Sierra De Atapuerca Archaeological Sites

PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 534 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

Carbonell, E.a,b,c; Huguet, R.b,a,c,*; Cáceres, I.a,b; Lorenzo, C.a,b,d; Mosquera, M.a,b; Ollé, A.b,a; Rodríguez, X.P.a,b; Saladié, P.b,a ; Vergès, J.M.b,a; García-Medrano, P.b; Rosell, J.a,b; Vallverdú, J.b,a,c; Carretero, J.M.e,d; Navazo, M.f,g; Ortega, A.I. g,h; Martinón-Torres, M.g; Morales, J.I.b,a; Allué; E.b,a; Aramburu, A.i; Canals, A.a,b,n, Carrancho,A.f; Castilla, M.e; Expósito, I.b,a; Fontanals, M.b,a; Francés, M.e; Galindo-Pellicena, M.d,j; García-Antón, D.a,b; García, N.d,j; Gracia, A.d,k; García, R.e; Gómez- Merino, G.b,a; Iriarte, E.e; Lombera- Hermida, A.b,a; López-Polín, L.b,a; Lozano, M.b,a; Made van der, J.l; Martínez, I.d,k ; Mateos, A.g; Pérez- Romero, A.e; Poza, E. d,j; Quam, R.m,d; Rodriguez-Hidalgo, A.b,a,n; Rodríguez, J. g Rodríguez, L.e; Santos, E.e,d; 6LHUUDGH$WDSXHUFD Terradillos, M.k; Bermúdez de Castro, J.M.g; Arsuaga, J.L.d,j DUFKDHRORJLFDOVLWHV

Introduction ducts which are interconnected by spaces and sinkholes, now hanging +90 m, +70 m and +60 Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain) is a mid- m above the present bed of the Arlanzón River altitude karst range characterised by the subter- (Ortega et al., 2013, 2014). Only 4.7 km of the ranean morphology concentrated on its south- western flank (San Vincente Hill, 1085 m asl). accessible ducts in this system are known at pre- This multilevel karst system, an inactive legacy of sent. Around 50 completely infilled cavities have old base levels formed during the Plio-Pleistocene, been identified (Ortega, 2009), some of which is linked to palaeo-upwelling of the Pico River. became exposed when a cutting for a mine rail- It consists of three main levels of sub-horizontal way line between Monterrubio de la Demand and

a Àrea de Prehistòria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Avinguda de Catalunya 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain. b Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES), C/ Marcel.lí Domingo s/n e Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), 43007 Tarragona, Spain. c. Unidad asociada al CSIC. Departamento de Paleobiología, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales. Calle José Gutierrez Abas- cal, 2. 28006 Madrid, Spain. d Centro Mixto UCM-ISCIII de Investigación sobre Evolución y Comportamiento Humanos, c/Monforte de Lemos, 5, 28029 Madrid, Spain. e Laboratorio de Evolución Humana (LEH), Dpto. de Ciencias Históricas y Geografía, Universidad de Burgos, Edificio I+D+i, Plaza Misael Bañuelos s/n, 09001 Burgos, Spain. f Área de Prehistoria. Dpto. de Ciencias Históricas y Geografía, Universidad de Burgos, Edificio I+D+i, Plaza Misael Bañuelos s/n, 09001 Burgos, Spain. g Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana (CENIEH), Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca, 09002 Burgos, Spain h Grupo Espeleológico Edelweiss, Excma, Diputación Provincial de Burgos, Paseo del Espolón s/n, 09071 Burgos, Spain i Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología, Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad del País Vasco/EHU, c/ Sarriena, s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain j Departamento de Paleontología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Avenida Complutense s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain. k Área de Paleontología, Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Spain. l Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN). Calle José Gutierrez Abascal, 2. 28006 Madrid, Spain. m. Department of Anthropology, Binghamton University (SUNY), Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, USA. n. Equipo Primeros Pobladores de Extremadura, Casa de la Cultura Rodríguez Moñino. Avda. Cervantes s/n, 10003 Cáceres, Spain * Corresponding autor: Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES), C/ Marcel.lí Domingo s/n e Cam- pus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), 43007 Tarragona, Spain. E-mail address: [email protected] CENTRAL PLATEAU 535

Figure 1. Location of Sierra de Atapuerca sites. Karst map based on original topography by Edelweiss Speleological Group, adapted from Ortega (2009). Green: top level of karst, purple: middle level, pink: bottom level.

Villafría was dug in the late 19th century (Ortega sites for more than thirty years. The excavations et al., 2012). Other cavities remained hidden, al- and subsequent analysis of several sites, both caves though in the course of hundreds of thousands of and open air campsites, have found evidence of oc- years, they have been visited by successive settlers cupations by hominins groups in different periods, in the Sierra de Atapuerca area. Apart from the from 1.3 million BP to less than 3,000 years ago. sites within the karst system, open air campsites Digs at Sierra de Atapuerca have focused on four with evidence of activity by human groups have different sectors: Trinchera del Ferrocarril, Cueva been recorded on the slopes and moors around Mayor, Cueva del Mirador and the open air karst this low mountain range. Sierra de Atapuerca and zone. Listed in chronological order of human oc- its occupations are one of Europe’s most impor- cupation, the cave sites are Sima del Elefante, Gran tant sources of ancient human fossils. They were Dolina, Galería, Sima de los Huesos, Portalón and declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in Mirador. The outdoor sites include Hotel Califor- 2000. In this chapter, we will review the research nia, Hundidero, Fuente Mudarra and Valle de las that has been underway at the Sierra de Atapuerca Orquídeas (Fig. 1). PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 536 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

Trinchera del Ferrocarril pit to determine the characteristics of the infill, its archaeological potential and a rough chronology As its name suggests, the Trinchera del Fer- for the sedimentary deposits. Systematic excava- rocarril (Railway Trench) is an artificial trench tion of the site began in 1996, and has continued dug during the construction of a mine railway. uninterrupted down to the present day across a 32 In plan, the trench is a 500 metre long arc run- m2 excavation area. ning N-S through the southern part of the Sier- The stratigraphic succession at Sima del Ele- ra. The primarily limestone walls of the cutting, fante is 15 m wide, with a 25 metre thick and with no more than 20 metres high, contain sectioned high degree of heterogeneity due to lateral and cavities which had been filled with sediment of vertical lithological changes. The sedimentary de- different origin. Three of these cavities –from posit is divided into 21 units, grouped in turn into three sedimentary phases. Phase I is the lowest in the sequence, from TE7 to TE14. Phase II contains units TE15 to TE19, inclusive. Finally, the most recent Phase III comprises Units TE20 and TE21 (Rosas et al., 2001, 2006) (Fig. 2). Palaeomagnetic analysis has detected polarity changes at the basis of unit TE17. Sediments below this unit from TE16 to TE7 have reversed polarity and have been assigned to the Matuyama subchron (> 780 ky) (Parés et al., 2006). This is consistent with the results from the analysis of the U/Th uranium series of a stalagmite sample in the TE16-TE17 contact area, which shows a chronology of more than 400,000 years. Analysis of cosmogenic cores shows that the age of sublevel TE9c in Sima del Elefante is 1.22 ± 0.16 Myr (Carbonell et al., 2008). These dates are consistent with biochronological data (Rofes and Cuenca-Bescós, 2006; Cuenca-Bescós and García 2007; García et al., 2008). On the basis of biochronological material, more recent units containing archaeo-palaeontological Figure 2. Stratigraphic section of Sima del Elefante. As- records of the site (TE18-TE19) have been attrib- terisk marks position of Matuyama-Brunhes inversion. uted to the second half of the Middle Pleistocene, Height in metres from Trinchera del Ferrocarril floor. Syn- around 250-350 ky (OIS 9-8) (Rosas et al., 2006, thetic stratigraphy shows location of U-Th and cosmogenic nuclide datings (Rosas et al., 2006; Carbonell et al., 2008). Lopez-García et al., 2011). However, uranium series (U/Th) analysis of a stalagmitic crust from the roof of level TE18 has yielded two datings, 307 ± 19 ky and 255 ± 12 ky (Bischoff pers. comm.). south to north Sima del Elefante, Gran Dolina These results suggest that level TE18 was formed and Galería– have been defined as archaeologi- during OIS 9 and 7, and that the chronology of cal sites. TE19 is more recent than 255,000 ky. Lower levels have yielded a rich faunal asso- Sima del Elefante ciation including small animals such as birds, lago- morphs and beavers, as well as medium and large The Sima del Elefante site is the southernmost sized animals (Sánchez Marco, 2004; Cuenca- cave in the Trinchera del Ferrocarril. The first Bescós and García, 2007; García et al., 2008; Van archaeo-palaeontological work here was in 1986 der Made, 2013) (Tab.1). The climatic and envi- under Prof. Emiliano Aguirre, consisting of a test ronmental reconstruction on the basis of faunal CENTRAL PLATEAU 537 analysis indicates that the landscape around Sima del Elefante through the lower sequence (Lower Pleistocene) included open habitats dominated by moist, wooded areas, large areas with permanent water (Rosas et al., 2006, Blain et al., 2010 ;). In the upper units, equids remains are predominant, although remains of other herbivores and carnivores have also been found (Rosas et al., 2001; Van der Made, et al., 2003, 2013. Cuenca-García and Bescós, 2007) (Tab.1). For these units, the suggested landscape is a moist forest with open spaces and possibly drier and colder conditions than the Lower Pleistocene units (Rosas et al., 2006; López-García et al., 2011). Evidence of human activity has been documented in the Middle Pleistocene units and also in the oldest units of Sima del Elefante. By 2013, 127 lithic artefacts had been located (Fig. 3). To date, 86 stone artefacts have been recovered from the Lower Pleistocene Phase I units (TE7-TE14). The main raw material is chert (72.1%) of both Cretaceous and Neogene origin. Three quartz objects and some artefacts in Cre- taceous limestone have also been found. All the raw materials could have been found within a 2 km radius of the site. The most represented cat- egories are related to knapped products (flakes and flake fragments). However, there is a signifi- Figure 3. Archaeo-palaentological material from Sima del cant percentatge (34.9%) indeterminable objects. Elefante. 1: Cleaver-like tool (Unit TE18, Sandstone). 2: Sandstone handaxe (Unit TEsup), 3: Quartzite point (TE- due to the poor preservation of the Neogene sup), 4: Retouched flake (sidescraper) of Neogene chert chert. Only four cores (one of them a core frag- (TE19), 5: Retouched flake (sidescraper) of Cretaceous ment) have been found amongst the Lower Pleis- chert (TE13), 6: Cretaceous chert core (TE9c), 7: Creta- tocene assemblage. These cores bear evidence of ceous chert flake (TE9c), 8: Cretaceous chert flake (knap- short knapping sequences, based on longitudinal ping debris) (TE9c), 9: Homo sp. mandible (TE9c), 10: Macromammal bone with evidence of fresh fracture (ar- removals. The knapped products have different rows) (TE9c), 11: Left, cut marked bovid vertebra (TE9c); morphologies but are generally small, averaging right, electron microscope detail of cut marked bovid man- 32 x 30 x 9 mm for complete flakes. We have also dible (TE9c)(Photos: A. Ollé/J.Mestre/R.Huguet/IPHES). found a few knapping products with centripetal removals. Retouched tools have only been found in units TE13 (n=3) and TE14 (n=1). These retouched flakes are slightly larger than the average non-retouched items, and have been classified as cations (cut marks and breakage). Most of the re- sidercrapers (n=2) and notches (n=2). In 2013, a mains with cut marks are from ungulates, specifi- chert flake was unearthed in unit TE8, the oldest cally deer and bison. We have also identified hu- evidence of human activity found to date in Ata- man activity on small animals such as birds, rabbits puerca. In the Lower Pleistocene units, no pebble and turtles (Blasco et al., 2011, Huguet, 2013). tools, handaxes or cleavers have been found. This These marks are found in all anatomical areas, assemblage has been assigned to Mode 1 (Car- from the appendicular skeleton through the axial bonell et al., 2008; Ollé et al., 2013). Some of skeleton to the skull. Some ungulate long bones the faunal remains (0.6%) from these lower units were fractured by hominins in order to access nu- (TE7-TE14) bear signs of anthropogenic modifi- tritional resources inside the bone. The distribu- PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 538 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

