interna- document of Ivan Kalita, the Grand Duke, in tional exhibitions again and again. The Vo- 1339 [7]. Since that time Gzhel, the center logda Lace Company was awarded the high-

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY ʋ3 2009 68 HistoricalCONTENTS sciences est premium “Grand Prix” at the World Fair attribute of every Russian family. In 1956 the in Paris in 1937, the gold medal – at the production of electric samovars (tea-urns) Brussels Exhibition in 1958. The Vologda started in Tula. Since 1977 combined samo- lacework peculiarity (“Vologda manner”) is a vars uniting the operating principles of both clear division into a large expressive pattern coal-burning and electric samovars have been and a sheer airy background (grid). The pat- produced. And in 1964-1987 souvenir- terns consist of openwork rhombs, quadrates, samovars “Yasnaya Polyana” were being fans, ovals. Nowadays the Vologda lace made. It is a 56 times reduced copy of the (overlays, doilies, table-cloths, panels, etc.) is samovar in the memorial-estate of Lev Tol- tatted by both folk lacemakers and profes- stoy. Today coal and electric samovars are sional craftswomen of the “Snezhinka” produced in Tula. The business has no serial (“Snowflake”) factory. production. Usual nickel-plated samovars The Tula samovars. Among water- and painted ones (floral, natural, fairy mo- heating devices a special place is taken by tives) are made. The “Tula Samovars” Mu- the samovar – a Russian tea machine, as it seum opened in 1990 is located in Tula. The was called in Europe. Earlier not only water exposition of the museum puts up to the his- was boiled in samovars, but also food was tory of the origin and development of the cooked. In Tula the first samovar was made samovar craft. The museum can boast the by Nazar Lisitsyn in 1778. Soon Lisitsyn had oldest samovar of the Lisitsyns. followers. The closeness to Moscow, the The Orenburg woolen shawls. The availability of rich mineral deposits and first information about goat wool articles ap- skilled metal craftsmen aided Tula, the city peared in XVIII century. The Uralian Cos- of gunsmiths, to become the center of samo- sack women took on knitting from Kazakhs var production in XIX century. Samovars and Kalmyks using Russian lacy ornaments. were made of brass, copper, cupronickel, In 1862 an Orenburg craftswoman Maria sometimes they were gold- or silver-plated. Uskova was awarded a medal “For goat wool The samovar production proved to be remu- shawls” and a diploma at the World Fair in nerative. The handicraftsmen soon turned London. The Fair guests admired the white into manufacturers, workshops – into plants. open-worked gossamers, which found room The Tula samovar-makers excelled with in a goose- egg shell, easily got through a boundless invention. It is not for nothing that wedding ring, weighed 250-300 g and a proverb was shaped about them: “Give a warmed well. After closing of the Exhibition Tulavite a piece of metal and he will make a an English firm “Lipner” organized the en- miracle”. Since the second part of XIX cen- terprise “Imitation a la Orenburg” [7]. Little tury none of the exhibitions in Russia and by little the goat underwool shawls became abroad dispensed with samovars [11]. The very popular all over Europe. samovar was used not only at home, but was The Orenburg woolen shawl is so fa- taken on journeys. For this purpose traveling mous not only due to the knitters’ skill, but samovars were used. They were odd in shape the goat wool quality as well. In the 300 km (cubical, cylindrical) and convenient in distance eastwards of Orenburg the Gurerlin transportation (demountable stems were mountains are situated. The wool goats are screwed on, handles fitted to the wall). At the grazed there. There is a supposition that the end of XIX-beginning of XX century there wool goat got to the Orenburg neighborhood were various samovars different in their in- from the Himalaya through Kirghiz steppes tended purpose (coffeepot-samovars, travel- and found its place with the local population. ing samovars) and arrangement (coal- In true Orenburg shawls the woolen thread is burning, with kerosene furnace, demountable spun separately. Then backwards it is winded jug) produced. By the beginning of XX cen- up with a silk or very thin cotton thread. tury the samovar had become an inseparable Such a shawl gets fluffy in the course of

