UNDP GH SUSDEV AAP Climate Change Policy Briefs.Pdf

This is the Overview document for EPA’s series of 12 Policy Advice. They have been developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in taking the urgently needed decisions. Its development has been coordinated by Environ- PAS mental Protection Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Planning Commis- sion (NDPC) and National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and Agencies, and through the financial support of Unit- ed Nations Development Programme (UNDP) - Ghana. We would like to thank all the peo- 0 ple and instituitions who have contributed to the development of all the Policy Advice Se- ries.

Climate Change impacts: Why must Ghana worry?

1 Human activities, particularly, the burning of fuels , cutting down Box 1: UNFCCC Definition of Climate of forests and other agricultural activities (such as the application Change of fertilizer in addition to natural processes), release gases includ- The United Nations Framework Conversion ing Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O) on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines Cli- into the atmosphere. These gases, have the ability to trap the in- mate Change as a change of climate frared radiation (sun’s energy), which reflects in the form of tem- which is attributed directly or indirectly to perature. Continuation and exacerbation of the human activities human activity that alters the composition has added to these gases resulting in an increase of the earth’s of the global atmosphere and which is in surface temperature, sea level, precipitation, droughts and floods. addition to natural climate variability ob-

served over comparable time periods. Climatic happenings in Ghana Evidence abounds in Ghana that temperatures in all the ecological zones are rising, whereas rainfall levels have been generally reducing and patterns have increasingly becoming erratic. Ghana’s economy is heavily dependent on climate sensitive sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, tourism, forest sector, etc.. Some of the expected impacts are:

Agriculture: Based on a 20-year baseline climate observation, it is projected that yields of maize and other cereal crop will reduce by 7% by 2050. Despite limited irrigation facilities “agriculture is currently the biggest contributor to Ghana's GDP. But over the last decade its contribution has declined from 51% to 36% of GDP. As a result, the rural poor now account for almost three quarters of Ghanaians who live below the poverty line”(ABN, 07th Sept 2010). Increase in temperature, decrease in rainfall and its unpredictability is likely to jeopardize the employment of about 60% of the active population, the majority of whom are small scale rural farmers, resulting in unsustainable livelihoods with negative consequences for food insecurity, poverty, health, education, gender equality and environmental degradation.

Coastal Zone3 and resources: A sea-level rise of 2.1 mm per year over the last 30 years, is currently resulting in estimated erosion up to 3 metres every year. The data also indicates a rise of 5.8 cm, 16.5 cm and 34.5 cm by 2020, 2050 and 2080 respectively. It is not difficult to infer that by 2020 Ghana would be loosing up to 81.3 m every year and the coastline would have receded by 465 m of seaside land to erosion, resulting in a loss of 1,110 sq. km land, placing about 132,200 people at risk4. The east coast is particularly vulnerable to flooding and shoreline recession.

1. Fuels include coal, oil, gas and biomass (such as the plant and animal material as fuel) 2. The gases also have the ability to stay in the atmosphere for a long period of time hence compounding the heat trapping potential and causing global warming. 3. The land area up to the 3 metres contour line. It covers 7% of total land mass of Ghana (1984 National Census) and is home to 25% population. 4. This is based on the assumption that per centigrade sea level rise remains at the same ratio.

EPA Policy Advice Series Overview

International Conventions: If all this isn’t adequate reason to act, Ghana ratified the United Nations —- Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1995 and ac- ceded to the Kyoto Protocol in 2003, thus bringing both into full force for Ghana. By these international agreements, Ghana bound itself to meeting the obligations under the Convention and the Protocol.

It is not all doom and gloom. Our neighbour, Burkina Faso, has harsher geographical conditions and less water resources as compared to North- ern Ghana, and yet it tends to be comparatively greener, has higher qualitative and quantitative vegetable farming/produce, and a surplus of water. Other countries have also shown, that with a realistic assessment of potential impacts, which are then factored into national response strategies and plans, can lead not only to mitigating the full negative impact but Photo Courtesy: Ghana Business News also to unlocking new opportunities for growth as well as the sourcing of funding. Coastal zones in some of the south-eastern countries have converted the risks and challenges posed by sea level rise to irrigation intensive, traditional flood-plain cash crops (such as rice) into new opportunities (aquaculture, including for export).

Impacts of Climate Change in Ghana EPA, supported by UNDP Ghana, felt it of critical importance to explore the challenges and opportunities inherent in the inevitable Climate Change process. Supported by the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and NADMO, and in collaboration with a host of ministries, departments and agencies, it has commissioned a set of 12 Policy Advice Series on the impact of Climate Change based on the following themes (to begin with):

1. Climate Change and National Development Planning 2. Agriculture and Food Security 3. Disaster Risk Management 4. Coastal Zones and Resources 5. Education 6. Energy 7. Forestry and Bio-diversity 8. Health 9. Human settlement 10. Tourism 11. Transport 12. Water resources

These Policy Advice Series cover some of the key issues in each sector or theme and are not meant to be an exhaustive analysis for over-arching Climate Change-proofing. They are meant to be the start of advocacy. Inclusion of these issues for policy review, policy amendment results in new directions for actions in Ghana, thereby strengthening the on-going work in this direction in the country and providing an impetus to it. For further information, contact: Executive Director Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) P. O. Box M 326, Accra Ghana Email : [email protected] 2

This EPA Policy Advice Series This Policy Advice Series is part of a series of 12. They have been developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and No: 1 covers the crucial aspects appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the of relationship between National policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in Development Planning and Cli- taking the urgently needed decisions. Its development has PAS mate Change in Ghana. been coordinated by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Planning Commission The EPA Policy Advice Series Over- (NDPC) and National Disaster Management Organisation view PAS 0 gives the context and (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) and through the financial support of United 1 the background of Climate Change Nations Development Programme (UNDP) - Ghana. We would and disaster risks for Ghana and like to thank all the people and instituitions who have contribut- should be read first. ed to the development of this Policy Advice Series.

GHANA’S NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING,

CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION There is no doubt that the impacts of Climate Change are beginning to manifest on the entire globe and are particularly visible on developing countries, that are relatively vulnerable. Viewed to be far away from the immediate concerns of development, adaptation to Climate Change, which is fundamental for sustainable development, has until recently been considered a secondary issue in Ghana. Unless mechanisms are carefully and systematically put in place to ensure resilience in development and reduce vulnerability, Climate Change and climate variability may pose serious challenges to national development and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as well as the binding commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. Current efforts that are geared towards the minimisation of the impacts of Climate Change and disaster risks appear to be ad-hoc as they are mainly driven by emergency. They hardly consider the long-term rippling implications.

Accordingly, there is a need to properly plan and carefully adopt a development path that ensures climate resilience and integrates Climate Change (adaptation and mitigation) measures into all facets of national development planning and budgeting, particularly at the local level.

POVERTY INCIDENCE BY DISTRICTS

KASSENA NAN KAN I BON GO BAW KU EAST BAW KU Developmental context of Ghana W EST LAW R A BOLGATAN GA JIRAPA LAM BUSSIE SISSALA

BU ILSA Studies reveal that the harsher the climate (in other words, EAST MAM PRUSI NADOW LI the higher the temperature and the lower the rainfall), the WEST MAM PRUSI WA GU SHIEGU -KARAGA SABOBA- CHER EPON I

SAVELUGU - higher the incidence of poverty. In Ghana, the poverty level N ANT ON TOLON- KU MBUN GU

W EST increases as one moves from the Southern to Northern re- WEST GONJA DAGOMBA YEN DI BOLE ZABZU GU - gion (refer poverty incidence mapping as per administrative T ATALE NANU MBA regions on the right). There has been a remarkable decrease EAST GONJA

NKW ANTA in poverty, from 39.5 % in 1998/99 to 18.2 % in 2005/6, yet KINT AMPO

WEN CH I

Northern Regions and parts of Volta Region have substantial KR ACH I KAD JEBI JAMAN AT EBUBU SEN E

NKORANZ A TECH IMAN numbers of their population moving to the wetter south and BER EKUM EJUR A- SU NYANI SEKYEDU MASI JASIKAN

DORM AA SEKYERE EAST TANO SEKYERE W EST OF FINSO urban areas. Harsher climatic conditions are likely to worsen HOHOE ASU TU FI AFIGYA SEKYERE AH AFO AH AFO ANO ANO AF RAM PLAIN S N ORTH SOU TH ASAN TE AKIM KW ABR E NORT H ASU NAFO the poverty levels and exacerbate these movements. The KU MASI EJISU- METR O JUABEN KW AH U SOU TH KPAN DO BOSOM TW E HO JUABESO-BIA AT W IM A KW AN W OM A FANT EAKW A AM ANSIE W EST ASAN TE AM ANSIE EAST AKIM MANYA consequences result in creating open spaces and concen- SOUT H KR OBO BINH BIBIAN I AN HW IASO ASU OGYA EAST AKIM AKAT SI SEF W I W IAW SO BEKW AI YILO BIRIM NORT H KR OBO NORT H TONGU N EW KW AEBIBR EM KET U AD ANSI AD ANSI EAST JUABEN W EST SUH UM AKW APIM trating populations (especially in urban areas) where vulner- KRABOA SOU TH N OR TH T ONGU UPPER COALTAR DANGBE W EST DANGBE KET A BIREM SOUT H WEST AKIM AKW APIM WASSA-AMEN FI DENKYIR A EAST SOU TH AOW IN-SUAM AN TEMA ASIKUMA GA ASSIN OD OBEN ability to flooding, disease, poor water supply and sanitation AGON A EW U TU AC CR A BR AKW A TW IF U AF UTU M ETRO HEM AN SEN YA LOW ER AJUM AKO DENKYIR A ENYAN ESSIEM ABUR A GOM OA WASSA WEST MPOHOR ASEIBU is high. This creates challenges for urban planning and infra- W ASSA KW AM AN KESE EAST MFAN TSIM AN JOMOR O LEGEND KOM ENDA CAPE C OAST NZEM A EAST ED IN A EGUAF O ABIREM POV ER TY INC IDE NCE B Y DIS TRICTS SHAMA 8 - 2 5 AH ANT A EAST 26 - 40 structure. There is no sector which will not be affected di- 41 - 55 AH ANT A W EST 56 - 70 71 - 85 86 - 100 rectly or indirectly by Climate Change and populations will be N 25 0 25 50 75 100 Kilometers facing multifaceted challenges.

EPA Policy Advice Series No: 1 MDGS INTERRELATIONSHIPS MDG 3: Promote Gender Equality This implies that attainment of the Millennium MDG 1: Eradicate extreme MDG2: Achieve Universal Basic Education and Empower Women Poverty and Hunger Availability of water and energy sources. Poor women exposed to indoor air Development Goals will be seriously ham- Particularly, girls spend more hours gather pollution, burden of collecting fuel Continuous Degradation of ring water and firewood. wood and water, and unequal natural resources such as food, access to land and natural pered (for relationship between Climate medicinal plants, fuel wood etc. Burden of environmental health threats. resources and land degradation might lead Change and specific MDGs see diagram). to poverty

MDG 4: Reduce Child Mortality CLIMAE CHANGE / VARIABILITY Environmentally related diseases- MDG 8:Global Partnership •High Temperatures indoor and local air pollution, unsafe water, poor sanitation For Growth and Dev’t •Flooding Issues of unfair ToT, burden Critique of Current Policies •Storms of debt, and overexploitation •Sea level rise of environmental asset minimised through mutual Addressing Climate Change requires integra- collaboration. MDG 5: Improve Maternal Health Physical stresses associated with the tion of policies on economic development, ag- gathering of environmental resources such as firewood, good drinking water poses greater risk during pregnancy Food riculture, forestry, water, health, and energy, MDG 7: Ensuring MDG 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria availability, water quality, poor sanitation Environmental and other Diseases etc caused by environmental degradation Sustainability Environmental degradation might lead tend to affect maternal health. amongst others. It also requires efforts from to poor local economic Mishaps, rural-urban migration and overcrowding. These may lead to the community level up to the national level. HIV/AIDS etc. Increase in temp associated with climate change, poor sanitation conducive for vector Several measures have been put in place to multiplication. deal with the impacts of Climate Change, but these are hardly targeted at increasing reliance and are still perceived as reactionary. They do not effectively address impacts that are anticipated in the future.

There is evidence of the commitment of policy makers in Ghana to engage and deal with the Climate Change issue. However, efforts to ensure a climate-change-proof economy have not quite materialised. This perhaps could be due to inadequate capacity (both technically and financially) at all levels of the national development planning processes.

Ghana has played an internationally recognized role through the UNFCCC negotiations, particularly on technology transfer and, following the Climate Change Conference in Bali in December 2007, on adaptation financing mechanisms. However, while the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has played a critical leadership and championing role and there is broad commitment emerging at senior political levels, climate risk and the implications of Climate Change for vulnerability and development have yet to be fully appreciated by central government ministries. There is also not yet an adequate cross-sectoral approach to these issues, which have tended to be seen as sectoral environmental issues. To ensure effective integration, adaptation and mitigation measures need to be based upon an assessment of:

 The risks and degree of exposure to emerging climate variability and change hazards;  Costing for required response mechanisms; and  An enhanced inter-sectoral understanding of impacts and emerging responses that is anchored within the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MOFEP), Ministry Environment Science and Tech- nology (MEST) and the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC). Some responses require realignment in targeting and synergy across existing approaches, whereas others require changes in existing institutions, legislations, policies, and approaches.

Ghana has a number of sector budget support mechanisms, including one for Natural Resources and En- vironmental Governance (NREG). This includes Climate Change and targets development of a national adaptation strategy in 2009, and a national mitigation strategy in 2010. Through NREG there is a strong engagement with MoFEP, and emerging commitment at senior political levels. A zero draft National Cli- mate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS) has been accepted as a trigger for sector budget support by MoFEP under the NREG programme, underlining the need for the NCCAS to be completed without any further delay.

Despite these advances, a stronger policy dialogue is needed to establish a coherent policy in addition to institutional and regulatory framework that fully integrates Climate Change adaptation into planning and development. There is a need for clarification and systematisation of the national and sub-national institutional framework for coordinating Climate Change adaptation responses in an integrated fashion, and for involving civil society in a meaningful and structured manner. Ghana has yet to mobilise national sources of funding and to tap into global opportunities for financing for Climate Change adaptation. This relates back to a limited understanding and knowledge of the Climate Change impacts and how these will affect sectoral development, and consequently a limited ability to budget for adaptation actions. 2

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While Climate Change is expected to increase the incidence and severity of natural disasters in many regions, Ghana has yet to develop a comprehensive disaster reduction framework, for which key constraints include weak institutional capacity, low public awareness, and insufficient knowledge of the disaster risk profile. The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS) has identified the need for better weather forecasting, with early warning systems identified as a prerequisite for adaptation. In particular to predict and prevent the effects of floods, droughts and tropical cyclones, and to guide planting dates and predict disease and pest outbreaks.

There are a number of existing inter-sectoral processes and arrangements that can be used to enhance Climate Change mainstreaming. Adaptation initiatives, such as the NCCAS, are taking place at the national level but predominantly there are fragmented approaches to adaptation at the local level. While there may be many autonomous actions of communities and individuals that are adaptive in nature, specific adaptation projects are extremely limited. One example provided is the CIDA-funded CARE International ‘Community Land Use Responses to Climate Change in Northern Ghana’ (CLURCC) project, which aims to reduce the negative impact of desertification and Climate Change vulnerabilities on poor and vulnerable rural communities by improving capacity at district; NGO and community levels to mainstream vulnerability assessment; risk mitigation and adaptation strategies into planning and programming. UNDP Ghana efforts that are likely to have an adaptive outcome, although not specifically designed as Climate Change adaptation interventions, include a Sustainable Land Management project, and mainstreaming dryland issues into development planning, as well as a GEF Small Grants Programme (SGP) project. A number of JICA’s ongoing projects which are relevant to adaptation include:

 Water supply project at the community level in northern region;  Integrated agriculture development project in Upper West region;  Sustainable rice development project in Northern and Ashanti regions; and  Forestry project in Brong Ahafo region.

While a range of stakeholders have been involved in the development of the zero draft NCCAS, the need for more structured and systematic engagement of multiple stakeholders in policy dialogue and formulation has been identified. As Oxfam pointed out, globally the impacts of Climate Change will be felt disproportionately by women, because it will put more pressure on womens’ household roles, while at the same time depleting the natural resources that women in particular depend upon (Raworth, 2008). This highlights the need for renewed sustained efforts to assist women to adapt to possible climate impacts, including widening the scope of consultation to include women and their groups. While the Government of Ghana (GoG) has taken a number of policy and institutional measures to promote gender equality and there are strong active civil society organizations addressing the issue, a recent Human Development Re- port (HDR) disaggregated figures for income, literacy and enrolment that indicate the persistence of gender inequality. Failure to adequately tackle the gender/Climate Change nexus will result in an exacerbation of existing inequalities, reinforcing the disparity between women, men and their capacity to cope.

The laws establishing National Development Planning Commission (NDPC-Act 479 and 480) indicate that NDPC has a mandate to encourage inter-sectoral collaboration for the achievement of national goals and aspirations. Act 479, Section 2 (2) c states that `the Commission shall at the request of the President, Par- liament or on its own initiative, make proposals for the protection of natural and physical environment with a view to ensuring that development strategies and programmes are in conformity with sound environmental principles’. If the NDPC is expected to ensure inter-sectoral collaboration and equally, ensure sound environmental principles then there is every reason to work very closely with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); the Ministry responsible for Environment and all the other Ministries, Depart- ments and Agencies (MDAs). The establishment of inter-sectoral committees is a common phenomena at the national, regional and district levels but the functional linkages remain poor. The inter sectoral networks of EPA are not statutory and not linked to the Cross Sectoral Planning Groups (CSPGs) coordinated by the NDPC.