Equus cf. hydruntinus x x x x Capreolus priscus x x x Stephanorinus cf. hemioechus x x x x x x x Bison sp. (small) x x x x x Cervus elaphus priscus ssp. x x x x x x Equus ferus x x x x x x x Dama dama clactoniana ssp. x x x x x x Hemitragus bonali x x x Megaloceros solilhacus sspp. x x x Bison schoetensacki x x Praeovibos cf. priscus x Mammuthus sp. x cf. Cervidae indet. x x x x x Cervus elpahus cf. acoronatus x x x x x x Eucladoceros giulii x x x x Hippopotamus x x Stephanorhinus etruscus x x x x x x x x cf. cf. Sus scrofa x x cf. sp. Bison cf. voigtstedtensis x x x x x x x sp. sp. sp. Macaca x x x x x Equus altidens x cf. cf. x x x cf. x cf. cf. cf. cf. Dama vallonnetensis x x x x x x x x x x x Mustelidae indet. x Martes martes x Mestela putorius x x x x x Muestela nivalis x x x x Canidae indet. x x Cuon alpinus europaes x x x x Canis lupus x x x x Felis sylvestris x cf. x Panthera sp. x x Panthera leo sp. x x x x x x x Vulpes vulpes x x x x x x x x Ursus sp. x x x x x Hyaena sp. x x Ursus deningeri sp. cf. Lynx pardinus spelaeus x x x x Meles meles x x x x sp. Homoterium sp. x x Canis mosbachensis x x x x x Vulpes praeglacialis x x sp. sp. Crocuta crocuta x x x x x x ssp. Panthera gombaszoegensis x x x x x Mustela palerminea x sp. x x cf. Baranogale antiqua x x Lynx cf. issiodorensis x x x Lynx sp. x x x x x x cf. x x Pannonictis cf. nestii x Canis sp.(arnensis/mosbachensis) x x x x x x Vulpes cf.V. alopecoides x x x x Ursus dolinensis sp. sp. sp. x x x TE8 TE7 TE11 TE10 TE9 TD5 TD3- 4-5? TD3- TD4 TE14 TE13 TE12 TD6.1 TD6.2 TD6.3 TD8 TD7 TD10.2 TD10.3 SH GIIb GIIa TD10.1 TE19 GIII

Table 1. Stratigraphic distribution of carnivores, ungulates, sub-ungulates and primates at Atapuerca Pleistocene sites (from Rodríguez et al., 2011; van der Made, 2013). CENTRAL PLATEAU 539 tion and location of the cut marks and fractures methods involving a predetermined morphology indicate that human groups had different activi- of the products, such as Levallois or discoidal, for ties in the butchering chain. The identification of example. Most of the configured tools were found these activities shows that hominins had primary in unit TE19. The largest proportion of morpho- access to some of the animals that they consumed. types are sidescrapers and denticulates. There is The bird, rabbit and carnivore remains found in also a large unifacial pebble tool from TE18, with anatomic connection in the lower units of Sima a similar morphology to a cleaver. A sandstone del Elefante indicate an excellent state of conser- handaxe was found on TE Sup, as well as a point vation of the fossils found in this cave. However, and a cleaver, both knapped with quartzite. The macromammal remains are scarce and fragmen- lithic industry found on the Middle Pleistocene tary. If hominins had processed their prey inside levels has been tentatively ascribed to Mode 2 the cave, we would expect to find a large number (Acheulean). The faunal remains found in these of anatomical elements of their prey, but the ana- upper units have not been analyzed in depth due tomical representation of animals indicates oth- to the poor state of the material, although a pre- erwise. The faunal remains thus suggest that most liminary list of fauna has been drafted (Table 1). of the anatomical assemblage is the result of low However, Rosas et al., (2004) have presented sev- intensity occupations, possibly located near the eral working hypotheses concerning the origin of cave entrance (Huguet et al., 2007). the fossil assemblage in unit TE19, including the The units in Phase I of the sedimentary infill possibility that this unit acted as a trap for ani- generally have similar dynamics to the anthropic mals attracted by water or fresh grass. The pres- record recovered to date. However, special men- ence of the taxon Ursidae might be related to the tion must be made of level TE9c (1.22 ± 0.16 Ma). use of the cave for hibernation. At this level, in addition to indirect evidence of human presence, three hominin fossils were found: a mandible, a phalanx and a humerus fragment. Gran Dolina These remains were provisionally attributed to H. The Gran Dolina site (TD) is an 18 metre antecessor (Carbonell et al., 2008, Bermúdez de thick cave infill. Its stratigraphic succession was Castro et al., 2010a), however after a comparative morphological analysis of the mandible, Bermúdez initially divided into 11 units, TD1 to TD11 de Castro et al., (2011) concluded that its attri- from base to top (Gil and Hoyos, 1987; Parés bution to any known taxon is unclear, and thus and Pérez-González, 1999. Pérez-González suggested that it should be referred to as Homo sp. et al., 2001), which were later revised slightly Along with these human remains, faunal remains (Rodríguez et al., 2011) (Fig. 4). The first system- with signs of anthropic intervention and 33 stone atic archaeological excavations were carried out 2 objects were found. between 1981 and 1989 in a 30 m area on level TD10 level. Between 1990 and 1991, work fo- Units TE18-TE19 at this site (Middle Pleisto- cused on TD3-4, the earliest levels with evidence cene) have yielded 41 artefacts, the majority from of human activity. A 9 m2 test pit initiated in unit TE19 (n=36). Only one stone tool has been 1993 confirmed the presence of palaeontological found on TE18, along with four objects whose material at every level of Gran Dolina, except for exact origin is unknown, as they were taken from endo-karstic infills on TD1-2. the stratigraphic section in this part of the sequence. Middle Pleistocene material includes a The results of this test pit led to the start of considerable use of sandstone (39.3%) followed the horizontal excavation of Gran Dolina from by quartzite (34.1%) and Neogene chert (24.4%). 1996 onwards, which covered an area of more Knapped products, retouched flakes and ham- than 95 m2 (Fig. 5). In 2001, excavation began on merstones predominate in this lithic assemblage, a series of overhangs in the western part of this along with four cores. The predominant knap- site due to the threat of their collapse. This work ping strategies are unifacial and unidirectional, recovered material from levels TD4 to TD10. At but there is also evidence of centripetal knap- present, level TD10.3 (approx. 90 m2) is being ex- ping in some products. To date no evidence has cavated horizontally along with the overhang of been found on these levels of the use of knapping TD3-4 (approx. 8 m2). PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 540 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