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY ʋ3 2009 Historical sciences 69 wearing little by little and the wool doesn’t enamel [7]. In the second part of XIX the spill. The shawls can be of two kinds – the Rostov craftsmen pictured portraits, Rostov “Orenburg” ones (made of gray wool with a panoramas temples’ and monasteries’ views plain middle and open-worked fringe) and in the enamel. After 1917 together with the “gossamers” (fine, open-worked, made of workmen’s cooperative association creation white or gray wool). To make one shawl it the Rostov artists developed the floral paint- takes a handicraftswoman about 250 hours. ing. The present-day craftsmen of the In the Orenburg Museum of Fine Arts one “Rostov enamel” plant decorate icon frames, can get acquainted with a collection of Oren- caskets, breastpins, bracelets, etc. with the gurg shawls. enamel. The enamel is often combined with The Dymkovo toy – is a traditional gold, gems and chasing. You can identify the Russian folk craft known from the end of Rostov enamel by ornamental floral compo- XVIII century. The craft originated in the sitions and landscapes. The “Rostov enamel” Dymkovo suburb (sloboda) at the edge of an plant product’s quality and genuineness war- old Russian city named Khlynov (Kirov ranty is its corporative trademark and a spe- now). The origin of the toy is connected with cial coating of the base backside with a spot- a folk festival called “whistler”. In spring ted blue color. Yarila – the god of sun and fertility – was The enumerated unofficial symbols do met with a gay whistle. The warbles and not comprise all the diversity of the folk whistle of clay pennywhistles specially pre- crafts’ production, which takes an important pared for the festival were heard all over the place in the export of Russia. In the territory whole suburb. The Dymkovo toy is molded of our country there are also other symbols, out of the local red clay, burned and covered which are though not that popular abroad. with a layer of chalk mixed in milk. On the Every region of the Russian Federation pos- whitening the painting in gouache mixed sesses a potential for the production of folk with an egg is performed [7]. The main col- crafts’ articles and souvenirs reflecting the ors are blue, yellow, orange, crimson red, region’s “identity”. They are the symbols of green and black. The traditional characters not only Russian folk art and native culture, are riders, mistresses, nurses, turkey cocks, but also a contribution of Russia to the world roosters. Every toy is an authorship work ex- cultural heritage. isting in a single copy. The craft has no serial References: production. 1. Yemelyanova T.I. Ornamental painting on The Rostov enamel. The Rostov wood. Golden Khokhloma. – M., 2001. 2. Ivanova Yu. Wonder-spoons from Semenov // enamel origin is not known for sure. Some Nauka i zhizn (Science and life), N7 – 1999. Kliyen- researchers connect its appearance with the tov A.E. Folk crafts – M., 2004. work of Jonah Sysoyevich the Metropolitan 3. Where have the Russian symbols got to? // Ar- who was busy with the Rostov Pontifical guments and facts, N 21 – 2006. House improvement at the end of XVII cen- 4. Osipov D.K. On the history of lapot in Russia // Nauka i zhizn (Science and life), N3 – 2007. tury. Others – with the rule of Joachim the 5. Pogosskaya A. Handicraftsmen at the World Archbishop who established a Greek-Latin Fair // Novoye slovo (New word), N10 - 1896. school in Rostov according to the edict of 6. Romanova A.F. Nonstandard classes. Geogra- Anna Ioanovna. Since 1760-s the first refer- phy. Russian folk crafts. – Volgograd, 2007. ences about the enamel workshop, which ex- 7. Slavina I. Native ornaments // Arguments and facts, N50 – 2008. isted up to the end of 1780-s, had been men- 8. Sobolovskaya O. Glamour in valenky // tioned in the Rostov Pontifical House inven- [email protected], February, 1 – 2007. tories. Church orders from the most diverse 9. Soloviyova L.N. The Matryoshka – M., 1997. cities of Russia were executed in the work- 10. Tikhonova A.S. Tula samovars // shop. The icon frames, crosses and covers of http://samovars.tula-oblast.ru. manuscript books were decorated with the

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY ʋ3 2009