EPA Policy Advice Series No: 1

Policy Recommendations Statutorily, the structures for ensuring and enhancing inter-sectoral collaboration exist at all layers of national development. Increasingly and perhaps with the introduction of Strategic Environmental Assess- ment (SEA), environment mainstreaming has found expression in the national policy framework. What remains to be done is to ensure that the processes of mainstreaming Climate Change are normalized and well articulated at all the phases of the planning process - from policy formulation through to planning, budgeting and monitoring, and evaluation.

Practically, there are synergies and interrelationships which illustrates the diversity of the stakeholders, including governments, civil society, private sector and the poor (who must play specific roles in the quest for minimising the impacts of Climate Change,) and ultimately meet national development goals and aspirations.More specifically - we need to :

 Intensify the efforts to make national development planning (Sector, District and National Plans) more resilient and climate friendly. This will provide the basis for budgeting and the basis for the linkages between climate and national development.  Ensure a consistent, comprehensive and targeted approach to increasing climate resilience and decrease vulnerability of the populace.  Deepen awareness and sensitisation for the general populace, particularly policy makers, about the critical role of adaptation in national development efforts.  Strengthen collaboration and coordination at all facets of national development (national, regional and districts)  Explore partnerships between the media, telecommunication companies and the meteorological services in sending across early signals to citizens  Encourage the greening of and climate proofing the Sector and District Budgets to facilitate the greening of the National Budget.  Intensify capacity building awareness creation and an appreciation of Climate Change impacts.  Encourage active participation of Private Sector, Non Government Organisations and Civil Society Or- ganisations.  Resource and work through the inter-sectoral Networks/Committees, particularly at the decentralised levels.  Strengthen collaboration between NDPC / Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development / Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning / Ministry of Science and Technology (MEST) / EPA and other MDAs.

The success of inter-sectoral processes in fighting Climate Change risks depends to a large extent on an enhanced understanding and acceptance by policy makers, technocrats and all other stakeholders. They must be linked to the institutional structures (rules, procedures, regulations, norms, values and organisations) within the national development planning system. Climate Variability and Change issues are not just a part of, but are critical to national development and must not be treated in isolation. Paying less attention to the integration of climate variability and change issues into national development planning and budgeting processes in the long term could well mean that our own national development planning and poverty reduction strategies become an obstacle to Ghana’s success.

Material Referred: 1. Climate Change and the Ghanaian Economy Policy Advice Series Volume 1: Environmental Protection Agency August 2007. 2. Agyeman Bonsu et al (2008) Ghana Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessments, Environment Protection Agen- cy, Ghana. 3. Country Environmental Analysis Report of Ghana (2006) Draft Final Report, Retrieved July 2008 2010 from http//: www.delgha.ec.europa.eu.en/publications/Pub080207.pdf 4. Nelson et. al., 2010, Guidebook on Integrating Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction into National Development, Policies and Planning in Ghana, Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. 5. Angie Dazé, Climate Change and Poverty in Ghana December 2007, Regional Climate Change Coordinator, Southern and West Africa, CARE International. 6. Development Research on Globalisation Migration Poverty, How will Climate Shifts Affect Migration Trends? No12. 7. Nelson W A and Agbey S N D, 2005, Linkages between Poverty and Climate Change: Adaptation of the Poor in Ghana. A joint paper prepared for the Netherlands Climate Change Studies Assistance Programme June 2005. 8. United Nations Framework Conventions on Climate Change 1992. 4

This EPA Policy Advice Series This Policy Advice Series is part of a series of 12. They have been developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and No: 2 covers the crucial aspects appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the of impact on Agriculture as a policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in PAS consequence of Climate Change taking the urgently needed decisions. Its development has been in Ghana. coordinated by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and The EPA Policy Advice Series Over- National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) and view PAS 0 gives the context and the 2 through the financial support of United Nations Development background of Climate Change and Programme (UNDP) - Ghana. We would like to thank all the people disaster risks for Ghana and should and instituitions who have contributed to the development of this be read first. Policy Advice Series.

Can Ghana feed itself in the face of Climate Change impacts?

Agriculture contributes to the largest share of Ghana’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), with contributions between 35.8 and 37 percent since 2000. Agriculture also employs about 60% of the population and is predominantly practiced on smallholder, family operated farms using rudimentary technology. Unfortunately, the sector, until now, is still fraught with a number of challenges which make the economy vulnerable and sensitive to shocks in the sector. Irregular rainfall pattern is a feature of Climate Change with particularly damaging consequences, such as droughts and flood. These are predicted to get worse over time, occurring more frequently and leading to disasters such as the flooding in the Northern and Upper regions of Ghana in 2007, which led to the destruction of cultivated fields and the loss of harvested and stored commodities. Even though policy makers have formulated some policies seeking to address the challenges in the agricultural sector in Ghana, unfortunately, none of the six policy objectives of the Food and Agricultural Sector Development Plan (FASDEP II: to which all planning in the agricultural sector is aligned), seeks to address the challenges climate change impacts are causing. Until these policies are looked at again from a Climate Change perspective, this global phenomenon could impact adversely on food security, livelihoods and reduce the ability of the poor to adapt to the undulating supply of nutritious food. It is therefore imperative that adaptation measures such asex- panding irrigation, among others, not only for productivity gains, but also as Climate Change adaptation, be seriously considered.

Agriculture and Food Security in Ghana “Agriculture is currently the biggest contributor to Ghana's GDP. But An increase in temperature, decrease in rainfall, and its unpre- over the last decade, its contribution dictability, are likely to jeopardize the employment of about 60% has declined from 51% to 36% of of the active population of Ghana, the majority of whom are GDP. As a result, the rural poor now small scale rural farmers. Agriculture and food security are inter- account for almost three quarters of related and thus Climate Change induced unsustainable liveli- Ghanaians, who live below the pov- hoods will result in negative consequences on food security, poverty line” erty, health, education, gender equality and environmental degradation. ABN, 07th Sept 2010

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Despite its importance and contribution to GDP, growth in the Agricultural Sector has lagged behind other sectors of the economy. Agricultural output (including forestry and fishing) grew at a modest pace of 1- 2.7% between 1980-1997, reaching 5.3% by 1998. In 2003 Ghana signed the Maputo Declaration of Afri- can countries allocating 10 per cent of national budgetary resources to develop the agriculture sector. The spending on agricultural research and development (R&D) in Ghana doubled between 2000-2008, from 151 billion cedis to 352 billion cedis, but most went towards an increased outlay for salaries (75% to 83%)1 .

The Maputo Declaration target has been achieved in 2010 budget. If it matters, the amount spent as a percentage of Ghana's agricultural GDP, is one of the highest in West Africa2. Food security implies fundamental elements of availability of food, accessibility of food, nutrition and food safety. The ability of agriculture to fulfil this role is dependent on the performance of the sector in terms of productivity, which is supported by the use of technology and sustainable utilization of the natural resource base.

Agricultural production’s dependence on rainfall is a significant hindrance to the development of the sector in Ghana. Although an estimated 6,000 farm enterprises nation-wide were using some means of irrigation in 1999, by 2002, the total area under formal irrigation was still around 11,000 hectares whereas the potential area, including inland valleys that could be developed for irrigation, is estimated at 500,000 hectares. This indicates that the use of irrigation to counter the effects of poor rainfall is particularly low across the country. Agricultural yields are plummeting and will continue to do so. The cereal crop yield alone is predicted to plunge by 7% in the next 40 years. By 20093, “5% of the Ghanaian population, or 1.2 million people, had very limited access to sufficient and nutritious food for an active and healthy life” . Major challenges in the Agricultural sector  Low crop yields.  Over-dependence on inconsistent rainfall.  Unsustainable agricultural practices.  Low knowledge of and use of, technology and sustainable utilization of Photo Courtesy: ITC website the natural resource base, mostly due to the poverty levels among farmers.

Climate Change Impacts  Reduced soil fertility due to changes in precipitation and temperature.  Rainfall deficits resulting in desertification of grazing pastures and reduced water availability for animals.  Shifts in agro-ecological zones that are too rapid for trees and farming systems to adapt to.  Low yields caused by low rainfall or flooding.  Increased incidence of pest attacks resulting from an increase in temperature.  Manifestation of vector and vector-borne diseases.  Loss of cropland from erosion and desertification.  Increased demand for irrigation.  Coastal erosion and destruction of valuable coastal agricultural land.  Out-migration of people, especially to southern Ghana, with impact on national security Photo Courtesy: Ghana Business News

1. Kathleen Flaherty, George Owusu Essegbey, and Roland Asare, ASTI - CSIR Country Note 2010. 2. International Food Policy Research Institute. 3. Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis report (2009), World Food Programme. 2

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Traditional Strategies Recommended Strategies  Use of drought-tolerant and early maturing crops.  Improved training technologies like new  Agricultural diversification– livestock-crop integration, cultiva- crop mixtures and crop rotation. tion of more than two crops.  Planting improved varieties that are nu-  Cultivation of rice and other water loving crops in flood prone trient efficient and drought tolerant. areas.  Identify and design appropriate irriga-  Cultivation of indigenous crops. tion system.  Changes in land use – land use intensification, extension of farm-  Research and training on post-harvest ing on underutilized land, alley cropping, cropping moist valley technologies and establishment of bottoms. cottage industries for processing food  Shifts in timing of sowing/planting to meet early rains. crops.  Irrigation using shallow wells, slow drip irrigation etc..  Alternate livelihood development/off-  Integration of beneficial trees in farming practices. farm jobs, especially with quick returns.  Controlled use of chemical fertilizers.  Development of food insurance  Integrated pest control. schemes.  Rearing of more goats than sheep and cattle, as goats are easier  Marketing policies that encourage crop to feed. production.  Raising small livestock, i.e. guinea fowl, grass cutters.  Studies of farmer adaptations to land  Erosion control – bunding, ridges along contours, green belts degradation and adverse Climate and buffers. Change over a wider geographical  Soil and water conservation measures – composting, dynamic spread (so as to broaden the basis of kraaling. policy options in a broader range of eco-  Water harvesting. logical contexts).  Moisture conservation, notably mulching.  Integration of selected adaptation strat-  Change in diet. egies into policy and extension.  Alternative off-farm jobs, notable, legal small-scale gold mining.

Source: Ghana’s National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy

Critique of the Policy Options All planning in the agricultural sector is aligned with the FASDEP II (Food and Agriculture Sector Develop- ment Policy) which seeks to address the challenges of the agricultural sector. Agriculture is highly sensitive to temperature and rainfall. Ironically, impacts of Climate Change have not been factored in any of the six policy objec- Box 1: Six objectives of FASDEP II: tives (see Box 1). 1. Food security and emergency preparedness Food security (Objective 1) targets production as well as post 2. Improved Growth in incomes harvest losses, but does not account for the potential increase 3. Increased competitiveness and enhanced in vulnerability of the poor due to the unpredictable Climate integration into domestic and international Change conditions; markets 4. Sustainable management of land and envi- Sustainable Management of Land and Environment (Objective ronment 4) advocates the promotion of joint planning and implementa- 5. Science and technology applied in food and tion of programmes with relevant institutions to address envi- agriculture development ronmental issues in food and agriculture. However this does 6. Improved Institutional coordination not specifically target strategies to minimize the effects of Cli- mate Change. The government’s commitment to FASDEP II is reflected in the establishment of a buffer stock management agency responsible for holding food security buffer stocks and market interventions to ensure competitive prices for farmers. This intervention is critical as post harvest losses continue to bedevil the agriculture sector. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture estimates post harvest losses to be 20-50 percent for fruits, vegetables, roots and tubers; and about 20-30 percent for cereals and legumes. 3

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Ghana is also in the process of completing the formulation of the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of the FASDEP II. The SEA highlights the problem of Climate Change and agriculture, and suggests, that current projections on climate indicate that rising temperatures and decreasing rainfall will exacerbate drought and flood conditions as well as bushfires and pests.

Policy Recommendations From the critique of current policy options, the following actions are recommended:

 Policy makers should put into place agricultural diversification adaptation measures which include the development of drought resistant and pest resistant crop varieties.

 Strengthen FASDEP II objectives on emergency preparedness and irrigation.

 In the long term, use science and technology to develop drought tolerant, early yielding plus pest and disease resistant crop varieties.

 Introduce a shift in planting dates and cropping sequences to sustain production.

 Use new and hardened breeds of livestock that adapt well to the changing climate pattern.

 Most importantly, the policy recommendation which this brief puts forward is: expansion of irrigation schemes, not only to increase productivity and output as is currently portrayed in the Sector Plan, but also to mitigate drought and floods. This is a short to medium term adaptation measure which will check flooding as flood plains can be drained into irrigation dams.

 Climate Change is a global phenomenon and there are international negotiations for mitigation and adaptation measures. Hence there are additional opportunities of funding (such as the UNFCCC adaptation fund) to address Climate Change adaptation in agriculture beyond the existing agricultural financing . Under international negotiations on Climate Change, financing mechanisms are likely to focus on sector-wide programmatic approaches that demonstrate an ability to adapt Climate Change. There are discussions for financing that address the problem of inappropriate and changing land use, which releases soil carbon. Although these initiatives are still in the initial phase of discussion, Ghana needs to be informed and also position itself to benefit from these opportunities.

Under the current policy, agriculture is essential to transforming the Ghanaian economy. However, the largest impact of Climate Change will be felt in the area of food security if the necessary strategies are not put into place. As current yields are much lower than potential yields, the effect of Climate Change, on further decreasing yields of productive activities in the sector and the increasing vulnerability of the poor, should not be underestimated. More urgently, recommendations from the assessment of Climate Change impacts need to be quickly factored into the Sector Plan so that additional funding can be sourced for Cli- mate Change adaptation measures in the country.

Material Referred: 1.Agyeman-Bonsu et al. (2008) Ghana Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability, and Adaptation Assessments, Environmental Protection Agen- cy, Ghana

2.Boateng, I. (2008) Integrating sea-level rise adaptation into planning policies in the coastal zone. In Proceedings of the Federation of Inter- national Surveyors Working Week 2008: Integrating Generations *Stockholm, Sweden+. Retrieved July 28, 2010, from http://www.fig.net/ pub/fig2008/papers/ts03f/ts03f_03_boateng_2722.pdf

3.Boko, M.; Niang, I.; Nyong, A.; Vogel, C.; Githeko, A.; Medany, M.; Osman-Elasha, B.; Tabo and R.; Yanda, P. (2007) “Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability”, In Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental, by M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. Van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, 433-467. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4.Country Environmental Report of Ghana (2006) Draft Final Report, Retrieved July 28, 2010, from http://www.delgha.ec.europa.eu/en/ publications/Pub080207.pdf

5.Armah, A.K., Wiafe, G., and Kpelle, D.G. (2006) Sea-level rise and coastal biodiversity in West Africa: a case study from Ghana, In P. S. Low (Ed.), Climate Change and Africa, Cambridge University Press, New York

6.United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) (2004) Environmental Sensitivity Map for Coastal Areas of Ghana. Volume II - Coastal Environment UNDP-Accra.

This EPA Policy Advice Series This Policy Advice Series is part of a series of 12. They have been developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and apprecia- No:3 covers the crucial aspects tion of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy mak- of Disaster Risk Management as ers and senior technocrats and to support them in taking the ur- PAS a consequence of Climate gently needed decisions. Its development has been coordinated by Change impacts in Ghana. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), supported by National De- velopment Planning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster The EPA Policy Advice Series Over- Management Organisation (NADMO), in collaboration with the Minis- view PAS 0 gives the context and the tries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) and through the financial 3 support of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) - Gha- background of Climate Change and na. We would like to thank all those people and instituitions who Disaster Risks for Ghana and should have contributed to the development of this Policy Advice Series. be read first. CLIMATE CHANGE IN GHANA: DISASTER RISKS ARE AN INCREASING CONCERN FOR ALL

Weather events are strong determinants of the sustainability of water resources. Notable among these are droughts, dry spells, unreliable rainfall and excess runoff, including floods, which pose potential threats to sectors such as energy, health, agriculture and food security, forestry, housing and settlement, and transport. Development of early warning systems, planning and action, monitoring and evaluation, as well as adaptive management at the water resources level will help minimise high future economic and financial cost, and human insecurity. Yet, it is only highly committed policy frameworks and interventions that can control these challenges of the water resources sector. It is emerging as one of the greatest policy tests of our time in a cross-cutting sector.

Climate change related disasters in Ghana The impacts of changes in the climate in Ghana is resulting in a rise in The International Strategy for drought; flooding from heavy and incessant rains, rise in the sea level, Disaster Risk Reduction (ISDR), 2004) defines Risk Reduction as: and erosion. This has already led to a rise in death and poverty levels in many regions and communities in Ghana, resulting in a great loss of in- ‘the Systematic development and come, lives and property. application of policies, strategies and practices to minimize vulner- In 2009, for example, property lost from floods in the Southern part of abilities and disaster risks Ghana in June and July alone, was worth about US$ 5,813,954.7 and the throughout society, to avoid deaths were 23. After the massive devastation of the Northern Region (prevent) or to limit (mitigate and of Ghana by floods in 2007 (Table 1 ), the government of Ghana distrib- prepare) adverse impacts of hazards, within the broader context uted US$7.8m to enable a sustainable redevelopment in the region. of sustainable development’. This is in addition to the money the Ghanaian government has spent on rehabilitation after floods in 1999, 2001, 2008, 2009 and 2010. Direct emergency funding for the devastation in the three Northern Regions was US$25.1m (Table 2). Unfortunately, human activities such as: the destruction of forests and mangroves; sand mining on the coasts; improper planning of communities leading to a haphazard construction of houses; among others, have aggravated the impacts of climate change. One important issue that arises, is that vulnerable communities’ resilience to disasters has not been boosted - many of them are open to the vagaries of the climate, resulting in a severe effect on these communities from the impacts of the climate.