The Lower Pleistocene record

Over 1,300 faunal remains of herbivores and carnivores (Table 1) have been recovered from unit TD3-4. Amongst the latter, the most frequent is the bear species Ursus dolinensis (García and Arsuaga, 2001). These animals used the cave regularly for hibernation, as evidenced by numerous remains and claw marks on the walls. Howev- er, this pit was a natural trap for ungulates which died when they fell in. Predator activity around these herbivore carcasses was uncommon. Some of the faunal remains show cut marks, and anthropogenic fractures suggest that human groups entered the cave to exploit the fallen ungulates and thus had primary access. Carnivore tooth marks have also been documented. Remains of felines (Panthera gombaszoegensis) and small dogs (Canis sp.) suggests that these predators may have been responsible for the tooth marks (Rosell, 1998; Huguet et al., 2013). A small collection of tools, primarily quartzite, has been recovered from this sedimentary deposit. The objects show simple working sequences, essentially reduced to obtain flakes from unipolar strategies and rough configuration of cobble choppers (Carbonell et al., 2001, Rodríguez, 2004). Unit TD5 shows different types of operation. The remains documented from this unit have different origins. On the one hand, carnivores were quite active. One of the most important taxa are hyaenids, which occupied the unit as a den, with documented remains of their prey and also some coprolites. In unit TD5, some of the remains Figure 4. a. Stratigraphic section of Gran Dolina. Asterisk marks position of Matuyama-Brunhes boundary. Height also arrived by gravitational processes (Huguet, in metres from Trinchera del Ferrocarril floor; b. Synthetic 2007; Saladié, 2009). In subunit TD6.3, remains stratigraphy shows location of TL, IRSL and ESR/UTh dat- of hyena (Crocuta crocuta) and their prey bearing ings, from Falguères et al., (1999); Berger et al., (2008) and numerous tooth marks and modifications during Falguères et al., (2013). Legend: (1) Mesozoic limestone digestion permit the inference that these animals from Gran Dolina roof; (2) speleothem (3) mudstone, clayey silt/terra rossa; (4) bat guano; (5) laminated silty used the site as a den (Fernández-Díaz, 2013). clay; (6) calcilutites and calcarenites; (7) gravel and cobbles In both units (TD5 and TD6.3) occupation by and clast flow (8) position of fallen cobbles; (9) principal hyaenids alternated with ursids, which used the stratigraphic discontinuity; (10) secondary discordance and cave to hibernate. Hominins also occupied the silt-sand-clay infill; (11) Matuyama-Brunhes boundary; cave, alternating with both carnivores to a lesser (12) disappearance of Mimomys savini and first appearance of Iberomys brecciensis; (13) Position of Aurora stratum; c, extent than at the next level up (Saladié, 2009, Palaeolatitude of virtual geomagnetic pole of Gran Dolina Fernández-Díaz, 2013). stratigraphic section. Each point is a mean Fisher direction of individual samples. The Matuyama-Brunhes boundary Subunit TD6.2 is the result of an anthro- is in stratigraphic unit TD7 (Parés and Pérez-González, pogenic assemblage where a large collection of 1999). Figure modified from Ollé et al., (2013). archaeo-palaeontological remains was found, including more than 180 hominin remains. Ther- moluminescence and simulated infrared luminescence dating for this assemblage is 960 ± 120 CENTRAL PLATEAU 541

Figure 5. Horizontal excavation of level TD10, 2007 dig (Photos: J. Mestre/IPHES). ky (Berger et al., 2008). Palaeoenvironmental eton with Homo sapiens (Carretero et al., 1999). and palaeoclimatic studies indicate that overall, Several features which were hitherto considered unit TD6 corresponded to a period with an in- typical and unique to the Neanderthal lineage terglacial climate, holartic vegetation and abun- have been identiﬁed in the TD6 human remains, dant resources (García Antón, 1998; Cuenca- including humerus (Bermudez de Castro et al., Bescós et al., 1999. Burjachs, 2002; Rodríguez 2012) and, more particularly, teething (Martinón- et al., 2011). Torres et al., 2006, 2007; Gomez-Robles et al., 2007, Martinón-Torres et al., 2007). Recent stud- The human remains found in unit TD6 at ies suggest that H. antecessor may be a European Gran Dolina were assigned to a newly described lineage of Asian origin, close to the divergence species, Homo antecessor, which was proposed point between H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis as the last common ancestor of modern humans (Martinón-Torres et al., 2007, 2011, , Bermúdez and Neanderthals (Bermúdez de Castro et al., de Castro and Martinón-Torres 2013). 1997). During the last decade, the TD6 human hypodigm has increased, permitting advances in Zooarchaeological analyses have detected fre- the taxonomic and phylogenetic characteriza- quent cut marks and anthropogenic bone break- tion of this species. H. antecessor has a number age on the remains found at this level (Fig. 6), in- of features suggesting its “modernity”, such as a dicating that the hominins who occupied TD6.2 cranial capacity of more than 1,000 cc, a mod- actively accessed the prey that they brought to ern tooth growth pattern (Bermúdez de Castro et Gran Dolina (Saladié et al., 2011). Remains of H. al., 2010b) and a modern face in both its aspect antecessor are amongst their prey. This is the old- and its growth forms (Bermúdez de Castro et al., est case of anthropogenic cannibalism known to 1997, Lacroix et al., 2013.). The TD6 hominins date (Fernández-Jalvo et al., 1996), which current also shared some features of the postcranial skel- stratigraphic evidence suggests took place over a PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 542 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

long time sequence (Carbonell et al., 2010). An- or other predators in the same ecological niche thropogenic modifications to H. antecessor and (Saladié et al., 2014). In this regard, Huguet et deer on level TD6.2 suggest that the butcher- al., (2013) propose that the groups of hominins ing process was the same for both taxa, and that which inhabited Sierra de Atapuerca during the the remains were also discarded on the floor of Lower Pleistocene had a high degree of control the habitat in the same way. In this context, the over their territory and its resources. consumption of infants and immature individuals Evidence of the stone tools in this assemblage was common. This age profile is similar to the one is much more representative numerically than associated with episodes of intergroup aggression the above-mentioned units (Fig. 7) (Carbonell et in chimpanzees. These parallels permit cannibal- al., 1999, Rodríguez, 2004, Ollé et al., 2013.). ism in TD6 to be linked to low-risk attacks on in- For the first time, there is a full range of suitable dividuals, possibly in order to defend and expand rocks for working in the Atapuerca area. Chert the resource provisioning territory against other -both Neogene and Cretaceous- is the predomi- neighbouring groups (Saladié et al., 2012). nant material, followed by quartzite, quartzaren- The H. antecessor remains also show certain ite, sandstone, quartz and limestone. A degree peculiarities, such as the lack of activity by car- of planning can be observed in the way these nivores and better preserved axial and brittle resources were managed, with all stages of the bones than the other animals in the assemblage. lithic production chains present (hammerstones, This feature seems related to the different types cores, flakes, retouched flakes and knapping de- of occupation that took place during the for- bris). The reduction strategies are varied (longitu- mation of TD6.2 and the episodes of cannibal- dinal unipolar, centripetal and occasionally bipo- ism. This investigation suggests that the Lower lar on anvil), and all seem to be aimed at the sys- Pleistocene hominins were at the top of the food tematic production of small and medium format chain and were able to control the competition artefacts. This is the first point in the Atapuerca that might arise from other groups of congeners sequence where retouch is used systematically to make tools in the form of denticulates, notches and, to a much lesser extent, sidescrapers. To date, the only evidence of large-format tools is a single sandstone chopper. Level TD7 marks a major shift in the dynamics of the cave. This level consists of limestone gravel, giving way laterally to silt. The action of water thus seems to mark the overall dynamics of the cave in this period. This level has only yielded remains of Stephanorhinus etruscus and Praeovi- bos in anatomical connection, suggesting that the natural trap in the roof of the cave was reacti- vated (Rosell and Blasco, 2009). The only lithic item recovered is a small quartz flake.