Source : NADMO

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Scale of recent disasters in Ghana

During disasters in Ghana, the poor, women, children, the elderly and disabled, are often the most vulnerable and therefore, the worst affected. The poor are forced to live in marginal, disaster –prone locations.

Out of the 18 per cent of the total population that lives in Table 1: 2007 NORTHERN FLOODS, GHANA extreme poverty, 54 per cent live in Northern Ghana. Pov- DAMAGE/LOSS VARIABLES QUANTUM erty is highest among peasant farmers. The land is exposed OF DAMAGE to land degradation and soil erosion. The population is Generally affected, including dis- 317,127 placed persons growing very fast, perhaps outstripping food supply and ex- No. of Deaths 61 acerbating the rural–urban exodus. No. of Houses affected (damaged, 25,923 collapsed washed away Table 2: DIRECT EMERGENCY FUNDING FOR 2007 DISASTER Bridges collapsed 13 RELIEF IN GHANA No. of feeder roads destroyed 70 BODY/ ORGANI- AREAS OF INTEREST AMOUNT Length of feeder roads destroyed 1,016 (km) SATION (US$M) Number of culverts damaged 442 Government General coordination of liveli- 5.4 No. of Major dams damaged 2 hoods, relief, restoration etc.

Bilateral Donors Capacity building emergency 7.4 No. of Irrigation dams/affected / 39 and UN System response destroyed World Bank and Emergency response and live- 11.0 Food destroyed 257,076 MT IFAD lihood restoration Farmland destroyed 97,244 HA NGOs/Faith- Emergency relief 0.9 Projected cereal production deficit 955,050 MT Based in 2008 Private Sector Emergency relief 0.1 No. of Schools with collapsed class- 69 rooms Total 25.1 Number of collapsed classrooms 199 Source : NADMO, UNDP Number of schools affected 210 Not enough is spent on prevention even though disasters No. of Health facilities damaged 45 have a huge impact on development. No. of Drinking water facilities/ 634 flooded/contaminated

Table 3: JUNE/JULY 2009 FLOODS DAMAGE (SOUTHERN GHANA) Source : NADMO, MOFA, GHA, GHS REGION NO. OF DEATHS ESTIMATED ESTIMATED VICTIMS COST (GH¢) COST (US$) Western 17,298 - 2,985,721 1,990,480.7 Central 5,299 10 1,213,947 809,298 Brong Ahafo 464 - 82,452 54,968

Volta 5,150 - 20.000 13,333.3 Ashanti 6,656 4 2,593,618 1,729,078.7 Eastern 1,946 1 47,980 31,986.7 Greater Ac- 15,616 8 1,777,214 1,184,809.3 cra TOTAL 51,965 23 8,720,932 5,813,954.7 Bridge washed away at Bawku Source : NADMO, OCHA What are we failing to address in our policies and responses?

The National Disaster Management Organisation’s (NADMO) Plan has a section for hydro-meteorological disasters, and it covers the three phases of disaster:

 Pre-disaster: risk assessment including hazard mapping, identifying communities at risk, location of safe havens and early warning systems.

 At the emergency phase (also called crisis stage): the National Contingency Plan is activated for specific actions to save life and property.

 The post-disaster phase: is for the restoration of essential services and reconstruction. 2

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The NADMO plan recommends some projects:  Each member of the community is aware of his/ drainage master plan and the updating of such her responsibilities in an emergency situation. plans; flood-plain management (which is the pro- Communities must be involved in disaster prepa- cess of minimizing property damage); and, reduc- ration because they are the real sufferers and ing the threat to human lives. automatically must be the first responders.

Besides this, the concept of disaster risk reduc- NADMO’s core business is to sensitize and edu- tion aims at connecting with the vulnerabilities of cate the general public on the dos and don’ts of the affected populace, and should consist of: floods through the mass media. However, given

 Improved environmental management. the fact that only 52% of the Ghanaian Populace  Effective early warning systems – communica- can read and write, it is a herculean task. The tion and awareness raising about hazard numerical strength on NADMO cannot enable it threats. to reach a large population through outreach  programmes. Structural interventions – for example the maintenance of wetlands in flood plains. Floods continue to wreck havoc in Accra because  Building Resilience - promotion of risk aware- of lack of preparation. The Government is fixated ness through education at all levels. with the top-down approach, where devastation

Disaster risk reduction is most effective at the and destruction occur before action is directed community level where specific local needs can from above. Such actions usually result in failure. be met. The Community Based Disaster Prepar- Disaster Reduction activities should be based on edness (CBDP) aims at the following: participatory approaches involving local commu-  The community should be made well aware of nities as much as possible. Solution is sustainable the risk they are living with. if it comes from people themselves by a bottom-  They must possess the necessary know-how to up approach. deal with the impending disasters.  Communities must have a well laid down plan of action/list of activities, which they should follow to prevent the repercussions of a disaster. Reducing disaster risks through correct policy orientation

In order for us to awaken to the already high and increasing levels of disasters unleashed on Ghana, and factor the possibility of an increasing risk due to climate change, we need to urgently adopt:

 EARLY WARNING: Through timely warnings and climate forecasts, the local people can be enabled to respond quickly and protect themselves, their crops, habitat and livestock in cases of floods. The Mete- orological Services Agency should be supported with modern equipment for forecasts because of present inadequate budgetary support. There should be technical cooperation between Ghana’s Meteoro- logical Agency and sister countries.

 COMMUNITY DISASTER EDUCATION:- NADMO’s educational programmes have not been very effective because of the top–down approach employed so far. Focus has always been on awareness and preparedness levels and to build community competencies to help minimize the impacts of flooding and give post flood warnings. However, there is a need for NADMO to intensify public sen- sitization on disaster through active participation of the print, electronic media, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Fire Services, District Assemblies, Civil Society Organisations, Faith Based Organisations etc. and through public durbars. Local flood Ex-President Kufour addressing some flood victims education committees are recommended to be set up in order to achieve resilient response. 3

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 VOLUNTEERS: There is urgent need to strengthen the frontline role of Disaster Volunteer Groups established by NADMO in the districts, to reduce vulnerability and enhance community safety. They need to be supported in specific activities such as: building dykes; clearance and construction of flood pathways; filling sand bags; and, Search And Rescue by those trained in it.

 VOLUNTEER FUND: There is thus the need for a Dedicated Fund which will provide logistics for volunteers and also their up-keep. NADMO should be strengthened with the release of required financial resources.

 NATIONAL CONTINGENCY PLAN: NADMO has a Contingency Plan for disasters. The overall objective of the plan is ‘to support the Government in mounting a timely, consistent, effective and coordinated response to minimize the humanitarian consequences of disasters on the population’. Each co-ordinating organisation must be prepared to deliver its specific role, which needs to be elaborated, planned and resourced.

Way Forward

Climate change and Disaster Risk Reduction are not one person’s headache. Everyone has to be involved – men, women, children, governments, civil society organisations etc. in the preparedness planning. NAD- MO has launched the National and Regional Platforms for Disaster Risk Reduction which needs to be supported by all. We cannot halt climate change, but we can work together to mitigate its effects!

Source : NADMO Material Referred: 1. Meteoworld, No.1 (2005) 2. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management. Vol. 23. No.2, May 2008 3. National Contingency Plan Ghana (NADMO) – July 2008 4. The Spectator - Saturday July 18, 2009. P.13 (living with floods – Francis Ocansey) 5. ISDR (2003) – living with Risk. 6. Photos courtesy Ghanaweb.

This Policy Brief is part of a series of 12 briefs. They have been developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and appre- This EPA Policy Brief No: 4 ciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy covers the crucial aspects of makers and senior technocrats and to support them in taking PAS rise in sea level as conse- the urgently needed decisions. Its development has been coordinated by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), supported quence of Climate Change by National Development Planning Commission and NADMO (in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and Agencies) 4 The Policy Brief Overview gives and through the financial support of UNDP - Ghana. We would the context and the background like to thank all those people and instituitions who have contrib- of Climate Change and Disaster uted to the development of this Policy Brief.

SEA LEVEL RISE - A PERIL TO GHANA’S COAST LINE ?

Coastal ecosystems are among the most productive systems in the world. Predictions of sea level rise as a result of global warming may pose risks to many coastal habitats spanning from terrestrial margins across brackish systems to marine inter-tidal areas. With a quarter of the Ghana’s population living below the 30 meter level, an estimated sea level rise of 1 meter by 2100 could inundate 1,120 square kilo- metres of land. Erosion, submergence and salinity increases will lead to the loss of economic, ecological, cultural and subsistence values through loss of land, infrastructure and coastal habitats.

There are currently no national legislations that specifically target issues of the coastal zone. Existing environmental management policies have been inadequate due to low budgets and poor enforcement capacity. Climate Change, however, provides an opportunity for the nation to improve its path towards sustainable development, by redefining its development strategies and taking advantage of existing support systems. Policy makers need to mainstream Climate Change vulnerabilities and adaptation considerations into development plans and country policies. A well defined Integrated Coastal Zone Manage- ment (ICZM) plan will also increase participation in the decision-making process and strengthen institutions in the coastal zone.

Context of Climate Change in Ghana The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007), has confirmed that in the 21st century, global warming would be more intense in Africa than in the rest of the world. As global average sea levels are affected by increases in global mean sea surface temperatures, there will be increases in ocean volume.

In Ghana, climate change scenarios based on the forty-year observed data, predict an average sea level rise of 5.8cm, 16.5cm and 34.5cm by 2020, 2050 and 2080 respectively. The Ghanaian coastline is 550 km long and generally covers a low lying area of 30 m above sea level. This zone occupies about 6.5% of Ghana and is home to about 25% of the population. Already, at the current sea level, the Keta area (East Coast) is In- experiencing an annual coastal erosion rate creasing change in the sea level (IPCC, 2007) of 3 meters.

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Importance of coastal zone and resources The coastal zone is well endowed with resources (fisheries, agriculture, aquaculture, transportation, salt production, oil and gas, sand and stone winning, tourism and recreation, ports, harbours, and industrial developments) which are exploited by different sectors of the economy. The coastal fisheries and wetlands resources provide a critical source of food security in Ghana. About 10 percent of the population depends on coastal fishery for livelihood, with 65% of all fish production consumed locally at an approximate per capita rate of 25 kg/year. Fish is the country’s most important non- traditional export, providing US$95 million in exports in Fishing village near Keta (Photo Courtesy: World Bank) 2003.

The lagoon, estuary and delta ecosystems provide suitable environments for shellfish and fish breeding, as well as feeding, roosting and resting sites for local and migratory birds and marine turtles. The coast also supports mangroves, an important ecosystem.

Mangroves along the Western Region Beach front on the Eastern Coast

Impacts of Climate Change While Africa produces less than 4% of greenhouse gas emissions, it is considered the world’s most vulnerable region with regard to the effects of Climate Change. Vulnerability is high due to social, economic, and environmental conditions that magnify susceptibility to negative impacts and contribute to low capacity to cope with and adapt to climate hazards.

In Ghana, Climate Change impacts include:

 Sea level rise: global warming causes polar glacial melt which leads to inundation of low lying coastal areas.

 Erosion: loss of coastal sediments has already caused up to 3 meters per annum along Ghana’s eastern coastline.

 Salinity: with encroaching sea level, salinity of agricultural land, lagoons, estuaries and aquifers increase.

Keta Beach (Photo Courtesy: www.celsias.com)  Raised coastal water tables.

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Policy Analysis and Critique

There is no specific policy for the coastal zone and Current issues along the Ghanaian coast: resources in Ghana, however, a number of Environ- mental related Policies exist. The main thrust and  Declining catch of coastal fishes due to unsustainable fishing management. orientation of national policies on the protection, management and development of the coastal envi-  Anthropogenic activities that have destroyed ronment is based on the following three major areas: coastal wetlands that provide spawning and nursery grounds for many key species. Wetlands 1. Integrated coastal zone management and sustain- depletion has occurred at an average rate of able development. 6,000 hectares per year from 1990 to 2000.

2. Marine environmental protection, both from land-  Serious erosion problems at Keta, Ada-Foah, based activities and from sea-based activities. Labadi Beach, Nkontonpo Beach and Axim.

3. Sustainable use and conservation of marine living  Old legislation and poor enforcement of regula- resources (both of the high seas and under national tions. jurisdiction).

According to the Country Environmental Report of Ghana (2006), there are good environmental legislative frameworks in place but implementation has been weak due to factors such as: multiplicity of institutions with conflicting environmental related functions; lack of a framework environmental law; inadequate guidelines and budgets for enforcing environmental laws; lack of awareness by the general public; and complications due to gaps, conflicts, overlaps of functions and territorial disputes among institutions.

Traditional Strategies Recommended Strategies

 Use of sand bags  Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), a holistic approach to managing against land inun- coastal zones. dation.  ICZM infrastructure, sea walls and armours, pillar housing, raised foundation.  Build homes away  Efficient mechanisms for disaster management. from waterfronts.  Develop efficient desalinization techniques.  Build dykes against  Plant mangrove belts to provide flood protection. encroaching wa-  Plant salt-tolerant varieties of vegetation. ter .  Improve drainage facilities.  Migrating to upper  Devise early flood warning systems. lands.  Set back policies for all underdeveloped areas within coastal area (prevent construction of immovable structures within hazard areas).

Policy Recommendations

Most developing countries have low adaptive capacity due to lack of economic resources and technology, and numerous physical, social, economic, legal and political factors. Traditional coping strategies are available; however, the human, infrastructural and economic response capacity to effect timely response actions is difficult.

Adaptation policy should:  Reduce exposure (e.g., move settlements to higher ground) and sensitivity (e.g., design coastal infrastructures to withstand storm surges) to climate change, or

 Increase adaptive capacity (e.g., disaster management planning) and resilience or coping ability.

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Planning policy in the coastal zone should be based on:

 Anticipated future occurrences and problems (climate change, sea-level rise and its anticipated impacts on the coastal zone).

 Collaboration between media, telecommunication companies and meteorological services in sending across early warning signals to citizens at risk.

 Exploring probable impacts (risk assessment).

 Appraisal of policy options and strategies to solve the problems (assessing alternative adaptation and mitigation options).

 Selection of the best sustainable options for implementation.

Coastal zones are complex systems rich with natural resources. Climate Change poses potentially significant threats to these interdependent systems that would endanger food security, water security, health and livelihoods of coastal populations. However, Climate Change also provides an opportunity towards the path to sustainable development. For example, Ghana has only 11% of its 550 kilometre coastline developed. This means that potentially costly and unsustainable developments can be avoided.

Climate change considerations must therefore be main- Costal erosion has eaten away the road, leaving no motorable road streamed into all aspects of policy formulation for coastal for normal and emergency movement. zones, in order to balance economic and social objectives with the preservation of ecosystem services. There is the need for a comprehensive ICZM that enables capacity building, awareness creation of the dy- namics and the complexity of the coastal systems and develops a sense of ownership of the coastal zone and its institutions among the stakeholders. There is an urgent need to understand the threats from climate change, formulate policies that will lessen the risks and to take action.

Material Referred:

1. Agyeman-Bonsu et al. (2008) Ghana Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability, and Adaptation Assessments, Envi- ronmental Protection Agency, Ghana.

2. Boateng, I. (2008) Integrating sea-level rise adaptation into planning policies in the coastal zone. In Proceedings of the Federation of International Surveyors Working Week 2008: Integrating Generations [Stockholm, Sweden]. Retrieved July 28, 2010, from http://www.fig.net/pub/fig2008/papers/ts03f/ts03f_03_boateng_2722.pdf

3. Boko, M.; Niang, I.; Nyong, A.; Vogel, C.; Githeko, A.; Medany, M.; Osman-Elasha, B.; Tabo and R.; Yanda, P. (2007) “Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability”, In Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental, by M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. Van der Lin- den and C.E. Hanson, 433-467. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

4. Country Environmental Report of Ghana (2006) Draft Final Report, Retrieved July 28, 2010, from http:// www.delgha.ec.europa.eu/en/publications/Pub080207.pdf

5. Pak Sum Low (2006) Climate Change and Africa. Cambridge University Press, New York.

6. United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) (2004) Environmental Sensitivity Map for Coastal Areas of Ghana. Volume II - Coastal Environment UNDP-Accra.

This EPA Policy Advice Series This Policy Advice Series is part of a series of 12. They have been de- No: 5 covers issues pertaining to veloped with the aim of enhancing understanding and appreciation of consequences of Climate Change Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy makers and senior technocrats and to support them in taking the urgently needed impacts on education in Ghana. PAS decisions. Its development has been coordinated by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Plan- The EPA Policy Advice Series ning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management Organi- Overview PAS 0 gives the context sation (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and 5 and the background of Climate Agencies (MDAs) and through the financial support of United Nations Change and Disaster Risks for Development Programme (UNDP) - Ghana. We would like to thank all Ghana and should be read first. those people and institutions who have contributed to the development of this Policy Advice Series . EDUCATION AND CHANGING CLIMATE IN GHANA

Climate Change is already having an impact on delivery of quality education in Ghana. Available meteorological projections in country indicate that this will get progressively worse as climate change impacts and associated risks of disasters increase. This Policy Advice analyses the policy dimensions that are relevant and proposes policy amendments for the sector’s policy framework that will protect this strategic strength of Ghana, its citizenry, thus paving the way for a secure future.

Climate Change impact on educational infrastructure Temperature has risen by almost a degree over the last century and is projected to accelerate over the next 50 years, resulting in an increase of further 1.5-3 degrees, changes in the rainfall patterns resulting in floods and droughts; and rise in sea level.

The absence of a clear policy guideline on infrastructure design in terms of school facilities in addressing issues such as climate change should be of significant worry to policy makers and regulators. In addition, there is weak collaboration between the education systems and other MDAs, lack of a clear emergency prevention and response plan as well as the failure to reinforce good environmental and sanitation practices. Climate change will affect the education sector directly through the increased frequency and/or severity of extreme weather events resulting in damage to educational infrastructure. It will also impact the sector significantly through range of socio-economic impacts. In September 2007, torrential rains in the upper East region resulted in floods that destroyed about 4,500 homes and displaced over 10,000 people (IRIN, 2007).

In 2007, the Northern Region reported of a number of collapsed school buildings due to the floods. Two hundred and ten (210) schools were affected by the flood with one hundred and ninety nine (199) classrooms reported to have collapsed (source: NAD- MO report). With lands in coastal areas eroding due to rising sea levels, it is very significant to rethink on the location of these facilities and architecture design. Other infrastructure considered essential for the functioning of the education sector, such as local transport, energy, and water A weak school building may also be damaged or temporarily disrupted by extreme weather events causing disruption in the functioning of education facilities and the delivery of educational services.

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Indirect impact of Climate Change on education sector a) School attendance and learning performance: A series of socio-economic impacts of climate change may reduce educational achievements and the overall performance of the education system and may hin- der the achievement of the universal primary education for all in the Millennium Development Goals. Im- pacts may lead to increase in school dropout rates or decrease the number of days students and teachers may be present in school. For example:  A decrease in water and fuel wood availability may cause children (especially girls) to spend more time in fetching these resources.  Food scarcity as a result of climate variability may result in malnutrition in school going children and may impair their retention and learning performance. b) Conflict and migration: As a result of conflicts, the increase in the frequency and/or intensity of extreme weather events and threats to rural livelihoods, rural-urban migration may result in population increase in urban and other areas where these resources may be available. Population shift may put unbearable stress and pressure on already insufficient public education infrastructure and human resources. Critique of Policy Options Many developing countries, including Ghana have not paid much attention to the issue of Climate Change. Ghana is more concerned with issues such as poverty alleviation and job creation, forgetting that Climate Change is a cross cutting issue that has a rippling effect on other sectors of the economy. Most policies, plans and programmes by policy makers from the district to the national level hardly recognize Climate Change as a major threat to the gains made in the various sectors of the economy. Education, training and public awareness have been identified as one of the important components of capacity building on Climate Change under the Marrakesh Accord. Countries who are signatories to the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are obligated to the conventions of the framework and are committed into taking account of their common, but differentiated responsibilities and other national and regional development priorities. The ultimate aim of an environmental education is to aid learners in developing into citizens who possess the knowledge, skills, and attitudes which enable and encourage them to engage in environmentally responsible behaviour (Gary Harvey, 1977). To fulfil the commitments of education, training and public awareness, the various stakeholders, with the government being the major one, need to promote and facilitate specific programmes at the national and regional levels as required under Article 6 of the convention. Policies and programmes on education, training and awareness creation in the country have to be Ghana- driven, addressing the specific needs and conditions of the country and drawing from the country’s national sustainable development goals, priorities and strategies. Current climate change programmes on education and awareness creation have the following shortfalls:  Inadequate educational and public awareness programmes on climate change and its effects such as disasters.

 Limited public access to information on climate change and its effects.

 Weak participatory processes for addressing climate change and its effects in both formal and Addressing food malnutrition and hunger non-formal education sectors. 2

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Making education sector responsive to climate change Policy recommendations for the education sector on climate change have to target both the formal and informal education. A. Formal Education Most of the effects of climate change that act as threats to the education sector have to be addressed through actions in other sectors such as health, water, agriculture, public infrastructure, etc. so integrating climate change aspects in education involves providing inputs for other sectors’ adaptation strategies.

Nevertheless, some adaptation measures can also be taken up within the education sector itself. A few examples are:

 Awareness raising on Climate Change in schools: Awareness-raising on Climate Change and its expected effects can be integrated into school curricula at the different levels of education. For instance, school programmes could address the theme of climate change, as well as the concepts of adaptation and mitigation, in relation to environmental education and sustainable management of natural resources. Aspects of prevention, preparedness and disaster risk reduction could be taught both in primary and in secondary schools and further on in higher education.

The establishment or strengthening of environmental/sustainability clubs in primary and secondary schools in the country is recommended. These clubs can be used as focal groups for Climate Change education and awareness creation among school children in the country.

 Infrastructure: Possible adaptation measures include:  Gradually making educational infrastructure as “climate-resilient” as possible, including the choice of locations and design of new infrastructure.  Where electricity is essential to operations (e.g. computer rooms, vocational training involving the use of machines) but power shortages are expected to become more frequent , investigating possibilities of reducing dependence on externally supplied energy (e.g. through installation of local power generation equipment based on a renewable source etc.) is suggested.

 Conflicts And Migrations: Possible adaptation measures under the control of education authorities will include:  Strengthening the education sector’s capacity to deliver basic schooling services in refugee camps, in situations of conflict- and climate-induced displacements of population.  Where significant migrations to certain areas are anticipated (e.g. migrations from stricken rural areas into regional and national capital cities), forecasting, gradually adapting educational infrastructure and reallocating human resources to keep up with new demographic patterns would be recommended.

 Reducing GHG Emissions in the Education Sector: The education sector is definitely not a big contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Accordingly, the sector’s potential for contributing to climate change mitigation is rather limited. Some mitigation options nevertheless exist, for instance:

 Improving the energy efficiency of education facilities and the use of other alternative renewable sources of energy e.g. Biogas based on school toilets.  Where traffic to schools and other education facilities relies significantly on private vehicles, developing public or collective transport and encouraging non-motorized means of transport such as cy- cling is recommended.  Adopting the policy of greening Ghana schools through tree planting.

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B. Non-Formal Education and Climate Change Key policy options and messages should focus on the critical role of citizens and citizen groups in monitoring, compliance, and enforcement of climate change policies and programmes. Modes of communicating the essence of such policies and programmes should be in a language which could easily be understood by the target group. These will include:

 Oral presentations at training workshops and awareness creation forums.

 The use of Information, Education and Communication materials (including posters, billboards, car- toons and other visual representations) on impacts of climate change such as disasters.

 Print and electronic media, particularly FM stations operating at the local level, road shows incorporating music and drama, newsletters, etc..

 Public forums and Policy Briefs to target policy makers.

Specific Policy Recommendations  The Government should initiate a policy dialogue process for community leaders to meet with government representatives and corporate leaders to discuss the Climate Change issues at the community level.  The development and implementation of educational and public awareness programmes on climate change and its effects, such as disasters.  Increased public access to information on climate change and its effects/impacts.  Organizing and providing information to scientific, technical and managerial personnel for climate change mitigation.  The development and implementation of education and training programmes including the strengthening of national institutions and exchanges through secondments of personnel, to train experts in the field of climate change.

 Introduce Climate Change as a topic in the training of schools teachers at all levels.

This Policy Brief is part of a series of 12 briefs. They have been developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the pol- This EPA Policy Brief No: 6 cov- icy makers and senior technocrats and to support them in tak- PAS ers issues pertaining to impacts ing the urgently needed decisions. Its development has been of climate change on energy coordinated by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), sup- sector, in Ghana. ported by National Development Planning Commission and NADMO (in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and The EPA Policy Brief Overview Agencies) and through the financial support of UNDP - Ghana. 6 gives the context and the back- We would like to thank all those people and instituitions who ground of Climate Change and Dis- have contributed to the development of this Policy Brief. IMPROVING GHANA’S ENERGY SECTOR TO WITHSTAND CLIMATE CHANGE

Energy production and consumption are among the top contributors to climate change. The harnessing of energy resources and use of energy result in the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Our current energy use practices point towards a dire need for changes in energy architecture of our country – which must be governed and secured by policies that are adapted to climate change and its associated risks. This Policy Brief points out the policy areas and recommends specific changes to main- tain some equilibrium in Ghana’s future.

Energy Sector and the Climate Change problem for Ghana Energy is an essential requirement for socio-economic growth and development and energy use per capita is an indicator of economic growth and prosperity. Consequently, major improvements in the quality and quantity of energy services in developing countries are necessary for the achievement of the Millen- nium Development Goals (MDGs). This document discusses the need to mainstream climate change into national energy policy.

Current situation of Energy Sector in Ghana The energy sector and its production-consumption patterns in Ghana are:

Electricity: Of the total electricity generated in Ghana in 2008 (8323 GWh), 74.4% is derived from hydro1 and 25.6% from thermal (using light crude oil). Of this 48% is consumed in the industrial sector, 37% by residential sector and 15% by commercial sector. 26% of electricity supplied into distribution grid is lost as technical and commercial losses.

Transport: Most of the Diesel, gasoline and Aviation Turbine Kerosene imported into the country2 are used up by the trans- Akosombo Dam ( Photo Courtsey: Addax.wordpress.com) port sector of the economy. Liquid Petroleum Gas is slowly pick- ing up as a transport fuel, as more gasoline cars switch to this cleaner and relatively cheaper fuel.

Domestic & Industrial energy use: Wood fuel consumption accounts for over 60% of the total energy used in Ghana. Wood fuel include firewood and charcoal, and are used for cooking (in both the urban

1 Ghana also relies for meeting its peak load demand of electricity by importing 3.3% from neighbouring La Cote d’ Ivoire. On the other hand, 6.5% electricity is exported to Togo, Benin and Burkina Faso. 2 Indigenous production of crude oil will commence in late 2010.

EPA Policy Brief No: 6 and rural areas) and providing the bulk of the energy requirements of most informal enterprises (such as Bread-baking, processing of palm oil, brewing of local drinks, tobacco curing, traditional textiles (tie and dye, batik), traditional soap making and fish smoking). Kerosene is used for lighting mainly in the rural areas and its consumption is therefore likely to decline as more rural communities are connected to the electricity grid. Fig 1: Shares of new Hydro and Thermal plant Capacities under Contribution of Energy Sector to climate change Construction Electricity generation: Thermal power plants dominate the new power Thermal Hydro plants being constructed and those planned for future construction. (Bui) Currently Ghana’s grid emission factor is about 0.56tCO2/MWh which means that for every megawatt of electricity generated into the grid, 560 Kgs of CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere. Thus, with these trends, emissions will grow. Transport: With the large numbers of used vehicles being imported into the country, the poor maintenance culture, the increasing use of individual vehicles instead of public transportation, the transport sector contributes to country’s carbon footprint through the emission of large quantities of CO2. The number of registered vehicles grew on the average 9% from year 2000 to 2007. Domestic & Industrial consumption: It has been estimated that close to 90 % of the wood fuels are obtained directly from the (almost depleted) natural forest and the savannah woodlands of Ghana, which are natural sinks for CO2. The remaining 10 % are obtained from logging and sawmilling waste. It takes between four to six kgs of wood to produce one kg of charcoal3. If the exploitation of the forest and woodlands continues in the current unsustainable manner, the supply of wood fuel would have serious implications on climate change in Ghana. Biomass resources cover about 87% (20.8 million hectares of the 23.8 million hectare) land mass of Ghana, and supply about 60% of the total energy used in the country. Though Ghana’s industrial base is not very large, it is nevertheless expanding and the continuous use of residual fuel oils and diesels instead of cleaner alternatives like natural gas increases the emission of gases that contribute to climate. Average Industrial electricity growth rate between 2001 and 2009 was a -1.2%. The high energy consumption by inefficient appliances such as refrigerators, air conditioners, light bulbs and wood fuel cook-stoves can indirectly contribute to climate change by increasing the demand for energy which has to be met mostly through increased thermal generation and forest exploitation.

Impact of climate change on energy sector in Ghana Some of the anticipated impacts of climate change in Ghana include rise in average temperature, variability in rainfall, changes in the intensity and pattern of extreme weather events and sea level rise. Though the impacts of the effects of climate change on energy would be both positive and negative the negative impacts are more likely to dominate. The renewable energy resources are likely to be more sensitive to climate change since they depend on factors such as hydrology, wind regimes, weather patterns and solar radiation.

Frequent rainstorms especially in the northern part of Ghana and Burkina Faso may provide the much needed water to fill the hydro dams for power generation, however, very severe rainstorms may threaten the safety of hydro dams with excessive water inflows that will require frequent spillage. The difficulty in weather predictability that will be associated with climate change can pose a serious challenge to effective planning of energy supply to the economy and agriculture.

Reduced rainfall and iterant droughts on the other hand, may pose danger to the sustainability of mini and small hydro facilities as most of them could dry out completely. Persistent drought could negatively affect the growth and availability of fuelwood especially in the savannah zones. The expected rise in temperature has the potential to enhance evaporation of water from the surfaces of large hydro-dam reservoirs and result in rapid water loss. 3 Depending upon the quality, type of wood and the type of kiln used. The traditional earth mound kilns which are mostly used to produce charcoal have the lowest efficiencies in terms of charcoal yield. 2

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Energy infrastructure may also suffer significantly from the effects of climate change. The effects of climate change leading to severe storms and floods may increase the risk of damage to off-shore oil platforms, oil-gas pipelines and national electricity grid systems. It is therefore very necessary that climate change effects and adaptation strategies are factored into the planning, costing, design and management of these facilities.

Critique of Policy Options In view of such severe and worsening consequences, climate change is Jubilee Oil Field a real phenomenon that has to be factored into policy formulation. Photo Courtsey: ghanabusinessnews.com The Draft National Energy Policy, February 2010, which seeks to address the challenges of the energy sector, is being analysed as below:

Policy Objective Critique from a climate change impact perspective 1. Adequate generation capacity to ensure reliable power supply 2. Modernize and expand energy infrastructure to meet growing demand 3. Improve the overall management, regu- Hindered by the lack of capacity of the regulatory agencies. latory environment and operation of the The labour turnover in the two of the three energy sector energy sector regulatory agencies namely, Energy commission and Public Utility Regulatory Commission is very high because of unat- tractive conditions of service. May need to address these specific issues first to see impact on this objective. 4. Secure long term sources of fuel for thermal plants 5. Minimize environmental impacts of en- It advocates the promotion of efficient production and end- ergy supply and consumption through use of energy by way of addressing environmental issues in increased production and use of renew- energy leading to reducing climate change impact. How- able energy and make energy delivery ever, the policies should specifically target strategies to efficient minimize the effects of climate change -there is urgent need to reduce the high dependency on biomass as the main source of household energy supply because of its consequence on the environment. Also, address the poor road network with its attendant traffic congestion in the cities, coupled with, the need for, and desire to ,own individual cars, which have a major impact on climate change. 6. Ensure the productive and efficient use of energy 7. Promote and encourage private sector participation in the Energy Sector 8. Diversify the national energy mix to include renewable energy sources as well as nuclear and coal 9. Reduce technical and commercial losses in power supply

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The Draft National Energy Policy however does not mention how effective sectoral collaboration can be ensured to promote mass transport systems as a way of reducing vehicular emissions. For example, in the promotion of mass transportation, there is the need for collaboration between Ministry of Road Trans- port and other main stakeholders such as Ministry of Environment and Science and Ministry of Energy.

Policy Recommendations The stakeholders in the Energy sector are Ministry of Energy, Energy Commission, Ministry of Environ- ment science & Technology etc.. From the critique of current policy options, the following actions are recommended:

 Develop and implement energy diversification adaptation measures which include development of solar, wind and mini hydro;  Reduction in the cost of renewable energy technologies in general and that of solar in particular through research and development (R&D);  Strengthen the regulatory agencies to be able to ensure that energy service providers improve generation efficiency and reduce system losses;  Pragmatic steps aimed at fuel substitution in the medium to long term by shifting from the use of biomass as the main household energy source to modern and cleaner sources such Solar panel Photo Courtsey: siriuskay.com as LPG;  Promote the utilization of more efficient charcoal production and end-use technologies through training, fiscal incentive and regulation;  Discontinue, through legislation and incentives, the local production, importation and use of inefficient electricity consuming appliances;  Fiscal measures such as prohibitive import duties on high fuel consuming vehicles and legislation to ban the importation of over aged vehicles;  Promote fuel switching; oil to gas wherever is technically feasible in the economy;  Strategies should be put in place to improve mass public transportation to make it convenient and af- fordable, thereby reducing the fleet of cars on the roads at any given time;  The development of indigenous sources of gas (cleaner fuel) supply so as to reduce, or slow the rate of growth of carbon dioxide emission.

The impetus and directions given to the energy sector will decide the future growth, its adaptation to climate change and risks associated with this process. The correct utilisation of oil and natural gas potential, guided by prudently adapted policies and their implementation by Ghana, can and will lay the foundation for a secure future. We must heed the lessons from our neighbourhood that showcase opportunities lost.

Material Referred:

1. Strategic National Energy Plan (2006-2020), Energy Commission, 2006 2. Energy Sector strategy and Development Plan, Ministry of Energy, 2010 3. National Energy policy, Ministry of Energy, 2010

This EPA Policy Advice Series This Policy Advice Series is part of a series of 12. They have been developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and appreciation No: 7 covers issues pertaining of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy makers and to potential impacts of climate senior technocrats and to support them in taking the urgently needed PAS change on Forestry in Ghana. decisions. Its development has been coordinated by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Plan- The EPA Policy Advice Series Over- ning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management Organi- view PAS 0 gives the context and sation (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) and through the financial support of United Nations the background of Climate Change 7 Development Programme (UNDP) - Ghana. We would like to thank all and Disaster Risks for Ghana and those people and instituitions who have contributed to the develop- should be read first. ment of this Policy Advice Series . GOOD FOREST GOVERNANCE IN GHANA CAN HELP COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE

Ghana has a high rate of deforestation and biodiversity loss, which can be worsened by climate change due to increased desiccation (likely to result from high temperatures and reduced rainfall, two important manifestations of climate change). If Ghana is able to demonstrate good forest management practices it stands to gain from the Carbon benefits through international mechanisms to support reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation and enhanced forest carbon stocks (REDD-plus). In the last century, Ghana lost more than three quarters of her forest cover and the deforestation trend still continues. For Ghana to take full advantage of Climate Change opportunities for forests, and also, manage the associated challenges, it has to capture Climate Change issues adequately in the present policy review exercise. The Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources and the Climate Change Unit of the Forestry Com- mission, have the responsibility to ensure that first and foremost, the environmental role of forests and the means to achieve it, including the governance environment, are adequately captured in the new policy. Specifically, issues of forest law enforcement, regulation of the domestic lumber market, benefit sharing, forest/tree tenure and other underlying causes of forest and biodiversity loss should be addressed.