The Middle Pleistocene record Figure 6. a) Homo antecessor jaw with percussion stigma. b) H. antecessor proximal phalanx with cut marks. c) H. ante- In the Gran Dolina sedimentary succession, the cessor rib processed during corpse defleshing. d) Striations Matuyama-Brunhes palaeomagnetic boundary is on H. antecessor tibia fragment produced while Achilles located at the top of unit TD7 (Parés and Pérez- heel was being cut. e) Equine phalanx with cut marks produced during skinning. f) Deer radius with removals dur- González, 1995, 1999). The Middle Pleistocene ing fracturing to access bone marrow (Photos: P. Saladié/ archaeo-palanteological fossil record in Gran Do- IPHES). lina therefore consists of units TD8, TD8-9, TD9 and TD10. Each of these units has specific features which show that the cave was sometimes used by CENTRAL PLATEAU 543 carnivores as a den and in others, as a base for Preneandertal occupations. The palaeomagnetic data combined with ESR and uranium series situate unit TD8 at the be- ginning of the Middle Pleistocene, circa 600 ky BP (Falguères et al., 1999, 2013; Parés and Pérez- González, 1999). This unit contains a large, diverse range of ungulates and carnivores, predominantly fallow deer (Dama vallonnetensis) and occasional remains of carnivores (Table 1). The sample of fallow deer remains is characterized by the presence of appendicular and cranial items, with abundant carnivore tooth marks. They bear no signs of anthropogenic action and there is no lithic industry. According to Blasco et al., (2011) these features suggest that the primary agent in- volved in this accumulation of ungulates were hyaenids. However, several factors do not fully correlate with some of the features traditional- ly used to define these carnivores’ dens. In TD8 there are no immature carnivores, marks related to the final stages of carnivore consumption (e.g., intensive bone chewing, diaphyseal cylinders or hollowing), there is a low proportion of coprolites, an absence of an attritional mortality profile, and also many whole bones. According to Blasco et al., (2011), this variation in the composition of the assemblage from what might be expected in a den is because the assemblage in TD8 might not be the exclusive result of the cave’s use as a hyae- nid den, but rather the product of the combina- tion of several types of occupations, in the course of which it was occasionally accessed by other carnivores as well. Units TD8 and TD8/9 are cur- Figure 7. Lithic industry from TD4 (a-c) and TD6.2 (d-l). rently a hiatus in the presence of anthropic activ- a) quartzite unipolar core; b) quartzite flake; c) quartzite ity in Gran Dolina. This is the only section with chopper; d, e, f) quartzite flakes; g, h, i) retouched flakes no evidence of material culture, as four lithic in- (denticulates) in Cretaceous chert; j) quartzite retouched flake -refit of 2 items-; k) sandstone chopper; l) large Neo- dustry items have been found in the unit imme- gene chert core, with refit of 2 flakes (white flecks) (Photos diately above (TD9) (Ollé et al., 2013), making A. Ollé/IPHES). this the first unit in Gran Dolina with evidence of human activity in the Middle Pleistocene, dated by TL at 480 ± 130ka. TD10 has the largest accumulation of ar- items recovered to date. This density of material chaeological remains in the entire Atapuerca shows an intense occupation of Sierra de Atapu- complex. This unit is divided into 4 lithostrati- erca by Preneandertal groups. The high level of graphic sub-units, identified from base to top as activity by these hominins is confirmed by the TD10.4 to TD10.1. The top two units (TD10.1 different assemblages generated by occupations and TD10.2) are now fully excavated. Both with a similar chronology at the nearby Galería sub-units have yielded large concentrations of and Sima de los Huesos sites. Geochronologi- archaeo-palaeontological material, with approxi- cal tests of TD10 to date include a TL dating of mately 120,000 faunal remains and 35,000 lithic 430 ± 59 ky for the top of subunit TD10.3, and PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 544 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

a series of ESR/UTh datings including two for The technology of subunits TD10.2 and TD10.2 (418 ± 63 and 337 ± 51 ky), one for the TD10.1 is characterized by diverse, standardized base of TD10.1 (379 ± 57ka) and an average of operating sequences and tool configuration (Fig. 337 ± 29 ky for its top. However, a slightly dis- 8). Centripetal flake removal methods are pre- cordant average TL date (244 ± 26 ky) has also dominant, along with some hierarchical cores and been obtained for the lower part of unit TD10.2. a somewhat predetermined size and shape in the The archaeo-stratigraphic sequence ends with an products. The presence and degree of configura- archaeologically sterile unit (TD11) dated between tion of large standardized tools (handaxes and 240 ± 44 ky and 55 ± 14 ky (Falguères et al., cleavers) is less than the assemblage documented 1999. 2013, Berger et al., 2008). at the Galería site, and instead there is a high- er incidence of tools on small flakes which are moreover morphologically diverse and standardized. The rich archaeological level documented at TD10.1 could therefore reflect a local evolution from Mode 2 (Acheulean) to Mode 3 (Mouste- rian) in Sierra de Atapuerca. Finally, the top section of TD10.1 clearly shows a gradual decrease in the use of Gran Dolina. Technologically, it seems to follow the transitional trends identified in the rest of TD10.1. In fauna, TD10.2 is a clear case of special- ized hunting focused on the exploitation of bison (Bison sp.), as approximately 95% of the NISP (Number of Identified Specimens) and MNE (Minimum Number of Elements) correspond to these animals. In contrast, in sub-unit TD10.1 there is a broad spectrum of prey (Blas- co et al., 2013, Rodríguez-Hidalgo, in progress), with a predominance of ungulates such as deer and horses (Table 1) and also other animals such as small prey and a few carnivores (Blasco et al., 2010, 2013). The information gathered from the analysis of the sub-units in TD10 excavated in their entirety to date suggests a wide variety of preneandertals’ subsistence strategies at the end of the Acheulean.

Galería

The Galería site is 50 m south of Gran Dolina. It is divided into three sections: the central section (TG) linked to the north with a hall known as Co- vacha de los Zarpazos (TZ) and to the south with a vertical conduct known as Trinchera Norte (TN). Figure 8. Lithic industry from TD10. a) centripetal chert The first archaeological works at the Galería site core (TD10.2); b) unifacial centripetal core in quartzite began in 1976. Systematic, excavations were de- (TD10.1); c) large bifacial tool in sandstone (TD10-2); d) veloped from 1982 to 1995. From 2002 until small quartzite handaxe (TD10-1); e) quartzite double sidescraper (TD10-1); f) quartzite sidescraper (TD10-1); 2010 the works were focused on TZ. Since then, g) Cretaceous chert sidescraper (TD10-1); h) sandstone the excavations have focused on sector TG-TN. denticulate (TD10-1); i) Cretaceous chert denticulate; j) Nowadays, the excavation area affects to more quartzite point (TD10-1) (Photos: A.Ollé/IPHES). than 40m2. The sedimentary infill at Galería CENTRAL PLATEAU 545 consists of five lithostratigraphic units, identified dated at 118 +71/-49 ky and 200 ky by means of from bottom to top as GI to GV (Pérez-González uranium-series and ESR respectively (Grün and et al., 1995, 2001). Archaeologically sterile Unit Aguirre, 1987, Falguères et al., 2013). GI is the oldest, and consists of facies from the interior. Units GII and GIII are rich in lithic and Galería has provided important evidence of faunal remains. Units GIV and GV ultimately human occupation, with a rich Mode 2 or Acheu- clogged this cave. While the latter were initially lean lithic assemblage associated with abundant sterile, in the latest work phase GIV has yielded faunal remains (Ollé et al., 2005, 2013, Cáceres et over 100 items including stone tools and faunal al., 2010, Cuenca-Bescós et al., 2010, Rodríguez remains (Fig. 9). et al., 2011, García-Medrano et al., 2013). Two human fossils, a mandible and a skull fragments The Matuyama-Brunhes transition has been have been attributed to H. heidelbergensis (Ber- detected in GI, at the base of Galería (Pérez- múdez de Castro and Rosas, 1992; Arsuaga et al., González et al., 1999). TL, IRSL and ESR dat- 1999a). (Fig. 10). ings for units GII to GIV (Berger et al., 2008, Fal- guères et al., 2013) suggest that it was formed be- The lithic items in Galería were produced tween 500 and 250 ky. The speleothem that seals from 7 types of raw material, all found within unit GIV in the central sector of TG has been 2 to 5 km of the site (García-Antón et al., 2002.