Climate Change in Ghana There is no doubt whatsoever, that Ghana has en- tered into a period, where effects of Climate Change are unprecedented and unavoidable. Historical climate data observed by the Ghana Meteorological Agency across the country (from the year 1960 – 2000) shows a progressive rise in temperature and a decrease in rainfall in all forest ecological zones in the country. Some projected future scenarios (Box 1) have serious implications for plant and animal life in Ghana. (Photo Courtesy: www.ghanatravelpage.org) Effects of climate change on forests already evident in Ghana include:  Change in species composition and increasing presence of invasive species in forests and farmlands.

 Increased wildfire threats and extension of the forest transition zone further down south.

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Impacts of Climate Change on Ghana’s Forest Ecosystems and Biodiversity

Besides its environmental and ecological role, the forest sec- Box 1: Climate change scenarios for Gha- tor in Ghana contributes about 6% to Gross Domestic Prod- na: uct (GDP), employs about 2.5 million people and exports Temperatures will continue to rise on av- wood products worth about $200 million annually. But Cli- erage of about 0.6°C, 2.0°C and 3.9°C by mate change has the potential, over a period of a few dec- the year 2020, 2050 and 2080 respective- ades, to undermine the sector’s performance and significantly, in all forest ecological zones. ly reduce all these benefits. At the moment, the cost of envi- Rainfall is also predicted to decrease on ronmental degradation in major natural resource sectors, in average by 2.8%, 10.9% and 18.6% by terms of the value of natural assets depletion, is estimated at 2020, 2050 and 2080 respectively in all 5% of GDP. The forest sector accounts for US$ 500 million or forest ecological zones. 63% of this cost (ISSER/World Bank/DFID, 2005). The situa-

Scenarios of sea level changes with re- tion will get worse if Climate Change is allowed to exert its spect to 1999 mean predict an average full impact on the forest. In that case, Ghana could even be- rise of 5.8cm, 16.5cm and 34.5 cm. by come a net emitter of carbon. 2020, 2050 and 2080 respectively.

Forest ecosystems and biodiversity are considered to be some of the most vulnerable sectors to be affected by Climate Change. This is due to their sensitivity to physical processes which are directly affected by climate change. Forest biodiver- Table 1: Main links between potential cli- Forestry Ecosystems sity and the ability of forests to provide & mate change and its effects Biodiversity soil protection, habitat for species and other ecosystem services will be se- Biophysical effects verely affected due to their direct ex- Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns √ √ posure to the biophysical effects, some Shifts in seasons of which are: √ √ Increase in extreme weather events/natural disasters  Changes in rainfall and tempera- √ √ ture patterns. Raised sea level and increased coastal erosion √ Increased river bank erosion  Shifts in seasons. √ Desertification, soil erosion  Increased frequency and severity √ √ Reduction in availability of freshwater of extreme weather events √  Increased risk of diseases and Reduction in the quality of water √ pests Changes in hydrological flows, in permafrost √ √  Desertification. Loss of habitat, changes in ecosystems and related services √ √  Changes in hydrological flows and Increase in disease and pest outbreaks √ √ soil erosion. Socio-economic impacts Already, Ghana’s forest loss trend con- tradicts the international "2010 Biodi- Damage to infrastructure √ versity Target", which aims at signifi- Reduced availability of energy (hydropower) cantly reducing the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010. Table 1 identifies which Economic and social disruption, loss of livelihoods √ of the potential effects and impacts of Increased malnutrition √ climate change are most likely to be Increased probability and intensity of conflicts √ √ relevant to forest ecosystems and biodiversity in Ghana. Population displacement and human migrations √ √

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On the positive side, innovative changes in the forest sector have considerable potential to contribute to the global climate change mitigation effort and to earn Ghana substantial revenues from REDD-plus benefits. Ghana is noted to have made considerable progress in gaining support from the World Bank in preparing itself towards carbon benefits and is already in a position to access about US$ 3.4million fora REDD-plus strategy.

However a lot needs to be done in addressing the issue of climate change and forestry in Ghana, policy approaches and positive incentives are particularly recognised as key elements to be targeted.

Policy Context of forest governance in Ghana

The policy framework used in creating forest reserves in Ghana viz. retention of forest ownership with communities, and in some instances, the voluntary reservation of forest lands, were modest attempt at good forest governance.

However, the way forests were administered afterwards was quiet different. Decision-making was highly centralized and forest policing was very strict, resulting in the isolation of forest fringe-communities. In addition forest benefits were carved out and preserved for the elite in society through various legislations that curtailed local resource use rights and created comfort for the timber industry. This situation which started in the colonial period continued right into independent Ghana and even grew worse. The outcome was continuous forest degradation and deforestation that became more evident by the early 1980s. The heightened national awareness of forest loss and environmental degradation, especially following the 1983 wildfires, as well as international concern for tropical deforestation, compelled Ghana to initiate a process towards reforms in its forest sector. Key among the reforms was the promulga- tion of a comprehensive For- est and Wildlife Policy in 1994, which, commits Ghana to the conservation and sustainable development of the nation’s forest and wildlife Ghanaian Rainforest under threat Photo: Johannes Förster / IUCN resources. Local community accessing forest resources Photo Courtesy: www.rainforest-alliance.org The 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy and other reforms like the Col- laborative Forest Management Approach, have a goal of shifting: from command and control to participatory; from closed door to accountability and transparency; from managing to leading and facilitating; and, from serving a few clients to serving many stakeholders. These ideals however, have been difficult to implement and formidable challenges still lie ahead for policy makers and implementing agencies. Whilst achievements have been made in institutional reforms and overhauling of management regimes, a lot is desired in the implementation of these new systems. At the moment, the sector’s performance is generally poor and does not give enough assurance of resource sustainability.

Permaculture Indigenous tree project in Ghana Photo Courtesy: www.permaculture.org.au 3

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Issues related to over harvesting through illegal logging, weak law enforcement and perceived corruption are particularly worrying and need to be fixed urgently. Additional issues of concern to stakeholders are tree tenure, benefit sharing, conflicts, transparent resource allocation, poor fiscal regime, forest monitoring and accountability. Climate change compatible forest management will require substantial efforts in addressing these problems.

Policy Recommendations At present, issues related to governance predominate the forest sector and have to be addressed in order to provide the right foundation for building a sustainable forest management regime. Most of the governance issues have to do with timber exploitation in terms of getting stakeholders to work within the law and administering and reporting timber harvesting in a transparent manner. Issues that need immediate attention are:

 Illegal logging (including regulation of the domestic lumber market).  Transparent allocation of timber harvesting rights.  Effective collection and disbursement of forest revenue. Sawmill at Kumasi  Fundamental forest management requirements like updating of manage- (Photo Courtesy: ment plans and monitoring.

Incentives for sustainable management of naturally regenerated timber trees on farmlands should be provided in the form of tree and carbon rights security. The solution to the poor governance situation may lie in active Civil Society participation that brings quality to the policy making process and policy products which is already happening to some extent. To sustain this, more stakeholder platforms for public debate and consensus building should be provided and participants empowered for more effective dialogue and negotiation.

Whilst it is still uncertain how climate change would impact on Ghana’s forests the extent of the impact will depend very much on how well the country is able to hold itself in readiness. There is a lot to be done in achieving this readiness but the fact that the required changes are fundamental governance requirements that would have been necessary even without the threat of Climate Change should spur the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources and all other relevant organizations to act fast and take advantage of the Climate Change opportunities to save the forest and its associated benefits.

Material Referred:

1. Birikorang, G., Hansen, C.P. and Treue, T. 2007. Review of the current taxation system relevant to the forest sector in Ghana. VLTP Background Paper No. 1, Validation of Legal Timber Programme, Forestry Commission, Accra.

2. Birikorang, G., Okai R, Asenso-Okyereh K., Afrane S. and Robinson G. 2001 Ghana wood industry and log export ban study. (Final report) DFID London 53pp

3. Mayers, J., Maginis, S. and Arthur, E. 2010 REDD readiness requires radical reform. Prospects for making the big changes needed to prepare for REDD-plus in Ghana. A TDF Publication No. 1, 2010

4. Opoku K. 2006. Forest governance in Ghana: an NGO perspective. Report produced for FERN by Forest Watch Ghana

This EPA Policy Advice Se- This Policy Advice Series is part of a series of 12. They have been ries No: 8 covers issues developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and appreciation pertaining to impacts of Cli- of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy makers and senior technocrats and to support them in taking the urgently needed mate Change on Health in PAS decisions. Its development has been coordinated by Environmental Ghana. Protection Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Plan- ning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management Organi- The EPA Policy Advice Series Over- sation (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments 8 view PAS 0 gives the context and and Agencies (MDAs) and through the financial support of United the background of Climate Nations Development Programme (UNDP) - Ghana. We would like to Change and Disaster Risks for thank all those people and instituitions who have contributed to the Ghana and should be read first. development of this Policy Advice Series. WILL ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE OUTCOMES MINIMISE HEALTH IMPACTS? Approximately 18% of Government of Ghana’s budget is spent annually on health. This is used to combat the impact of disease conditions (e.g. diarrhoeal disease, malaria and malnutrition among others) which are known to be influenced by climatic factors through negative or adverse changes in temperature, rainfall, sea level, etc.. Climate Change is predicted to have fundamental impacts on all sectors, and is expected to lead to changes in human health conditions, increased costs to the health sector, and affect all other sectors through the impact on the vital resource of human labour and productivity. Failure to timely address health challenges from Climate Change impacts will have high future costs and regressive developments. Health Sector and Climate Change Challenges for Ghana Data gathered over the last 50 years by Ghana Meteorological Agency showing progressive and discerni- ble rise in temperature and steady decline in rainfall in all agro ecological zones, is indicative of the fact that Climate Change is real and Ghana has not been left out. Evidence is visible in the form of depleting fresh water resources, reduced farm productivity and increase in air pollution. Rising Sea Levels accompa- nied with heavy rainfall would only compound the situation. Given the inevitability of the impacts of Climate Change, it is Table 1. Percentage distribution of outpa- important to understand the additional burden of diseases tient clinic attendance (Source: WHO 2005) and its implications. The climatic conditions are gradually bringing a shift in the known timeframe and geographical Causes of Morbidity % boundaries of various diseases and cases of meningitis, diar- malaria 44.1 rhoeal diseases, guinea worm infestation, etc. are predicted upper respiratory tract infections 7.2 to increase. diarrhoea 4.3 For example: skin diseases 4.1

 After the 1997 epidemic, total cases of Meningitis report- hypertension 2.7

ed in 2005 was 469 and 107. Since 1997 we have known home or occupational injuries 2.3 the geographical vulnerability, population at risk and the acute eye infections 2.1 fact that only 80,000 people were vaccinated in the region in 2007. Hib (meningitis) has been included in the pregnancy-related conditions 1.9 regular immunisation list and yet the Feb 2010 figures rheumatic and joint diseases 1.9 stand at 816 cases and 107 deaths. anaemia 1.7 others 27.7

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 Although some respite from malaria is predicted for Ghana, it is predicted to go up by 14% by 2030 in Africa (Hay and others; 2006). National Climate Change Assessment Pro- gramme study in Ghana indicates a decline in malaria and measles because of the climatic conditions and existing case management and preventative measures. Reports indicate that some of the main problems in the health care system of Ghana are created by simple sanitation related diseases1. It is estimated that cost of management of just malnutrition and diarrhoeal diseases is likely to rise as high as 9% of Ghana’s $34.14 Billion GDP (IBRD/WB report). Flooded area which can breed mosquitoes

In 2005 Ghanaian public was spending up to 65.9% of the country’s total expenditure on health2, which comes to almost 50% of the combined public and private expenditures on health. The budgeting trends have not changed over the past years and currently 18% of the total budget is allocated to health. Climate Change may lead result in increased health, economic and social costs with negative consequences for growth and development. Data shows that there is marked and wide geographical disparity in infrastructure and staffing, for example Greater Accra has 3 doctors to 10,000 people; Northern region has 1 doctor to 100,000 people. An Assessment of National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) by SEND3, Ghana cites an example of the “Northern Region where the number of medical doctors has reduced from 32 to 26 between 2006 and 2008”, making redistribution of health personnel to underserved and over-burdened communities an urgent need.

With a projected increase in the number of patients due to impact of Climate Change, the infrastructure and staffing is very likely to reach its breaking point. There is a need for capital investment, to address deterioration of existing health infrastructure, provide staff accommodation and infrastructure in deprived areas, expand and improve the quality of existing facilities to meet increased demand created by the NHIS. It is easy to deduce that the health system is inadequate in terms of finances, man power and infrastructure. Table 2: Examples of Vector-borne diseases likely to be sensitive to Climate Change Health Policy Analysis & Critique Vector Major Diseases There has been relative stagnation of general Govern- Mosquitoes Malaria, Filariasis, Dengue Fever, ment expenditure on health since 1998 and almost 60% of the total health expenditure in 2002 came from private Sand Flies Leishmaniasis. sources. In order to secure quality basic health care for all, National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) was estab- Triatomines Chagas disease lished. Since it was launched in 2003, the scheme has led Ixodes Ticks Lyme disease and Tick Borne En- to significant increase in attendance in health centres through its membership (281,775 in 2006 to 828,805 in Tsetse Fly African Trypanosomiasis. 2008) without a corresponding improvement in health infrastructure, equipment and human resource, leading to Black Fly Onchocerciasis. extra workload for health professionals, over-stressed Snails (Intermediate Schistosomiasis. staff, excessive pressure on existing amenities and re- hosts) duced attention to patients. 1. Public Agenda, 1 September 2008; Ghanaian Chronicle, 21 August 2008. 2. WHO, May 2008. 3. Balancing Access with Quality Healthcare: An Assessment of NHIS in Ghana (2004-2008), SEND-Ghana. 2

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It is likely that salary rationalisation programme would have supported the retention of staff and short- term optimisation can be achieved through clear targets but there is a classic absence of guidelines and formats. The future scenario appears to be even worse with no foresight being paid to the fact that a major percentage of the staff is in the age group of 40-60. The cost effectiveness of training inputs viz a viz balance years of employment, has to be looked at. Building the succession staff is an urgent need with a clear focus on recruiting younger candidates. Strategic actions have been taken by increasing the number of teaching/training institutions for middle level health workers but the national figures do not reflect much improvement. The picture is no different when it comes to doctors where the gap between availability and projected demand is yet to be bridged. Central Deployment Committee has been constituted to address inequitable staff distribution but the government has to commit to equitable infrastructure.

Rising sea level, earthquakes, flooding of fields and residential areas closer to the coasts affecting the health infrastructure, equipment and supplies, health systems, loss of agricultural land, poverty, scarcity of water and malnutrition compounded by mass human migration. Contamination of water bodies and poor sanitary conditions is a well known cause for diarrhoea related epidemics. These are highly probable scenarios and there are many more. The issue is, are we prepared for it?

Low priority to financial allocation for health sector is hampering the adaptation and strengthening of public health infrastructure to appropriate standards (e.g. physical facilities, emergency handling, expanded access to medical care that involves preventive and primary care, health insurance).

Policy Recommendations for responding to Climate Change impacts Adaptation to Climate Change requires public health strategies (e.g. improved access to drinking water and sanitation, pre-emptive vaccination campaigns, aggressive vector control, etc.) and improved surveillance, relevant research, collaboration and funding.

Some identifiable issues to resolve are: Mainstreaming Climate Change: Although the Ministry of Health has a comprehensive health policy (GoG 2007) and various measures have been put into practice to achieve the MDG, it is of utmost importance for the health sector to revisit the current policy and interventions from Climate Change perspective and ensuring strengthening of public health capacity to adapt to the impacts of Climate Change. Health policies and action plans should incorporate current and projected climate-related risks in enhancing current levels of control measures. Such measures will strengthen the case for pre-emptive policies and priorities for the sector. Encourage Climate Change Research and Capacity Building: The health policy on research currently does not include research into the possible impacts of Climate Change on health. Absence of relevant information and data, limits the process of integrating Climate Change into national development planning and resource allocation. In the absence of specific guidelines for natural disaster and disease control, programmes and planning logistics in the context of Climate Change cannot move forward. In effect, the capacity for health workers on issues of Climate Change vulnerability, mitigation, and adaptation is also limited. As part of this, strong objectives will be required to build and sustain the capacities of health workers/staff and conduct Health Assessment Practices in identifying populations which are more at risk due to the shift in dis- (Photo courtesy www.cartercentre.org) ease pattern or impact of Climate Change on agriculture, water, etc.. 3

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Partnerships and Advocacy: Establishing robust mechanisms for collaboration with sector Ministries of crosscutting issues such as agriculture, land use, water resources, works and housing. Parallel planning and funding has made integration of various ongoing and crosscutting initiatives a major bottleneck. Learning of best practices and sharing of ideas and information on adaptation among countries in the sub- region should be explored using existing agencies/entities.

Early Warning Systems and Infrastructure: Limited establishment and management of Early Warning Sys- tems (EWS), disease surveillance and monitoring is slowing down the process of adaptation and preparedness towards impacts of Climate Change. In order to have an effective early warning system it is crucial to have a good surveillance system in place, which in turn requires good public health infrastructure with access to primary health care and adequate laboratory facilities. Existing surveillance systems should be reviewed in order to identify indicators that could be used for identifying and assessing climate-related health risks and the effectiveness of actions.

Climate Change and its impact on health is inevitable, public health sector needs to consolidate its existing initiatives, take conclusive action towards policy changes and resource allocation. Ensure preparedness of its employees and communities towards Climate Change impact mitigation through awareness, knowledge and capacity to act clearly.

Public awareness creation Material Referred:

1. Agyemang Bonsu et al (2008). Ghana Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessments. Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana

2. Government of Ghana, GoG (2007). Ghana National Health Policy: Creating Wealth through Health. Ministry of Health, Accra

3. Haines, A., Kovatsa, R.S., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Corvalan C. (2006). Climate Change and human health: Impacts, vulnerability and public health. Public Health 120: 585–596.

4. Haines, A., Patz, J. (2004). Health effects of Climate Change. Journal of American Med Assoc 291:99–103.

5. IPCC (2007). Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to Fourth Assessment Report, Intergovernmen- tal Panel on Climate Change /Cambridge University Press. Available on: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/assessments-reports.htm

6. World Health Organization (2005) Climate and Health: Fact sheet, July 2005. Available on: http://www.who.int/globalchange/news/ fsclimandhealth/en/print.html

This EPA Policy Advice Series This Policy Advice Series is part of a series of 12. They have been No: 9 covers issues pertaining developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy makers and to impacts of Climate Change senior technocrats and to support them in taking the urgently needed PAS on Human Settlement in Ghana. decisions. Its development has been coordinated by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Plan- The EPA Policy Advice Series Over- ning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management Organi- sation (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments view PAS 0 gives the context and the and Agencies (MDAs) and through the financial support of United 9 background of Climate Change and Nations Development Programme (UNDP) - Ghana. We would like to Disaster Risks for Ghana and should thank all those people and instituitions who have contributed to the be read first. development of this Policy Advice Series. Challenges of Climate Change on Human Settlement

Climate Change as a global challenge is indeed one of the most important and current issues facing humanity. This policy advice series seeks to demonstrate the impact of climate variability on Human Settlement and infrastructure development in Ghana. It appraises specific adverse impacts through severe weather conditions of torrential rains and droughts on real estate development and civil works such as construction of roads, dam and utility installations. Medium to long- term measures to create vehicles for formal (as against informal) real estate market development, and promoting co-benefit approaches to satisfy development needs, are proposed to address the negative impacts of Climate Change.

Challenges for Human Habitations in Ghana High grade commercial real estates, not to mention the huge residential stock, contribute 15% to Ghana’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In terms of type and use, infrastructure developments: real estate development; telecommunication installations; and civil works (through the construction of dams, urban and feeder roads and highways); are indeed, important for national development, and remain a top priority on national agenda. Also, though many land use activities and these infrastructure elements have made significant impact towards urbanization in the cities and towns of Ghana, a significant impact of their role through feeder road construction, mini dams for agricultural activities and electrification projects can also be felt at the rural level.

It is thus grossly inappropriate to underestimate the influence of land use activities and infrastructure development on national development. Whilst realizing that the maximum potential of these activities is critical for economic growth, it is equally important to highlight, assess and safeguard their vulnerability to Climate Change.

Impact of Climate Change on human habitations Extreme climate variability in Ghana may result in changes in temperature and rainfall patterns, floods, storms and droughts to challenge national developmental agenda. Increased frequency and severity of extreme climate conditions, for example, droughts and floods are potential factors to slow, delay, destroy, and severely impair the operations of land use activities and the functional qualities of infrastructure developments.

The projected annual temperature increase of 2.2° - 3.5° Celsius for Ghana, which is mostly marked during the dry season in the central belt, is significantly higher than the average (1.5° - 3.0° C) for the African continent. Whilst this observable fact poses a potential burden for housing design and real estate development, the demand for energy for domestic cooling of homes is expected to be on the rise.

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Also it is likely, that poor thermal performance under conditions of increasing temperatures would seriously expose the vulnerability of contemporary real estate assets. Homes and office accommodation may possibly become less comfortable and durable due to extreme temperature conditions.

It has been argued that the unbearable hot weather conditions in the three northern regions of Ghana have significantly accounted for “un-livable” settlements during the dry season, and in the process, have compounded the increasing urbanization of other cities and towns in the southern part of the country. These events tend to cause disruptions in the functioning of existing energy supply, water supply, sanitation, residential accommodation, and transport and communication networks at the newly inhabited areas. The migratory flows thus deeply affect the functioning of affected cities in the southern areas of Gha- na, which sometimes compounds the swelling slums (for example- Sodom and Gomorrah in Accra). Rapid urbanization appears to be a national challenge - its intensity and scale may be subject to the impacts of Climate Change.

Extremely high temperatures due to climate variability tend to also influence communication infrastructure in several ways. For example, telecommunication data and computer centres, which produce large quantities of heat in electronic circuits, could possibly be damaged due to increases in outside temperatures and heat waves.

Severe delays of rainfall naturally result in droughts. A large part of the country shows a marked sensitivity to periods of drought. Overall, Ghana already has one of the lowest conversion factors of precipitation to runoff in the continent, with an average of 15%. Major river basins in the country indicate 30% decrease in runoff over the past years. Areas around the two major dams (Akosombo and Kpong), which account for 95% of the country’s electricity generation have even not been left out. These core infrastructure investments have experienced critical low water levels in the past years and now threaten hydroelec- tricity supply for domestic and industrial purposes in Ghana.

Already, the intense droughts of the late 1990s compelled the Volta River Authority to operate the dams below capacity; they were partially shut down and generated only 85% of the electricity needed to meet the manufacturing sector demand. The national economy consequently experienced setbacks; employment increased from the limitations imposed on factories and processing plants (cutting down of operating hours for want of electricity supply). Most significant are the severe impacts of droughts in the three northern regions on the socio-economic conditions for the residents. The further reducing rainfall in the Upper East, Upper West and Northern regions (as evidenced in early 2007), accounts for this unprecedented and expanding drought characterization in Ghana.

Major changes in rainfall due to climate variability may also cause annual and seasonal trends, and possible intensify the extreme events of floods in these drought-pone areas of Ghana. When the severe droughts eventually give way to rainfalls, these are often torrential and cause widespread runoff disruption - damage to houses, bridges and utilities installations such as telephone masts (as experienced in the three northern regions).

Other parts of the Ghana are naturally flood prone areas. Thus Accra (Odaw River and Santa Maria vicinity), Ashanti and Eastern Region (the Afram Plains), Western region (Pra and Ankobra Rivers), Northern Region (White Volta), and Upper West Region (Black Volta) are such areas which are affected hugely. The aftermath of recent rains in Accra threatened the demolishing of 45 residential A flooded Fuel Service Station houses on sites obstructing waterways. A more serious negative impact of torrential rainfalls in recent years has been the loss of lives, which is outside the scope of this paper (seven people died during the Friday 19 June 2009 occurrence at the western part of Accra). The precipitation recorded was 313.8 milli- metres, one of highest ever recorded by the Ghana Meteorological Agency in past decades. 2

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Similarly, in August 2007, Accra came under serious socio-economic turmoil from heavy rains and five people lost their lives while 3 out of 25 houses were demolished. Elsewhere in the country, the severity of residential property destruction, and loss of lives has followed a similar or more intense trend. In the Up- per East Region for example, the floods in September 2007 destroyed 4,500 homes rendering almost 10,000 residents homeless. Table 1: Figures on destruction and displacement of property and hu-

mans from Climate Change impacts in Ghana The rural and urban roads, including highways and re- Generally affected, including displaced persons 317,217 lated civil works – bridges, culverts and flyovers – are Deaths 61 also either permanently or temporarily made unusa- ble by severe floods. Urban road networks in Accra Houses affected (damaged, collapsed, washed away 25,923 etc.) have suffered near collapse in recent years. The floods Bridges collapsed 13 washed away bitumen on several roads in the city, No. Of feeder roads destroyed 70 with the main Kaneshie First Light Mpamprom road Length of feeder roads destroyed 1016 km being the worst affected. Though unrecorded, it is likely that recent torrential rains, which occurred na- Number of culverts damaged 442 tionwide, may have caused some degree of damages Major Dams damaged 2 to telecommunication infrastructure. Above ground Irrigation dams affected/destroyed 39 facilities such as cell phone masts, aerial telephone Food destroyed 257,076 MT cables, internet hubs and transformers are obviously vulnerable to destruction from falling trees, and Farmland destroyed 97,244 Ha storms. Intense flooding may have washed away top- Projected cereal production deficit in 2008 955,050 MT soil to expose underground facilities such as buried Schools with collapsed classrooms 69 copper and optic fibre cable networks to obliteration. Number of collapsed classrooms 199 It is estimated that NADMO spends about 85% of its Number of schools affected 210 resources and efforts to address issues related to hy- Health facilities damaged 45 dro-meteorological disasters. For instance in 2007, the Government of Ghana spent GH ¢6,200,000 (62 Drinking water facilities affected/flooded/damaged 634 billion old Ghana Cedis) on floods relief victims in the Source: NADMO, Department of Feeder Roads, Architectural and Engi- neering Services Company, Ghana, 2008. Northern sector, Central and Western regions of Gha- na. This amount was exclusive of the various contributions made by the development partners. Charac- terized by these conditions, the country on the whole is seen to have had its fair share of the harsh climate effects.

The physical and economic planning in different forms has been accepted as an important strategy to attain specific targets for addressing the negative impacts of Climate Change on infrastructural development among others. However, developing economies such as Ghana lack the technology, resources and capacity necessary to tackle these negative influences. Fuelled by these socio-economic impacts & consequences, it will be difficult to attain Ghana’s primary goal, i.e. to foster economic growth and alleviate poverty.

Policy Options for Climate Change-proofing the human habitations The mitigation and adaptation measures to address the impacts of climate variability on land use and infrastructure development are inextricably linked. Given the type and scale of the impacts, the following actions for policy implications are recommended:

1. Change in building technology and standards: There is the need to adopt and implement appropriate techniques, engineering standards and building norms to achieve resilient infrastructure developments. This approach may yield the required comfort, durability and safety. Since temperatures are expected to continually increase, a medium to long term approach towards the increased use of specific traditional building materials such as clay (which has enhanced insulating characteristics) to reduce the need for energy for air conditioning during hot weather conditions should be promoted. Higher capacity drainage systems, enhanced road coatings materials of better resistance to higher temperatures and the use of storm-resistant roofs should be employed. And building houses on raised platforms in flood prone zones 3

EPA Policy Advice Series No: 9 would make them less vulnerable to the negative effects of Climate Changes. The use of storm-resistant telecommunication masts and replacement of aerial phone lines with underground lines may be an appropriate adaptation measure to address the damage due to torrential rains and storms.

2. Enhanced awareness: At the regional and district levels, regulators need to create and increase awareness of climate related issues and energy savings possibilities so as to transform ways infrastructure development in order to achieve better comfort, durability and safety.

3. Collaborative responses: Sustainable infrastructure development is the cornerstone. While legislative and institutional failures are potentially Source : NADMO obvious at all levels (national, regional and district), cross-sectoral approaches may be more relevant. The metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies in conjunction with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ghana Real Estate Developers Association (GREDA) and utility service providers should collaborate to enforce related laws and regulations. Stringent enforcement of building standards and regulations in our towns and cities would not only provide better living communities but also ensure that the environment is unnecessarily not disturbed.

4. Regulating residential infrastructure provision: The development of a formal real estate market, where the supply of residential stock would be delivered by organized bodies such as GREDA (as against the rapid growing informal market characterized by individual developers), may extensively reduce the haphazard un-planned sprawl of Ghana’s towns and cities. The risk from unsustainable development of homes along water ways, neighbourhoods characterized by poor drainage and high silt accumulation, would be better controlled.

5. Stringent habitation planning & regulation: Since both urban and rural communities are vulnerable and adversely affected by the high risk of future Climate Change, it may be advisable to promote participatory, but stringent, land use planning practices and zoning codes. Forward planning strategies navi- gating medium-to-long-term and cross-sectoral perspectives to encompass population-related issues, land use management, and environment risk management, stand to achieve a greater impact.

6. Ensuring supportive financing: In order to adapt to the negative impacts of climate variability would require the infrastructure developers to have an easy access to financial services (for example- insurance companies in the country should be willing and able to share the associated risk through innovative insurance products).

7. Continued research and data collection to inform strategies: This entire adaption and mitigation process would however, require a deeper understanding and knowledge of the potential impacts of Climate Change on national development. The data presently available on the current temperature variability, rainfall intensity and severity of droughts at the national, regional and district levels is limited. It would thus be important to conduct baseline studies to determine and verify these indicators for major settlements in Ghana.

We do not want to underestimate the negative effects of Climate Change, nor do we want to overesti- mate them. This opportunity serves as a wake-up call because any increase in the frequency or intensity of floods and droughts would not only be attributed to the damaging impacts of global Climate Change but also to the lack of shared responsibilities.

Climate Change in this regard could be best described as one of the most important challenges facing humanity today. It therefore needs to be confronted with shared recognition and actions. 4

This EPA Policy Advice Series This Policy Advice Series is part of a series of 12. They have been devel- No: 10 covers issues pertaining oped with the aim of enhancing understanding and appreciation of Cli- mate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy makers and senior to consequences of Climate technocrats and to support them in taking the urgently needed deci- PAS Change on Tourism Sector in sions. Its development has been coordinated by Environmental Protec- Ghana. tion Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Planning Com- mission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management Organisation The Policy Advice Series Overview PAS 0 (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and Agen- 10 gives the context and the background cies (MDAs) and through the financial support of United Nations Devel- opment Programme (UNDP) - Ghana. We would like to thank all those of Climate Change and Disaster Risks people and instituitions who have contributed to the development of this for Ghana and should be read first. Policy Advice Series. CAN TOURISM REDUCE THE IMPACT CLIMATE CHANGE AND POVERTY? As a global challenge, Climate Change is one of the most important and current problems facing humanity. While climate is a key resource for tourism, the $880 billion international tourism industry is highly sensitive to the impacts of Climate Change and global warming, many elements of which are already being 2 felt. Tourism is not only a victim to Climate Change it is also a sector contributing about 5% of global CO emissions. In the decades ahead, Climate Change will become an increasingly pivotal issue affecting tourism development and management and countries and economic sectors will have to contend with the challenges of Climate Change through adaptation and mitigation.

Tourism in Ghana Tourism is the 4th highest foreign exchange earner after gold, cocoa and remittances of Ghanaian residents abroad (2008 estimated US$ 1.3 Billion from about 700,000 international arrivals). It is also a major contributor to employment creation and a viable tool for conservation of environment and local cultures.

The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has declared that ‘warming of the climate system is unequivocal.’ And globally averaged surface temperatures will rise by 1.8°C to 4.0°C by the end of the 21st century.

Given current trends the likely effects of Climate Change may include Tem- perature extremes, heat waves; Intense wind patterns (tornadoes, hurri- A tourist site—Kakum National Park canes); and Heavy rains associated with floods will continue to escalate in frequency, affecting the relative attractiveness of destinations and the motive for international tourists to leave their country of origin.

Unfortunately, while the changes in the climate have a negative impact on tourism destination and management, the tourism sector, at the same time, is a negligible (5% of the world total - 2005) contributor to Climate Change. And within the tourism sector, transport accounts for 75% of all emissions by the tourism sector, aviation sector being the largest contributor. Accommodation represents about 21% with larger hotels contributing a major bulk of emissions. The balance is contributed by the tourist activities, for example the use of speed boats for water sports on the Volta lake Photo Courtesy: www.crossculturalsolutions.org results in the release of more emissions than hiking in national parks and

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Impacts and Adaptation at Tourism Destinations According to the UNWTO Secretary-General Francesco Frangialli – 2007, “It is vital for tourism destinations to anticipate the coming changes and to draw their consequences, starting now. Adaptation is not easy, because it entails, all at the same time, modifying economic circuits, introducing new technologies, carrying out intensive training, investing in the creation of new products, changing the minds of public authorities, entrepreneurs, host communities and tourists.” There is a critical need for the tourism sector to evaluate the effectiveness of current adaptations under projected climate conditions. In an era of global Climate Change, it will no longer be sufficient to rely on past experience. The information requirements for effective, anticipatory Climate Change adaptation will be substantial. Hurricane Katrina and the extremely warm winter of 2006-2007 in the European Alps has shown that adaptations can be overwhelmed by events unexpected and beyond the range and experience of the tourism sector. Adaptation is therefore a critical area for future research.

Direct climatic impacts

Some projected Climate Change resulting from extreme Weathers:

 Higher maximum temperature & more hot days.  Greater tropical storms intensity and peak winds.  Intense precipitation( rain, snow).  Longer and severe drought in many mid- latitudes & continental interiors etc. will affect the tourism industry as follows:  Increased infrastructural damage.  Additional emergency preparedness requirements.  Higher Industry operating expenses(e.g. insurance, back-up water & power systems and evacua- tions).  Business interruptions.  Inconvenience, risk, danger and high cost of holidays to tourists.