Figure 9. Galería stratigraphic sequence, showing location of luminescence, ESR and Useries samples. Legend: 1) Upper Cretaceous limestones and dolomites (Galería cave wall); 2) Speleothems; 3) Limestone blocks and cobbles; 4) Main stratigraphic unconformities 5) Lateral facies variations, from clay loam to gravels (left side of ﬁgure) and from gravels to breccia (right); 6) Cut and ﬁll; 7) Limit of GII Unit layers; 8) Bat guano level; 9) Luminescence samples (Berger et al., 2008); 10) ESR samples (Falguères et al., 2013); 11) U/Th samples (Bischoff, published in Falguères et al., 2013); 12) U/ Th and ESR samples (Grün and Aguirre, 1987); 13) Matuyama-Bhrunes reversal (Pérez-González et al., 1999); 14) Soil; 15) Allostratigraphic levels; 16) Archaeopalaeontological levels. PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 546 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

Ollé et al., 2005, 2013, García-Medrano, 2011, García-Medrano et al., 2013, 2014; Terradillos, 2010; Terradillos and Rodríguez, 2012). The best represented exploitation methods are multipolar centripetal and unipolar longitudinal, reflected by products and cores. Also, other strategies such as multipolar orthogonal have been documented. Knapped products are the most common structural catergory. Large cutting tools are well represented, although the small and medium formats are predominant (scrapers, denticulate and tips) (Carbonell et al., 2001). In the earliest levels (GIIa), the large tools are mainly made on quartzite cobbles, while from GIIb onwards, the large tools are made on Neogene chert and sandstone flakes (García-Medrano, 2011, García- Medrano, et al., 2014). The main uses of the tools were for butchering, although work on hides and, to a lesser extent, plant material has also been identified (Márquez et al., 2001. Ollé, 2003). The majority of the faunal remains in Galería are from herbivores, with a major presence of deer, horses and, in smaller numbers, bovines and rhinoceros. Carnivore remains are scarce, (Rodríguez et al., 2011) (Table 1). Galería also has a good representation of mi- cromammals (Cuenca-Bescós et al., 2010) and birds (Sánchez Marco, 1999). The most part of herbivores anatomical repre- Figure 10. Above: General view of renewed Galería ex- sentation are axial and cranial elements, with few cavation (J.Mestre/IPHES). Centre (left to right: quartzite remains from the appendicular skeleton. These handaxe from TG07; quartzite cleaver from TN2B; quartz- skeletons are from 219 individuals of all ages, ite sidescraper from GSU11 (Photo: P. García-Medrano/A. Ollé/IPHES). Below (left to right): Long bone fragment of with a slightly greater abundance of immature medium-sized animal from GSU10 with cut marks inter- than adult and senile individuals. rupted by carnivore tooth marks; deer sacrum with carnivore tooth marks from TN6 (Photos: I. Cáceres/IPHES). These remains show abundant evidence of carnivore intervention (tooth marks) and less human intervention (cut marks and fractures). Nevertheless, the faunal association at Galería does not match the expected pattern of an as- García-Antón and Mosquera, 2007). Neogene semblage originated by hominins or carnivores. chert is most abundant, followed by quartzite The taphonomic features suggest that Galería and sandstone. Other material such as Creta- did not meet the environmental conditions ap- ceous chert, limestone, quartz and schist, have propriated to the establishment of human oc- a minority presence. The operative chains are cupations, nor was it used as a carnivore den highly fragmented and the knapping sequences (Cáceres et al., 2010). The origin of this accu- are mainly allochthonous. The knapping inside mulation was the vertical conduct in TN, which the cave was aimed to solve specific require- acted as a natural trap for herbivores. Fallen ani- ments, and was highly expeditious. Most of the mals attracted the attention of carnivores and artefacts were produced outside the cave (Mos- hominins alike to exploit these meat resources quera, 1995, Carbonell et al., 2001, Ollé, 2003; (Díez et al., 1999. Huguet et al., 2001. Cáceres, CENTRAL PLATEAU 547

Figure 11. Sima de los Huesos plan showing location of each excavation area (Arsuaga et al., 1997b).

2002; Cáceres et al., 2010). Carnivores, mainly ramp and the site itself. The former consists of canids, prioritized the in situ carcass consump- an approx. 10 metre long ramp on a 30 º slope tion, sometimes with secondary access to the which descends to a small chamber 5 metres carcasses left by the humans. On the other hand, below. The second part consists of a roughly hominins usually had a primary access and pro- 8 metre long by 3 metre wide chamber. Three cessed the animals in order to transport them stratigraphic test digs have been conducted on out from Galería in either skeletal segments in the ramp, named SRA (Sima Ramp Upper Test), the case of large animals or whole animals when SRM (Sima Ramp Middle Test) and SRB (Sima permitted by their weight. This type of strategy Ramp Bottom Test) (Fig. 11). Two excavation suggests that these preneandertals had a deep areas have been distinguished in Sima de los knowledge of the environment and a good plan- Huesos (Area A and Area B). ning and organizational capacity. The Sima de los Huesos stratigraphy has been studied by Arsuaga et al., (1997a), Bischoff et al., Cueva Mayor (2003, 2007) and Sala (2012) (Fig. 12). It is sum- marized in the following units or episodes, listed The entrance to the complex known as Cueva from bottom to top: Mayor-Cueva del Silo (Martín-Merino, 1981) is less than a kilometre from the Trinchera del Fer- rocarril sites. There have been several sedimentary Episode 1 inﬁll chronologies in this complex which have The lowest unit in Sima de los Huesos consists yielded archaeo-palaeontological remains. of a layer of clayey marl, observed at the base of the SRA, SRM, SRB and Sima de los Huesos stratigraphic sequences. In Sima de los Huesos, above Sima de los Huesos these marls there is a layer of water-borne sand The Sima de los Huesos site lies inside the and silt (Bischoff et al., 2007). Cueva Mayor-Cueva del Silo karst system (Ar- suaga et al., 1997a). Sima de los Huesos (SH) is Episode 2 roughly 500 metres from the entrance to Cue- va Mayor, at the bottom of a 13 metre verti- Consists of breccia and plastic clays of differ- cal shaft. There are two parts to this cave: the ent colour. This unit contains layers of sterile red PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 548 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

clay, clay breccia with bear and human bones, and nile individuals. The human representation from fossil-bearing yellowish brown clay breccia. These Sima de los Huesos includes every part of the are the levels where human remains were found skeleton (Arsuaga et al., 1997b). These fossils alongside carnivore remains. have been attributed to a single biological population inserted amongst the hominin ancestors of the Neanderthals, the species Homo heidelbergen- Episode 3 sis (Arsuaga et al., 1993, 1997b). The ﬁnal sedimentary unit consists of a spele- Morphologically, the fossils from Sima de othem on the ramp which covered the previous los Huesos exhibit many primitive features that deposits. Throughout the ramp, the speleothem are not present in Neanderthals (Arsuaga et al., is covered by a layer of dark brown clay up to 1993, 1997b). They also bear some derived Ne- 20 cm thick, which includes a dark layer of bat anderthal traits in the facial skeleton (Arsuaga et dung. Bischoff et al., (2003, 2007) conducted al., 1997b), teeth (Martinón-Torres et al., 2012) several SRA datings of the speleothems in Epi- and postcranial bones (Carretero et al., 1997; Ar- sode 3, which covers the entire fossil assemblage. suaga et al., 1999b, Bonmatí et al., 2010). Bischoff et al., (2007) estimated a minimum age of 530,000 years for the speleothem. New Mitochondrial DNA analysis of samples from analyses are currently underway to conﬁrm this a Sima de los Huesos H. heidelbergensis femur chronology and the stratigraphic relationship be- shows that this group of hominins is genetically tween the speleothem and the human fossils. closer to the Denisovan population that lived in Siberia 40,000 BP than the Neanderthals (Meyer Sima de los Huesos has yielded the world’s et al., 2013). largest and most comprehensive assemblage of human fossils from the Middle Pleistocene, with The current working hypothesis is that the approximately 5,000 items recovered to date Sima de los Huesos site was generated by a delib- from at least 28 individuals. Most are adolescents erate accumulation of corpses by other humans or young adults, with very few children or se- (Arsuaga et al., 1997a, Arsuaga and Martínez,

Figure 12. Stratigraphic diagram of Sima de los Huesos and stratigraphic column of Upper Sima Ramp (SRA) (Bischoff et al., 2007). CENTRAL PLATEAU 549

2004). Although the distribution of these indi- El Portalón viduals’ ages at death does not show the attritional profile expected of a cemetery, there are El Portalón is one of the current entrances to the Cueva Mayor-Cueva del Silo karst system, many feasible explanations for the deliberate ac- approx. 1040 m asl. It never became fully clogged cumulation of corpses with the age distribution by external sediment. The large, well-preserved found here (Arsuaga and Martínez, 2004). In stratigraphic sequence (over 9 metres) of this en- Sima de los Huesos, no herbivore remains have trance porch is an exceptional site for the study been found alongside the human and carnivore of recent prehistory (the last 10,000 years) as it fossils, and only one lithic item has been recov- documents a wide range of human activities dur- ered (Carbonell et al., 2003). Due to the unique ing this period. Almost nothing has been pub- context of this handaxe, Carbonell et al., (2003) lished about the excavations in the late 1960’s argue that this might be evidence of symbolic and 70’s. Fresh work by the Atapuerca Research behaviour in this Middle Pleistocene popula- Team in 2000 discovered a much broader strati- tion (Carbonel and Mosquera, 2006). In addition graphic sequence than the previously known to the human remains, Sima de los Huesos has strata, which has been divided into two major also yielded numerous remains of carnivores and sedimentary units (Fig. 13). The lower unit (Up- mammals (Cuenca-Bescós et al., 1997, Cuenca- per Pleistocene) contains a significant palaeonto- Bescós and García 2007, García et al., 1997, logical record but very few traces of human ac- García, 2003) (Tab.1). tivity in the form of small flakes. The upper unit

Figure 13: Stratigraphic column of Portalón South proﬁle showing radiocarbon dates and associated cultural periods (modiﬁed from Carretero et al., 2008). PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 550 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

(Holocene) has a homogeneous sediment with buried in a pit-like structure made from stones abundant evidence of material culture. Its hu- was found in 2012. Ceramic objects were placed man occupations are Medieval, Roman, Iron Age, around the head, chest, knees and feet, and a different stages of the Bronze Age, Chalcolithic, near-complete skeleton of an immature ungulate Neolithic and Mesolithic. The relevance of this lay at its foot. The excellent state of preserva- new sequence in Portalón is due to the paucity of tion facilitated the detailed study of the teeth information about the Upper Palaeolithic, Meso- and bones in the skull, face, arms and legs (Cas- lithic and Neolithic in inland Iberia, particularly tilla et al., 2014). Anthropological analysis has on the Northern Plateau (Carretero et al., 2008). revealed that this child might have suffered from both rickets and scurvy in at least two different Although Portalón occupations in the Middle periods of his/her short life. The signs of these Ages, the Roman Empire and the Iron Age were diseases on the teeth and bones identify the first sporadic, surprising material has been found, episode between the age of 18m months and 3 including an Almohad gold coin from the 13th years, precisely the period when children are be- century, the only one known is this region (Pé- ing weaned and start to add other food sources rez-Romero et al., 2010, 2013). The Bronze Age to breast milk. Abnormal curvature of the long occupation (2nd millennium BC) was intense, bones may be related to rickets at an age when with thousands of pottery shards from everyday the subject was still crawling or learning to walk. materials- plates, bowls, pots, large jars, cheese Other signs on the bones show a second episode containers and pitchers. Some of the items were at 4-5 years which cannot be linked to weaning. etched and decorated with great care, an indica- It might be related to a lack of vitamin C due to tion of the intentions and identity of the manu- a monotonous diet based on cereals and lack of facturer and the special nature of the ceramics, vitamin-rich food such as fruit and vegetables. probably related to prestige or ritual. There are Analysis of old DNA from human and animal also dozens of items in bone, antler and ivory remains found in Portalón is making a signifi- (Alday et al., 2011) used in everyday activities cant contribution to major scientific debates. A (spatulas, spoons, astonishing needles and awls) recent genetic analysis of adult human bones and personal or ritual adornments (buttons, from Portalón (Sverrisdóttir et al., 2014) has re- necklace beads of various types, awls with special vealed, much to our surprise, that these Bronze features, arrowheads and others). Polished, perfo- Age shepherds still lacked the genetic mutation rated shells have also been found amongst these which now allows us to properly digest milk lac- ornaments. There are many stone items manu- tose as adults, and thus use it as a source of calci- factured for agricultural purposes such as sickle um and vitamins. Since the current populations blades, grindstones, flakes, small cutters, polished on the Iberian Peninsula have a high frequency stone axes, loom weights and hammerstones for of this mutation, it follows that this trait was carving. Not many metal (bronze) items were probably selected very quickly in populations found, apart from some square headed punch- which did not have it. This study has allowed us es and a magnificent flat axe. The economy was to look a little further into the causes of selec- based on livestock grazing, agriculture, and to a tion of this adaptation, perhaps related to famine lesser degree hunting, hence the thousands of re- periods which were probably frequent in prehis- mains of domestic and wild animals (e.g. horse, tory. When crops failed, the heavy consumption cow, sheep, goat, dog, deer, pig wild boar, fox, of dairy products would have been a good alter- beaver, and a few birds) (Galindo-Pellicena et al., native, which may have led to episodes of strong 2014) (Fig. 14). natural selection for lactose tolerant individuals, During the Chalcolithic (3rd millennium i.e. people who could properly and comfortably BC), Portalón was used as a “Sanctuary” or bur- digest these products. Genetic analysis of cow re- ial ground for humans. The numerous large-for- mains from Portalón (Anderung et al., 2005) has mat stones in the cave were rearranged to form corroborated ancient contacts between the peo- burial mounds in which the corpses and ritual ples of North Africa and Iberia across the Strait objects were placed. Although many of these of Gibraltar. A typical mitochondrial genetic burials were later disturbed by Bronze Age peo- strain of African cattle (Haplotype T1), which ples, the intact body of a 6.5-7 year old child was thought to have arrived in Europe during CENTRAL PLATEAU 551

Figure 14. Examples of archaeological remains found on some of the Portalón levels. (Photos and montage L.E.H.).

the Muslim expansion in the 8th century, found will no doubt yield surprising results. At present, in an early Bronze Age cow from Portalón, shows information is only available from one test pit, that the arrival of this haplotype is much older which has nevertheless yielded a wide range of than previously thought, thus corroborating ar- typically Neolithic ceramic typologies with Bo- chaeological evidence of contact between the quique decorations, incised motifs ﬁlled with red two continents across the Strait in recent prehis- paste, bottles with conical bases and broad han- toric times at least. Remains from Portalón ini- dles, personal adornments including a ring and tially attributed to domestic cattle on the basis of two bracelets in marble, bone tools including an size and shape include one which contains Uro awl made from a deer metapodial, geometric im- (wild bull) DNA, which might also be evidence plements and ﬂint backed blades. that these animals were not only hunted but also Portalón’s large stratigraphic sequence and its that there was deliberate cross-breeding between long palaeontological and archaeological record wild and domestic animals. Genetic analysis of is also being used in major studies of the climate horse remains from Portalón has also contrib- and environmental patterns in the Upper Pleis- uted to the debate about possible local episodes tocene and Holocene (Ruiz-Zapata et al., 2003, of domestication of these animals on the Iberian López-García et al., 2010; Martínez-Caught et Peninsula (Lira et al., 2010). al., 2014), as well as geophysics and new ge- Although the Neolithic levels (IV-V millen- ochronology techniques applied to the archaeo- nium BC) are yet to be fully excavated, they logical record (Carrancho et al., 2013). PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 552 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

The abundance, richness and variety of mate- the cavities along Trinchera del Ferrocarril is yet rials from Portalón is indicative of the diversity to be confirmed. It is probably an old karst win- of activities and events that took place at this ex- dow filled by sediment which collapsed when the ceptional site during recent prehistory. (Fig. 15) slope retreated. Outside there is a rockfall of large blocks, indicating ongoing degradation of the lip until quite recently. In 1970, a small test pit dug El Mirador cave by the Edelweiss Caving Group (Ortega and Mar- tín, 2012) unearthed Bronze Age remains. This El Mirador cave (Ibeas de Juarros, Burgos) over- work was not continued, and the site was looted looks the southernmost flank of Sierra de Atapuer- by poachers in the following years. Excavation by ca at an altitude of 1,033 m asl, with commanding the Atapuerca Research Team began in 1999. In southerly views across the Arlanzón River valley. the following 9 years, a 20 metre deep test pit was The mouth of this karst cavity is now approxi- dug in a 6 m2 area in the centre of the zone now mately 23 m wide and 4 m high, penetrating some sheltered by the roof, in order to ascertain the ar- 15 m inwards. Its current shelter-like form is due chaeological potential of the site. In 2009, excava- to the collapse of part of the roof. It is part of the tion began in two new sectors, 100 and 200, at Sierra de Atapuerca karst system, although a pos- the NW and NE ends of the cave respectively, in sible connection to the Cueva Mayor system and contact with the current wall. These sectors are

Figure 15. General view of excavation on Portalón level 7/8 in 2012. (Photos J. Trueba/Madrid Scientiﬁc Films). CENTRAL PLATEAU 553 not being dug vertically but in steps, following the line of the cave roof. The main aim of this work is to document the inward retreat of the cave and also the stratigraphic variations between its different areas. The 20 m proﬁle explored in the 1999-2008 survey consists of 14 metres of Pleistocene deposits and 6 metres of Holocene material. The Pleis- tocene deposit (MIR51) has the following stratigraphic succession, listed from base to top (Fig. 16): MIR51/4. 12 metres of metric and decimetric blocks with virtually no sedimentary matrix in between. The result of the collapsed roof. MIR51/3. A shallow, archaeologically sterile level composed of wind-borne sediment, mainly lying on the limestone blocks. This level has been dated at 12,480 ± 40 BP (15,060-14,700 cal. BP 95%). MIR51/2. This centimetric deep level covers MIR51/2, and differs basically in its archaeological contents: remains of a hearth, lithic and fauna material along with evidence of human activity. It has two datings, 11,470 ± 40 BP (13,510-13,230 cal. Figure 16. El Mirador: cross-section of the Holocene se- BP 95%), and 11,610 ± 40 BP (13,640-13,360 cal. quence, south wall of test pit. 1 squares, 2: unit names, 3: BP 95%), from charcoal samples extracted from unit boundaries, 4: facies boundaries, 5: top of Pleistocene succession, 6: charcoal accumulations, 7: ash accumulation material burned in the hearth. (distinct facies), 8: ash layers, 9 burnt sediment (rubefac- MIR51/1. Roughly 2 metres deep, formed by tion); 10: limestone fragments, 11: potsherds; 12: lithic artefacts; 13: bones; 14: sub-current burrows; 15: ancient large blocks fallen from the roof. This level only burrows. contains palaeontological remains, mainly wolf.