Indirect environmental change impacts Because environmental conditions are such a critical resource for tourism, a wide-range of climate- induced environmental changes will have profound effects on tourism at the host destination and regional level. These may include:

 Changes in water availability.  Altered agricultural production (e.g., agro-based tourism, Cocoa Trail Tourism in Ghana).  Increased natural hazards especially bush fires & destruction of eco-tourism sites).  Bio-diversity loss - flora (mangroves) & fauna (sea turtles, manatees).  Reduced landscape aesthetics through erosion and landslides.  Coastal Erosion & inundation of beach resorts and historical sites, e.g. Keta and the coastal villages.  Increasing incidence of vector borne diseases particularly malaria which poses threats to tourism.

Mitigation Options for Road Transport In view of the impact of the Climate Change on tourism, it is important to adopt measures to mitigate these impacts. Some mitigation options for the tourism sector include:

Reducing energy use / Conservation: Changing transport behaviour (e.g. shift to rail and coach instead of car and aircraft, choosing closer destinations), changing management practices (e.g. videoconferencing for business tourism). This means that intra-country rail systems and cross-border rail systems should be improved upon and constructed in Ghana and its neighbouring countries. This will reduce transportation cost and improve energy efficiency.

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Use of renewable or carbon-neutral energy: Substitute fossil fuels with energy sources that are not finite and cause lower emissions, such as biomass, hydro, wind, and solar energy. Government should consider the use of these fuels. These fuels will not only support tourism but will reduce government expenditure on crude oils which are also exhaustible.

Sequestering CO2 through carbon sinks: Cars contribute more than 80% emission of the land transport (but only 15%- 20% for tourism purpose). Key emissions abatement options for car transport may include the following:

 Adoption of cleaner fuels

 Development of more energy efficient vehicles- building Photo Courtesy: www.elementsmarket.com vehicles which burn less fossil fuel.  Promoting changes to consumer behaviour reduction

Mitigation Options for Air Transport  Acceleration of fleet renewal with more fuel efficient planes  Reduce infrastructure inefficiencies in airspace management  Conclude Global climate agreement on international aviation emissions  Adopt Research & Development innovation to develop new long-term technology which could further reduce emissions and use of alternative fuels

Mitigation Options for Accommodation Subsector Operational & technical measures necessary to reduce energy use as well as emissions may include:  Heat containment units  Building Energy Management Systems (+EE Appliances)  Change in room temperature - limiting the use of air conditioning  Building design for new buildings  Change in energy source  Solar (e.g. ACCOR Hotel Group plans to equip 200 properties worldwide with Solar Panels)  Biomass/Bio-fuel (e.g. Sugarcane, Corn, Beets, Sunflower in Brazil &USA)  Combined heat Power Change in consumer behaviour  Increased energy awareness  Incentives for customers that use less than average energy

Impacts of mitigation policies on tourist mobility National or international mitigation policies that seek to reduce Green House Gas emissions, are likely to have an impact on tourist flows. Their implementation will lead to an increase in transport costs and may foster environmental attitudes that lead tourists to change their travel patterns (e.g., shift transport mode or destination choices).

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Policy Recommendations In Ghana, there is the need for:

 Government to implement concrete, simultaneous actions for mitigation, adaptation, technology and financing, consistent with the Millennium Development Goals.

 Collaborate in international strategies, policies and action plans to reduce GHG emissions inthe transport (in cooperation with Transport Ministry, ICAO and other aviation organizations), accommodation and related tourism activities.

 Introduce trainings, education and awareness programs for all tourism stakeholders – public and private sector – as well as consumers.

 Promote eco-tourism, programmes and projects as part of biodiversity, natural ecosystems and land- scapes conservation by involving local communities, strengthening their resilience to Climate Change and ensure their participation in a long-term sustainable use of the environmental resource base of tourism.

 Support and sensitise private sector operatives particularly hotels, big restaurants, amusement parks etc to promote carbon free environments by diminishing pollution through design( especially of hotel facilities), operations ( energy efficient systems- solar panels, energy efficient bulbs and other appli- ance ) and market responsive.

 Provide orientation and encourage tourists to opt for environmentally-friendly activities that reduce their carbon footprint as well as contribute to the preservation of the natural environment and cultural heritage.

Material Referred:

1.Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Summary for Policymakers (2007a & b)). Contribution of Working Groups I, II & III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. 2. (Stern, N. (2006). The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 3.Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (p.811-841). Cambridge, United Kingston and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. 4.United Nations World Tourism Organization (2003). Climate Change and Tourism: Proceedings of theFirst International Confer- ence on Climate Change and Tourism, Djerba, Tunisia, 9-11 April 2003.Madrid: World Tourism Organization. 5.Gossling, S. & Hall, C.M. (2006). An introduction to tourism and global environmental change. In: S.Gossling & C.M. Hall (Eds.), Tourism and Global Environmental Change (p.1-34). London: Routledge. 6.Scott, D. (2006). Climate Change and sustainable tourism in the 21st century. In: J. Cukier (Ed.),Tourism Research: Policy, Plan- ning, and Prospects (p.175-248). Waterloo: Department of Geography Publication Series, University of Waterloo. 7.Becken, S. & Hay, J. (2007). Tourism and Climate Change – risks and opportunities. Cleveland: Channel View Publications. 8.Peeters, P. (2007). Tourism and Climate Change Mitigation – Methods, Greenhouse Gas Reductions and Policies. NHTV Academ- ics Studies No. 6. NHTV. Breda, The Netherlands: Breda University. 9.United Nations World Tourism Organization (2007). Tourism Development and Climate Change:Understanding, Anticipating, Adapting, Participating in the Common Effort. 10.HYPERLINK "http://www.un.org/apps/sg/sgstats.asp?nid=2603"http://www.un.org/apps/sg/sgstats.asp?nid=2603. 11.Regional Climate Projections. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I tothe Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change *Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Mar- quis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)+. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 12.Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Re- port of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (p.357-390). Cambridge, United Kingdom & New York, NY, USA: Cam- bridge University Press. 4

This EPA Policy Advice Se- This Policy Advice Series is part of a series of 12. They have been de- ries No: 11 covers issues veloped with the aim of enhancing understanding and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy makers and sen- pertaining to impacts of Cli- ior technocrats and to support them in taking the urgently needed deci- PAS mate Change on Transport sions. Its development has been coordinated by Environmental Protec- Sector in Ghana. tion Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Planning Com- mission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management Organisation The Policy Advice Series Overview (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and Agen- 11 PAS 0 gives the context and the cies (MDAs) and through the financial support of United Nations Devel- background of Climate Change and opment Programme (UNDP) - Ghana. We would like to thank all those Disaster Risks for Ghana and should people and instituitions who have contributed to the development of be read first. this Policy Advice Series . Deteriorating transport sector: can Ghana’s economy withstand it?

Changes in the climate, intensified by man’s activities, have resulted in more frequent storms, an intensification of precipitation, increase in flooding, a rise in sea level and sea erosion and an increase in mass

wasting events, for example, landslides among others. Unplanned human activities in the country, for in-

stance, the destruction of forests, mangroves, sand winning on the coasts, the improper planning of com-

munities, among others, have aggravated the impacts of Climate Change to the extent that the road and

drainage infrastructure, over the years, are either in deterioration or a total destruction.

For instance, in the 2007 floods in the Northern Region, 13 bridges collapsed, 70 feeder roads were destroyed, 1,016 (km) length of feeder roads were destroyed and 442 culverts were damaged.

In 2009, a flash flood that occurred in Kaneshie, a suburb of Accra, practically rolled off the asphalt on the Kaneshie Highway. The rains destroyed pavements and property. Four major bridges along trunk roads that were destroyed during the 2007 floods in the Upper East region cost the Ghana Highway Authority GH ¢768,000.00 to put them in a motorable shape while an estimated cost of US $25 million is being sought for their reconstruction. In the face of such deterioration, destruction and attendant poverty, it is important that policy makers put measures in place to protect and explore robust options in the transportation sector.

Impact of Climate Change on Transport Sector in Ghana Climate Change, the single biggest challenge facing the world today, is a dangerously real phenomenon that Ghana, just like other developing countries is experiencing. Unfortunately, the transport sector is one of the important sectors that is heavily impacted by the effects of Climate Change.

In 2007, Northern Ghana experienced se- In Ghana, the road and drainage infrastructure from 1984, vere flooding resulting in the destruction of 1992, 1995, 2007 and more recently, 2009 and 2010, contin- 1,016km length of feeder roads connecting ues to experience rapid deterioration from higher intensity 70 road sections. Thirteen (13) bridges rainfall. Even though the main components or modes of Gha- along feeder roads also collapsed. Four na’s transportation system are road, rail, air and water, all of major bridges along trunk roads that were which play important though varying roles across the coun- destroyed during the 2007 floods in the try, road transportation, without a doubt, is an essential ele- Upper East region cost the Ghana Highway ment of Ghana’s economic and social well-being indicators Authority GH ¢768,000.00 to put them in a since it carries about 95% of both passengers and freight in motor-able shape while an estimated cost the country. of US $25 million is being sought for their reconstruction.

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Changes in precipitation patterns, Table 1: 2007 NORTHERN FLOODS AND THE DAMAGE CAUSED (increase in the intensity and fre- QUANTUM OR quency of heavy rainfall) could also No DAMAGE/LOSS VARIABLES RANGE OF DAMAGE affect road transport infrastructure. 1 Generally affected, including displaced persons 317,127 This should inform the designing of 2 Deaths 61 roads, highways, bridges and cul- 3 Houses affected (damaged, collapsed or washed away) 25,923 verts with respect to storm water 4 Bridges collapsed 13 management and to the deteriora- 5 No of feeder roads destroyed 70 tion of bridges and roads. An increase in debris flows and floods 6 Length of feeder roads destroyed 1,016 (km) due to changes in the frequency and 7 Number of culverts damaged 442 intensity of rains could also affect 8 Major dams damaged 2 road transport systems with signifi- 9 Irrigation dams/affected /destroyed 39 cant economic implications especial- 12 Farmland destroyed 97,244 HA ly in urban areas where flooding de- stroys both human lives and proper- 13 Projected cereal production deficit in 2008 955,050 MT ties. Please refer to table 1. 14 Schools with collapsed classrooms 69

15 Number of collapsed classrooms 199

16 Number of schools affected 210

17 Health facilities damaged 45 18 Drinking water facilities/flooded/contaminated 634

Transport Policy and Climate Change The impacts of Climate Change on road transport over the next decade in Ghana are expected to be largely manageable especially with the Ministry of Roads and Highways integrating Climate Change into transport policies, plans and programmes to mitigate and adapt to the effects of Climate Change. After going through a Strategic Environmental Assess- ment (SEA), the National Transport Policy is geared towards sustainable development and strategies. A wide variety of adaptation measures are available in the road transport sector. This ranges from the redesign of the infrastructure, to measures to mitigate emissions from vehicles A damaged bridge through cleaner technologies and adapting human behaviour.  An increasing support for more sustainable road transportation systems e.g. shorten commutes and increase accessibility to goods and services, which would add environment and equity to existing priorities of efficiency and safety.

 Providing financial incentives to use transport services/modes that are inherently safer and more reliable, even in the face of a changing climate, e.g. the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) which is currently being implemented under the Ghana Urban Transport Project.

 Policy statement 4.2.2.3 states that “Non motorized transport shall be developed to improve afforda- bility and accessibility for urban and rural communities”.

 Additionally “Goal 6” of the National Transport Policy indicates that the entire policy shall “ensure sustainable development in the transport sector”.

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Specific policy statements under this goal include:

 “SEA will be carried out on all transport policies, plans and programmes, ensuring environmental and cost benefits and risks are considered for each transport mode” (policy statement 4.2.6.1);

 “all transport infrastructure development and maintenance projects (above a certain threshold) will comply with existing environmental (EIA), health and safety regulations” (policy statement 4.2.6.2);

 “Health and safety of communities, operatives and users shall be assured in all modes of transportation” (policy statement 4.2.6.3); and

 “Fuel efficiency, conservation and pollution control measures shall be promoted for road transportation” (policy statement 4.2.6.4).

Policy Recommendations A coastal road eroded by rising sea in Keta Municipality area. Additional strategies to mitigate and adapt to the effects of Climate Change on transport sector should be considered in the following areas:  Development of transport infrastructure should be integrated with land use policy.

 The Ministry of Transport should redesign the drainage structures and systems with new data from the Meteorological Agency.

 The Ministry should adapt new construction technologies to enable the transportation infrastructure to withstand extreme weather conditions resulting from Climate Change Flooding in Kubwa area (Courtesy: Sunday Nation) through research and studies.

 The Ministry and the relevant road maintenance departments and agencies and the Metropolitan/ Municipal and District Assemblies should ensure adequate and timely maintenance of roads and drainage structures to reduce maintenance backlog in order that poor conditions of roads during rainfall is reduced.

 Road sub sector carries about 95% of Ghana’s passengers and freight. The Ministry should explore other modes of transport like trams/railways to reduce the negative climatic impact on the roads.

Since 95% of the passenger and freight burden is carried by roads, maintenance of existing infrastructure, planning alternate routes and modes of transportation, ensuring connectivity with vulnerable areas is a critical mitigation strategy. A maintenance needs analysis indicates that the current level of funding of about GH ¢130million annually from the Ghana Road Fund for maintenance covers about 60% of the maintenance needs. The shortfall of about GH ¢ 87million for the remaining 40% as well as new infrastructure should be provided from the Consolidated Fund or from other Donor support with specific focus on Climate Change mitigation.

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Material Referred:

National Transport Policy MRH Maintenance Needs Analysis Report

This Policy Brief is part of a series of 12 briefs. They have been This EPA Policy Brief No: 12 developed with the aim of enhancing understanding and appre- covers the crucial aspects of ciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk issues by the policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in tak- PAS impact on water resources as a ing the urgently needed decisions. Its development has been consequence of Climate Change coordinated by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), supported by National Development Planning Commission and The EPA Policy Brief Overview NADMO (in collaboration with the Ministries, Departments and 12 gives the context and the back- Agencies) and through the financial support of UNDP - Ghana. ground of Climate Change and dis- We would like to thank all the people and instituitions who have aster risks for Ghana and should be contributed to the development of this Policy Brief.

And not a Drop to Drink: Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources Weather events are strong determinants of the sustainability of water resources and water. Notably among these are droughts, dry spells, unreliable rainfall and excess runoff including floods, which pose potential threats to sectors such as energy, health, agriculture and food security, forestry, housing and settlement, and transport. Early detection, planning and action, monitoring and evaluation, as well as adaptive management at the water resources management level will help minimise high future economic and financial cost, and human insecurity in the face of Climate Change. Yet, it is only highly committed policy frameworks and interventions that can control these challenges to the water resources sector and thus emerging as one of the greatest policy tests of our time in a crosscutting sector.

Water resources in Ghana Of all the water we have, 97.5% is salt water and only 2.5% is fresh water. Of this relatively small amount of freshwater, roughly 69% is not accessible and almost 30% is groundwater. This leaves only about 1% of all freshwater in freshwater rivers, lakes, wetlands, and soil moisture. Unpredictable weather, especially late start of the rainfall season and or shorter rainy season are evidence of Climate Change in Ghana. Studies at Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute (CSIR-WRI) show that even without Climate Change considerations, Ghana is predicted to become a water stress country by 2025. In the face of increases in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events in the future, Cli- mate Change will result in flooding and also worsen future water scarcity in many places in the country. The main consumptive uses of water in Ghana are water supply, irrigation and livestock watering. For the purpose of this policy brief the focus will be on fresh water and more specifically domestic consumption.

The CSIR-WRI 2000 report on Climate Change and water resources estimates:

 A general reduction in annual river flows in Ghana by 15-20 % for the year 2020 and 30-40 % for the year 2050.

 A reduction in groundwater recharge of 5-22 % for 2020 and 30-40% for 2050.

 By the year 2020, all river basins will be vulnerable and the whole country will face acute water shortage.

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Impacts of Climate Change on water resources1 are visible through various agents:

Earthquakes, volcano eruption and tsunamis: According to geologists, the rise in the sea water and its attendant flooding results in the sea water percolating into fault lines. The crusting of these fault lines with salt will cause their expansion which will result in pressure on the fault lines, leading to an increase in intensity and frequency of earthquakes, Haiti being a case in point2. The moved state of layers, not only result in destruction of water supply infrastructure and contamination of drinking water but also presents unknown picture about quantitative and qualitative character of the groundwater reservoirs3.

Flooding: Climate Change has resulted in heavy precipitation events within short periods of rain- generated floods after which longer dry periods follow. Ghana experiences perennial flooding in Upper East, Upper West and Northern Regions and parts of Western Region. Rainfall and flood events of 23rd April 2008 and 24th June 2009 destroyed farms and homes. The one that occurred in 2007 affected about 332,600 people. Coastal areas risk flooding of human settlement from both rising sea levels and increased heavy precipitation. Similar to earthquakes, frequent floods have the potential to wreck havoc on expensive water infrastructures for domestic water supply, irrigation and hydropower generation, and also exacerbate many forms of water pollution resulting in poor water quality. These result from sediments, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, dissolved organic carbon from waste materials, and pathogens, with severe consequences for human health, and water systems reliability. Flooding as a result of Sea-level rise according to the IPCC is projected to extend areas of saltiness of groundwater (also wells and boreholes) and decrease of freshwater availability. Forcing people to travel longer distances in search of good quality water and cope with power shortage and loss of agricultural yield.

Drought: A 10% changes in precipitation or a 1ºC rise in temperature can cause a reduction in overflow of not less than 10%, resulting in drying rivers. Scenarios show that there will be reduction in water flows between 15 -20% and 30-40% for the year 2020 and 2050 respectively (WRI: 2000), resulting in almost 100% increase in area of land subject to water stress/ drought by 2050. The impact is compounded by higher temperatures leading to greater demands for water. Rainfall deficits in water resources catchments is likely to dramatically reduce available water for domestic consumption and further have a negative impact on crop yields and livestock numbers (Bates et al. 2008).