A Holocene sedimentary layer rests directly on top of MIR51/1, four metres of which correspond to Neolithic occupations between the last third tivities and areas use as habitats. Intense livestock of the 6th millennium and the ﬁrst half of the 4th farming left a sedimentary layer, basically dung, cal BC11, MIR24 to MIR6 (Vergès et al., 2008), which was piled together and burned at regular while the remaining two metres are from the Mid- intervals in order to reduce the volume and elimi- dle Bronze Age, MIR4 and MIR3A (Vergès et al., nate parasites. This left an alternation between un- 2002), between the 2nd and 4th quarter of the 2nd burned layers of manure and nodules of ash from millennium cal BP. This part of the Bronze Age is burned dung, a feature of this type of site. also represented in sector 100 by levels MIR103 to MIR105. All these levels were essentially formed In the central test pit, archaeologically ster- as a result of the cave’s use as a livestock pen. They ile level MIR5 is only a few centimetres deep, contain items from domestic and agricultural ac- generated by natural sedimentation between the middle of the 4th millennium BC and the second quarter of the 2nd millennium cal BC. Burials from 1 The dates for the Pleistocene levels are shown in years BP, the same period as MIR5 have been found in sec- while those for the Holocene are presented in calibrated tors 100 and 200, in contact with the cave wall, years BC. This lack of uniformity reﬂects the annotation system used most frequently by researchers for each of the showing that in fact the cave was not abandoned periods. but rather transformed into a burial site. (Fig. 17). PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 554 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

The oldest evidence of burials has been The final stage of this site’s use as a burial dated at around the second quarter of the 3rd cave is marked by a single burial (MIR106) of a millennium cal BC, during the Chalcolithic. young male who was placed on one of the rock Remains of at least 22 individuals have been ledges inside the cave, contextualised chrono- identified (MIR203), laid in a small natural logically in the second quarter of the 2nd millen- chamber and accompanied by a small num- nium cal BC, i.e., the Middle Bronze Age. ber of objects: smooth hemispherical bowls, A large part of the cave roof collapsed in a fractured deer antlers and river shell valves. relatively short period, probably at the start of Cannibalism, probably of a ritual nature, has the Late Glacial. As a result, a 12 metre deep been documented in relation to this phase of level (minimum, since the excavation did not the cave’s use for burials in the final third of the reach the base) was deposited without time rd 3 millennium cal BC, i.e., at the start of the for exogenous sediment to become lodged be- Bronze Age. Skeletal remains of six individuals tween the rocks. We do not know whether bear evidence of having been defleshed, frac- it was connected to the outside prior to this tured, cooked and eaten (Cáceres et al., 2007). point, or whether the cave had been occupied. The remains were found in a small hole dug in Exogenous input of essentially wind-borne the middle Bronze Age levels (MIR4), indicating sediment began after this massive collapse, and that they were collected and buried hundreds of formed a level (MIR51/3) which covered the years after their death, once livestock farming layer of blocks. Upper/Late Magdalenian hunt- resumed here. er-gatherer groups established sites on top of

Figure 17. Upper left: aerial view of El Mirador cave (J.Mestre/IPHES). Upper right: stratigraphic section of Neolithic series. Lower left: ovicaprine remains in partial anatomic connection from level MIR-14. Lower right: Individual Bronze Age burial (MIR-106) (J.Vergès/IPHES). CENTRAL PLATEAU 555 this level (MIR51/2). Their occupations left a 2014) discovered 31 open air campsites. Dur- minor archaeological record, perhaps because of ing this work, 314 km2 were inspected around their brevity, and had no continuity. A new epi- the Trinchera del Ferrocarril sites to ascertain sode of rockfalls from the cave roof (MIR51/1) how Upper Pleistocene groups of hunters and covered these remains and left an uneven floor gatherers organized their daily lives. Once the with many gaps. From this point until the arrival campsites were discovered, the area and loca- of Neolithic settlers, the cave was occupied by tion of each one was analysed in depth to define wolves which used these gaps between the rocks those which contained archaeological material in as dens. a good state and analyse their stratigraphy. The most recent open air site in Sierra de Atapuerca, The first documented occupations of the cave Valle de las Orquídeas -Orchid Valley- (Mosquera by Neolithic groups were around the last third of et al., 2007) was excavated in 2000 and 2001. the 6th millennium cal BC. From the outset and In 2004, work commenced on the Hundidero site throughout the Neolithic (MIR24 to MIR6), it (HU) in 2004 (Navazo et al., 2011.), where up was repeatedly used as a habitat and a livestock to four different occupation levels were identi- pen, primarily for sheep and goats (Vergès et al., fied. In 2006 a test pit was excavated at another 2008). This dynamic continued until the middle site, Hotel California (HC) which ended in 2010 of the 4th millennium cal BC, with only varia- with five detected archaeological levels. Work is tions in the material culture, primarily ceramics. currently under way at Fuente Mudarra, where The use of El Mirador as a pen then ceased and three archaeological levels have been found so a period of apparent abandonment began. far. The data obtained to date show that Sierra Between the second quarter of the 3rd millen- de Atapuerca was occupied by groups of Pleis- nium and the second quarter of the 2nd millen- tocene hunter-gatherers from at least 70 ky until nium cal BC, El Mirador was used once again as to 27 ky BP. Datings from Hundidero are 70.556 a burial cave. Group burials, ritual cannibalism +11,011 BP (TL) for the oldest level and 30,221 and individual burials associated with different + 3,636 BP for the most recent (Benito-Calvo, et periods have been documented. Extensive ex- al., 2005). Middle Palaeolithic stone implements cavation will allow us to discover whether the have been found on each of the four archaeologi- differential treatment of the corpses and the cal levels, with more than 50 tools made from different types of burial reflect different funeral local raw material. (Fig. 18). traditions, or whether they evolved together. Hotel California datings (Arnold, et al., 2013) Immediately after the last documented buri- show that the oldest occupation in this area was al, the use of El Mirador as a pen resumed with around 71.0 ++5.6 ky and the most recent 48.2 exactly the same livestock handling features as ky +3.3 ky BP. A 24 m2 test pit –larger than Hun- the Neolithic period. This continued until at didero– was dug at this site, which obviously least the last quarter of the 2nd millennium cal yielded much more lithic material: up to 2,000 BC (Vergès et al., 2002), when the stratigraphic items, all manufactured from local raw material. succession was interrupted, most probably by Material from the first test pit at Fuente Mudarra the removal of sedimentary material from the in 2011 yielded datings which match the most cave. Decontextualized items point to the con- recent period at Hotel California. tinuation of human activity in the late Bronze As a result of the work done so far, we know and Iron Ages, and also most probably in historic that Neanderthal groups lived in Sierra de Atapu- times as well. In fact, the cave was still used by erca during Isotope stages 4 and 3. The chronol- shepherds in the 20th century. ogy of the assemblages under excavation in the Trinchera del Ferrocarril is older than the Nean- Open air sites derthal open air sites. This space should be interpreted as a large archaeological site in which The Upper Pleistocene in Sierra de Atapuer- each campsite is a location interrelated with the ca is well documented outside the above-men- rest, i.e., like a house with several rooms. Hunt- tioned caves. Archaeological surveys conducted er-gatherers controlled and occupied all the Si- between 1999 and 2003 (Navazo and Carbonell, erra environments. Sites have been found in the PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 556 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

Figure 18. View of Hundidero site during excavations (Photos: M. Navazo).

lowest-lying areas on river terraces, on hillsides these flakes have non-cortical, unifaceted platform and above, on the moors. It stands to reason that butts and non-cortical dorsal faces. Retouched different activities were done in each one, with flakes are larger than simple flakes, although both the hillsides most likely to have the greatest habi- are small-format. Denticulates are the best rep- tational stability. resented morphotype, followed by sidescrapers and many abrupts. A few more points and burins Local raw materials were used to make the stone tools (Navazo et al., 2008). The most wide- were found at sites on high ground than on ter- ly used material at Hundidero, Hotel California races, where more points were found. Orthogonal and Fuente Mudarra is overwhelmingly Neogene knapping was the predominant reduction system chert (generally more than 90% of all assemblag- in the case of pebble cores, and centripetal knap- es), followed by Cretaceous chert and quartzite. ping in the case of cores on flake. In general, there The sources of the Neogene chert were second- was little or no preparation of cores prior to the ary deposits in the Sierra. In fact, almost all the removal process, and little complexity in the knap- campsites around Sierra de Atapuerca are located ping strategies. The minimal presence or absence on secondary deposits of Neogene chert. of cortex on the butts and dorsal faces of items seems to be due to the type of raw material avail- The technological features observed at all three able at these locations. Since these were secondary sites show that the main aim was to manufacture deposits, the chert blocks were already broken and products through the reduction of a core. The in many cases lacked a patina. Moreover, the fact flakes were used directly or in the configuration of that the vast majority of butts were platform and series. The most widely employed structural cat- unifaceted seems to be due to the predominant egory is flake (BP), followed by retouched flake weight of the initial knapping sequences in these (BN2GC). Cores only outnumber retouched flakes assemblages. at 3 of the 31 sites. Typometric analysis shows a predominance of small-sized flakes (Bagolini, Visits to the Pleistocene settlements in this 1968). As with the retouched flakes, in most cases study area, located in all the geomorphological CENTRAL PLATEAU 557 units, coincided with the formation of terraces T9 an age of 27,507 ± 2,295 years BP and 29,955 (+19-30 m) to T12 (+8-10 m) (Pérez- González ± 2,319 years BP. Most of the items are in Cre- and Benito-Calvo, 2014). There were sites on taceous chert, which is found in the form of high ground, associated with sinkholes, on col- small nodules encrusted in the Sierra crevasses. luvions, river terraces and caves. This diversity Highlights include four quartzite hammerstones, shows that the campsites were chosen on basis of 56 cores, 44 retouched cores on flake and 158 the availability of basic subsistence resources, and simple flakes. Reduction was predominantly uni- that the groups adapted their movements to the facial centripetal, primarily aimed at producing distribution of food and other resources. The re- denticulates, notches and sidescrapers, although sources required for these groups’ survival were other curious discoveries include two denticulate animals, plants, stone and water. During the final points, two atypical scrapers, one possible burin third of the Upper Pleistocene, Atapuerca Nean- and two retouched blades. This industrial assem- derthals lived in an altitude range between 902 blage is technologically homogeneous and reflects and 1,086 m asl, where the climate was not ex- a typical Middle Palaeolithic technical undercur- cessively harsh, and exploited both the moors and rent, as well as some Upper Palaeolithic features. the river terraces. We have documented 15 sites Valle de las Orquídeas may well represent the on moors and upland zones, 12 on river terraces last of the stages in human evolution that has re- (some associated with ponds, etc.), and four on mained undiscovered in Sierra de Atapuerca: the hillsides (Fig. 19). Our analysis of the assemblag- cultural and biological transition between Nean- es suggests that all sites seem to have been visited derthals –the presumed occupants of the upper for short but recurrent periods of time, except for levels of Sima del Elefante and Galería de las the four sites on steep hillsides which may have Estatuas– and modern humans, the early settlers had a more stable occupation pattern. Several oc- of the stage represented by the Mirador and Por- cupation levels have been identified at the Hun- talón caves. didero and Hotel California campsites, corroborating their reoccupation during thousands of years. Most of these sites are spread across a large Conclusions area, which may be due to several factors. Firstly, the dynamics of the occupations, with repeatedly This chapter is an overview of more than visited sites. Secondly we must bear in mind the 30 years of research at the Sierra de Atapuerca disturbances to the assemblages caused by farm- sites. This work has proved the importance of ing practices. Experimental observations of dis- this large archaeological-palaeontological com- turbance by ploughing in the same area (Navazo plex for the study of human evolution, not only and Díez, 2008) have found that the surface area in Europe but also at the global scale. Europe’s of archaeological sites on tilled farmland tends to longest Pleistocene stratigraphic sequence has expand while the density of their archaeological been documented at two of the sites in the record decreases. They also completely lose their Trinchera del Ferrocarril, Sima del Elefante and spatial and stratigraphic matrix. Gran Dolina. The archaeo-palaeontological remains found at these sites deposits prove that Valle de las Orquídeas is an open air site from groups of hominins (Homo sp.) inhabited West- the end of the Upper Pleistocene (Mosquera et ern Europe at least 1.3 M years ago. The homi- al., 2007). It is located at the top of Sierra de nin remains found on more recent levels of the Atapuerca, south of Alto de Matagrande (1,078 Lower Pleistocene sequence (TD6.2) led to the m), at the head of a valley connected to a broad proposal and profiling of H. antecessor, a hu- exokarst formation somewhat like a sinkhole, man species which inhabited Western Europe with water at the base available to the wildlife at the end of the Lower Pleistocene. Analysis of and humans who inhabited this area. these human remains has also detected evidence During the 2000 and 2001 field seasons, we of the oldest known episode of cannibalism. A excavated an 18 m2 area which yielded 306 lithic Mode 1 lithic assemblage has been found in as- items associated with terra-rossa deposits (Fig. sociation with these H. antecesor remains, where 20). Two TL dating of this terra-rossa, the base the full range of workable lithic resources avail- of the analysed stratigraphic sequences, showed able in the Atapuerca area was used and, for the PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 558 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

Figure 19. Geomorphological map of the study area (1): Cambrian (metasandstones and slates); (2): Carboniferous (conglomerates, sandstones and slates); (3): Triassic (conglomerates and sandstones); (4): Lower Cretaceous (limestones and quartzite conglomerates); (5): Lower Cretaceous siliciclastic detritic sediments; (6): Upper Cretaceous (limestones and dolostones); (7): Middle Miocene sediments with quartzite conglomerates; (8): Middle Miocene limestone with chert nodules; (9): Lower Pleistocene terraces; (10): Middle Pleistocene terraces; (11): Upper Pleistocene terraces; (12): colluvial deposits; (13): cones; (14): ﬂoodplain and valley ﬂoor; (15): drainage network; (16): Palaeo-archaeological sites in Sierra de Atapuerca endokarst system [1. Gran Dolina, 2. Galería, 3. Sima del Elefante, 4. Cueva Mayor]; (17): sampling in primary chert outcrops; (18): archaeological occurrences. (From Navazo and Carbonell 2014; produced by A. Benito-Calvo).

ﬁrst time in the sequence of these sites, the sys- a high degree of control over their territory and tematic use of retouch in tool manufacture. The its resources. archaeological remains recovered from the various Lower Pleistocene levels at Atapuerca pro- After a gap in the evidence of human pres- vide evidence that the human groups from these ence –but not the palaeontological record–, a chronologies were active hunters, that they were new phase in the human occupation of the Si- at the top of the food chain and that they had erra began approx. 500,000 years ago, evidenced CENTRAL PLATEAU 559

Figure 20. El Valle de las Orquideas site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos). 1: Convex denticulate, 2: Épine 3: Possible burin. (Photo: EIA). in Galería, Sima de los Huesos and the upper erca by H. heidelbergensis-Preneandertal groups, section of Gran Dolina. The record from these a wide range of developed subsistence strategies, sites has proved essential for the study of the and good capacity for planning and organization, hominins (H.heidelbergensis-Preneandertals) who reﬂected in the features of their Mode 2-Acheu- inhabited Europe between 500 and 200 ky BP. lean lithic tools. Sima de los Huesos has yielded the world’s larg- Outside the karst caves, our work at Sierra de est, most extensive and complete collection of Atapuerca has made a signiﬁcant contribution to human fossils. These remains from a single popu- knowledge of the human groups which inhabited lation have provided the oldest genetic material the area during the Upper Pleistocene. Some of of a fossilized human species sequenced to date. these open air sites –Hundidero, Hotel California The presence of this population at the bottom and Fuente Mudarra– have provided information of Sima de los Huesos has been interpreted as a about the lives of the Neanderthals groups which deliberate accumulation of corpses by other hu- lived in the Sierra during Isotope stages 4 and 3. mans, and also as the oldest recorded symbolic Campsites have been found in low lying areas behaviour. The density of the material retrieved and river terraces, on hillsides and on moors, and from the sites in the Trinchera del Ferrocarril sug- it stands to reason that different activities were gests an intense occupation of Sierra de Atapu- done at each one, with the hillsides most likely PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS IN IBERIA AND THE GIBRALTAR STRAIT: 560 THE CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

to have had the greatest habitational stability. logical records from the Neolithic, Iron Age, Late At one of the open air campsites –Valle de las Roman Empire and the Middle Ages. Orquídeas–, some of the retrieved stone mate- The almost constant presence of human groups rial has been linked to the cultural and biologi- in this range of hills since the Lower Pleistocene cal transition between Neanderthals and modern (1.3 Ma) shows that the area has been a rich humans. source of resources necessary for the reproduction In recent decades, studies of the Portalón and and survival as groups of several hominin species Mirador sites have contributed important infor- which lived in and around Sierra de Atapuerca. mation about the human groups which inhabited the Sierra during the Holocene, due to the scarce information about the Mesolithic and Neolithic Acknowledgements on the Iberian Peninsula’s Northern Plateau or Meseta. We thank everyone who has collaborated in any capacity in the excavation and research work at the The archaeological record from both sites Sierra de Atapuerca sites. Our ﬁeldwork is funded (Portalón and Mirador) has shed light on the eve- by the Castilla-León Regional Government and ryday lives of the Bronze Age groups (2nd millen- the Atapuerca Foundation, and our research work nium BC) in this area. Their domestic chores and is supported by the Spanish Government’s Minis- agriculture and livestock-based livelihoods are re- try of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) ﬂected in the archaeological record and the use of under the “Sierra de Atapuerca V Pleistocene and the cave as a pen. During the Chalcolithic, both Holocene” Project CGL2012-38434-C03, as well caves began to be used as burial chambers. Canni- as by the Government of Catalonia, under projects balism, probably ritual, has been documented at SGR 2014-899; SGR 2014-901 and SGR 2014-900. the Mirador Cave, in connection with this burial J.I.M. has a pre-doctoral grant (FI) from the Govern- phase. Analysis of old DNA from Portalón has ment of Catalonia; A.H.L, M.G.P., M.T.B. and L.R. shown that the Bronze Age shepherds still lacked have all received pre-doctoral grants from the Ata- the necessary genetic mutation to properly digest puerca Foundation. A.R-H has a pre-doctoral grant lactose in milk. This site has also yielded archaeo- (FPI) from MINECO CGL2009-12703-C03-02).