Runoff and streamflow: Surface runoff or discharges of water in all major river basins are sensitive to changes in precipitation and temperature and thus to changes in climatic conditions. Annual river flows in Ghana is projected to drop by 15-20 % for the year 2020 and 30-40 % for the year 2050, suggesting a reduction in total runoff. Climate projections for Ghana also suggests heavy precipitation events within short periods of time, which indicates significant increase in run-off over shorter period of time followed by longer dry periods or leading to droughts.

Changing groundwater recharge and storage: Underground water (e.g. water from wells and boreholes) is considered invisible and with the most difficult water resource management challenges. Drinking water coverage in Ghana is very low, 45% rural and 70% urban population, forcing many communities to depend on underground water for their water supply. If the runoff from rainfall that flows into rivers and streams is affected by changes in temperature, so too is the water underground. Reduction in groundwater recharge is projected between 5-22% by 2020 and 30-40% by 2050.

1. There are numerous identified threats via cross cutting themes that are representative of sectors of agriculture and food security, forestry, energy, health, infrastructure, transport and industry and have been dealt with in respective Policy Briefs. 2. According to IDB -WP-163 cost of physical damage from Haiti’s earthquake ranges from $8 billion to $13 billion. The total estimated death toll is well over 200,000 and approx. 1.3 million people homeless (Partners In Health). 3. Groundwater related environmental problems after an earthquake: Olga Nitcheval, Grigor Velkovsky, Institute of Water Problems, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences . 2

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Government’s financial support to Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) involved in the management and utilization of water resources has declined over the years. For instance in the 2004 fiscal year, government’s budgetary allocation to Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) was ¢12.5bn out of the ¢18bn requested, in 2005, ¢5.7bn was approved out of ¢13.6bn, while only ¢4.7bn was approved out of the ¢11.0bn requested for the 2006 fiscal year. 2010 is no different when the approved budget is 35% of the requested amount. The situation is the same in other organisations and agencies. There is also lack of baseline data and monitoring of Ghana’s water resources by MDAs due to inadequate funds, trained personnel, bureaucracy and harsh environment. Lack of inter disciplinary training is resulting in inability of managers and leaders to think across disciplinary boundaries leading to one-dimensional solutions.

The National Water Policy (NWP) – A Water Security Dimension Water security is defined as ‘the reliable availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production, coupled with an acceptable level of water-related risks’ (Grey and Sadoff 2007). To achieve water security, investments is needed in infrastructure to store and transport water, treat and reuse waste water as well as building robust institutions and information and capacity to predict, plan for and cope with Climate Change. Such investments will lead to cross-sector adaptation to Climate Change for managing current climate variability and shocks. Development policy focus on water security is a sound early adaptation strategy, and thus able to deliver immediate benefits to vulnerable and underserved populations, and to other sectors (e.g. energy, health, agriculture, forestry, industry).

Focus Area 1: Integrated Water Resource Management Commitments to Climate Change issues provide basis to scale up these policy statements to look at critical issues of cross-sectoral implications of Climate Change impacts. Analysing these policy statements and objectives suggest that there is scanty information or data availability on challenges of Climate Change and water resources. The emphasis of the policy on Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) offers the opportunity for relevant stakeholders in the sector to propose, plan, and jointly manage water resources and considering sectors such as energy, agriculture / food security, forestry, roads and infrastructure. “Ghana Coastlands and Wetland Management Project” is one remarkable case in point which was initiated in 1992 with the objective of promoting participatory conservation and sustainable utilisation of wetlands through community awareness building, training of community rangers/wardens and the implementation of civil works through collective management approaches, improving ecological health and socio economic conditions of the sites. As a result Wetlands Policy of Ghana was formulated in 1999 recognising wetlands as an important component of country’s natural resources and establishing the institutional and operational framework within the public and private sectors for sustainable utilisation and participatory management of resources.

Focus Area 2: Access to Water A water security dimension of water resources policy of which IWRM as a component gives more attention to uncertainties and it is risk conscious, of which Climate Change is one. Thus, allowing the cross- sectoral water – climate policy objectives to be expanded. A water security dimension to the NWP is also a strong player in advancing the Millennium Development Goals, while strengthening systems and capacities for longer-term climate risk management (Bates et al. 2008).

Focus Area 3: Water for Food Security Very often water security is seen as analogous to ‘food security’ and ‘energy security’, which are generally defined as reliable access to sufficient supplies, but the focus on water security emphasises water as a resource, and that also captures the destructive aspects, amplified by Climate Change. Focus Area 4: Climate Variability and Change With first policy objective ‘to minimize the effects of climate variability and change’ shows commitment to include Climate Change issues in water resources management.

EPA Policy Brief No: 12

Focus Area 5: Planning and Research Under one of the policy measures / action, that ‘ensure that assessment and analysis of water resources availability and the impact of Climate Change and catchment degradation on water resources, are facili- tated’ (GoG 2007).

Government’s financial support to Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) involved in the management and utilization of water resources has declined over the years. For instance in the 2004 fiscal year, government’s budgetary allocation to CWSA was ¢12.5bn out of the ¢18bn requested, in 2005, ¢5.7bn was approved out of ¢13.6bn, while only ¢4.7bn was approved out of the ¢11.0bn requested for the 2006 fiscal year. 2010 is no different were the approved budget is 35% of the requested amount. The situation is the same in other organisations and agencies. There is also lack of baseline data and monitoring of Ghana’s water resources by MDAs due to inadequate funds, trained personnel, bureaucracy and harsh environment. Lack of inter disciplinary training is resulting in inability of managers and leaders to think across disciplinary boundaries leading to uni-dimensional solutions.

Policy Options towards Climate Change and Water Resources  Technical mainstreaming of expertise, data exchange and investment: A policy objective could be to establish information sharing platform and clearinghouse with unrestricted access by relevant sectors, establish exchange programme and investment in infrastructure and climate science.

 Expanded mandates of water resources management institutions and jurisdictions: A policy objective could be to tailor capacity that leads to the recruitment of experts of other sectors with jurisdictions in water resources within water resources and water supply management institutions.

The ever rising demand for water, planned future growth in housing, hydro-power needs and the uncertainties of Climate Change, raise difficult issues for sustainable water resource management. Policy decisions taken must also include the cost of water management and where this money will come from.

The negative impacts of Climate Change on water resources will lead to shortage in the availability of projected water supply for irrigation, hydropower generation and health, nutrition, infrastructure and energy -based industries. Cross-sectoral policy intervention and investment in opportunities the impacts present are a key to the success of the sector and adaptation to the potential negative impacts.

Material Referred:

1. Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S., Palutikof, J.P. Eds. (2008). Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper of the Inter- governmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 210 pp. 2. Grey, D., Sadoff, C. (2007). Sink or Swim? Water Security for Growth and Development. Water Policy Vol. 9 (6): 545- 571.. 3. Water Research Institute (WRI) (2000). Climate Change Vulnerability Adaptation Assessment on Water Resources of Ghana. CSIR, Accra. 4. Government of Ghana (GoG) (2007). National Water Policy. Ministry of Water Resources Works and Housing (MWRWH), Government of Ghana, Accra. 5. Becerra, Oscar · Cavallo, Eduardo A. Powell (2010). Estimating the direct economic damage of earthquake in Haiti, Inter American Development Bank-Working Paper-163. 6. Olga Nitcheval, Grigor Velkovsky. Groundwater related environmental problems after an earthquake, Institute of Water Problems, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.

4 The Policy Advice Series (PAS) has beenEnvironmental developed with Protection the aim of enhancingAgency of understanding Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk isues by policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in taking the decisions that are urgently needed. Its development has been coordinated bythe Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and supported by National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management PAS Organization (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Department Orgnaizations and Agencies (MDAs). Financial support was provded by the Africa Adaptation Programme funded by the Japanese Government through the United Nations Development Programme 13 (UNDP). We would like to thank all the people and institutions that have contributed to this PAS. *The EPA PAS Overview (PAS0) gives the context and background of Climate Change and Disaster Risks for Ghana and should be read first.

Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction: Policy Action for Technology Impact in Agriculture

With Ghana aiming at attaining a per capita income of at least $3,000 by the year 2020, the country has no option but to formulate policies and strategies to ensure that technology drives all socio-economic activities as has been done by many developed and emerging economies. This is especially critical for the agricultural sector which constitutes a leading economic sector for Ghana. In the case of climate change and disaster risk reduction, technological solutions are critical given the challenges posed by poverty and ineffective agricultural practices. Ghana’s scientific institutions have developed some technologies which can be transferred to farmers and other actors in the agricultural sector to enable adaptation and for disaster risk reduction. This has to be done within the appropriate policy frameworks. In this regard, the linkage between the relevant policy institutions and the scientific agencies must be strengthened to ensure focus of Research and Development on climate change adaptation in agriculture. The vital political will and commitment to the application of technology must be reinforced. Sector- specific policy actions to address the challenges in technology transfer, adoption and application to enhance agricultural productivity in areas where climate change impact is evident needs to be initiated.

Context and Importance of the Problem no option but to formulate policies and strategies to ensure that technology drives all socio-economic Technology is the application of knowledge activities, especially if the country wants to reduce embodied in tangible and intangible forms. The the impact of climate change and disaster risks. tractor, combine harvester, corn mill, car, train, chain saw, microscope and telescope are all examples In Ghana, climate change effects and associated risks of tangible technology. The techniques for producing are well visible in the key sectors of agriculture which palm wine, fermenting cocoa, planting corn for primarily depends on good climatic conditions. The optimal yields and appropriate application of agro- majority of small-holder farmers plant according to chemicals are examples of intangible technologies. rain cycles and the use of technological inputs such as Technology is a major factor of production and in tractors and farm machinery is low. Even where there is all sectors of the economy plays a crucial role in access to modern technology, the cultural practices of enhancing productivity. The crucial role technology the people may inhibit its adoption. A classic example plays in national development is clearly seen in the is the prohibition of motorized boats on some water experiences of advanced and emerging economies. bodies for fear of invoking the wrath of water deities. Any country with a strong capacity to produce, adapt and use technology, industrializes and Furthermore, farmers’ relatively low adoption advances socio-economically. Today, emerging of fertilizer constrains the achievement of economies like China, India, Brazil, Korea and optimal yields on the farms. More importantly, Malaysia are what they are today partly because the irresponsible use of pesticides especially for of their national capacities to generate and use vegetable farming poses a danger to the health of technology. Therefore, every country must create consumers. The general result is the low average the vital capacity to use technology in all its forms. yields of many crops which are below their With Ghana aiming at achieving an upper middle- achievable yields and the possible increasing health income status by attaining a per capita income hazards with eating farm produce such as vegetables. of at least US$3,000 by the year 2020 and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), there is Unfortunately, climate change will worsen the

GHANA AAP Ghana | 1 Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X

and unplanned development and the inadequate provision of social services have made urban centers prone to many environmental problems, especially those related to sanitation. The irony is that, there are recycling technologies to meet these challenges to the benefit of agriculture. Organic waste for example can serve as a reliable source for a viable fertilizer industry. Sadly the country has not taken advantage of these technologies.

Ghana started making efforts at creating technological capacity soon after independence in 1957. Research institutions such as the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and higher-level scientific educational institutions such as the Universities were established to serve as the vehicle for building the national technological capacity. Agricultural Photo 1: Powdered fufu that has a longer shelf life research institutes or faculties are key parts of the CSIR and university establishments. These research already bad situation where arable lands become less institutions have developed many agricultural unsuitable for agriculture, insect pest populations technologies including improved varieties of cereals, may increase, especially in an environment where legumes and other crops, some of which are relevant fertilizer application is low and education on for addressing the challenges of climate change. The the impact of climate change is not effective . major challenge is maintaining effective and strong linkages between the points of generation of the Environmental degradation will worsen with climate agricultural technologies and the points of usage. It change and natural disasters. Already Ghana’s forest is generally known that there are barriers to accessing coverage has reduced from about 35% in the 1960s to agricultural technologies even where there are strong less than 20% in 2010. The northern regions of Ghana linkages between institutions generating technologies are losing already thin vegetations and becoming and the points of usage – more precisely the farms more arid. Yet, local communities rely on such and agro industries. In the Ghanaian context, vegetation as source of wood fuel and raw materials financial barriers are very important as most of the for shelter. The use of wood fuel especially for cottage farmers and micro and small scale agro-processors industries and small scale processing is particularly are not well-endowed. The institutional framework regrettable since already there is strong advocacy for addressing such barriers is also very weak. for the promotion of renewable energy. The loss of vegetation affects the whole ecosystem. Water bodies, for example, dry up and fishery resources are lost. Critique of Policy Options

Natural disasters compound the problems when The Ghana Shared Growth and Development they happen. Floods kill, droughts destroy farms and Agenda (GSGDA) states that Science, Technology impoverish families. Along the coasts, sea erosion and Innovation (STI) is the foundation of national is virtually uprooting communities making them development. The crucial and cross-cutting role of either homeless or dependent on others. The mass technology demands that policies are formulated of these people are fisher folks and farmers. The to address specific challenges in specific sectors. good thing is that there are technological solutions The critical question to answer is: what types of to almost all these problems. If such solutions are technologies are needed to address the challenge not being applied then a major reason could be of climate change in agriculture? The answer that policy actions to ensure that such solutions are comes with an analysis of the technological implemented are either not available or are weak. demands in the various sub-sectors of agriculture. This is particularly so in cases where the technological solutions do not require huge amounts of money. Agriculture is fundamental to the achievement of the developmental goals of the country. In agricultural Waste management in urban and rural settlements production and processing, technologies are needed is a major challenge today. Rapid urbanization for farming, livestock rearing, food processing

AAP Ghana | 2 Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X and post harvest storage. Sadly agriculture is still into reality. The National Science, Technology and dependent on outmoded implements such as hoes Innovation Policy states the broad objectives of and cutlasses. The use of tractors, irrigation systems promotion research and development, the transfer of and other means of mechanization are minimal. The technologies and enhancing science and technology application of agro-chemicals including pesticides culture in the society. However, the concrete steps to and herbicides on the farms is rather limited. Even achieving these objectives are yet to be deliberated the adoption of improved seeds is constrained by a and implemented. Even where efforts have been number of factors such as poverty and ignorance. made to promote the adoption of the technological Existing policy documents such as the Food and solutions, they have not been far-reaching enough. Agricultural Sector Development Policy (FASDEP) A case in point is the efforts made in the agricultural and Medium-Term Agricultural Sector Investment sector to inject more technology application in Plan (METASIP) have clear pronouncements on farming such as the provision of tractor services. modernization of agriculture. The documents In many farming areas where tractors could be emphasize on stimulating the diffusion of improved used for preparing farmlands, farmers’ patronage varieties of crops and agro-chemical inputs as well of these services has not been as expected. Policy as expanding irrigation for agricultural production. makers need to get back to the drawing board and However, the goal of modernizing agriculture will define strategies to implement policy actions in not be achieved without concrete interventions order to achieve the desired technology impact. to ensure the needed technological impact.

Agro-industry in Ghana, especially food processing Policy Recommendations is dominated by micro and small enterprises. The main challenge of these enterprises is how to remain In strategizing for the use of technologies in competitive and enhance productivity. Current addressing the climate change impacts in agriculture, national policies pursue a number of initiatives it is best not to re-invent the wheel but rather aimed at addressing this challenge. For example focus on using already existing technologies. Other the establishment of the National Board for Small technological needs can be identified and produced Scale Industries (NBSSI) was meant to improve the in scientific institutions which have the capacity or capacity and efficiency of small scale enterprises be imported as they become necessary. There are including those in agro-industry. However, various options Ghana should consider to stimulate policy factors including the limited innovation and action for technology impact especially in terms of changing food culture can break this down, making addressing the barriers to accessing technology. First, it difficult for the enterprises to be competitive. The national development plans must be more firmly Ghana Industrial Policy highlights the relevance grounded on STI. This will require strengthening the and critical role of STI to industrial development. linkage between the National Development Planning The practical measures to translate this into action Commission, the Ministry of Environment, Science are the creation and strengthening of platforms and Technology (MEST) and its scientific agencies, for technology application and innovation in the and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture. These industrial sector especially at the micro and small institutions should lead in creating the vital political scale levels where most of the local entrepreneurs in will and commitment for STI and agricultural policies agriculture operate. It must be emphasized that value and initiatives. In particular, the linkages between the addition is central to a competitive agro-industry relevant policy institutions and the scientific agencies and strategies to promote value addition hinges on must be strengthened to ensure focus of Research technology adoption and innovation. In promoting and Development on climate change adaptation in value addition solutions are being provided to major agriculture. Making sure that research addresses challenges in the production component of the value the practical needs of farmers will be imperative. chain such as the short shelf life of farm produce. Appropriate technologies such as solar dryers, mills, Secondly, policy actions to address key challenges digesters and edible oil extractors are available for in specific sectors of the economy should be transfer to agro-processors to boost their industry. initiated, especially in the agricultural sector which forms the bedrock of the economy. Strategies to A notable observation is that in all these policies, promote intrinsic innovation at the various scales there appear not to be clear strategies to highlight of agricultural activities need to be clearly spelt out the technological solutions and to detail the and executed. For example, farmers’ adoption of mechanisms to ensure that proposed solutions come techniques for selecting the best available genetic

AAP Ghana | 3 Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X materials for farming should be promoted. In this technology access - inadequate financial resources. regard cooperatives of seed growers should be given The constraint of financial resources shows at all incentives and good marketing platforms to enhance levels in the agricultural system. Interestingly, their operations. Tractor services for farmers in the for climate change there are some windows of rural areas should be enhanced with the necessary opportunities which can serve as schemes for promotional initiatives to get farmers to patronize financing climate change adaptation in agriculture. the services. In the Savanna regions of Ghana, tractor An example is the carbon trading mechanism services are the key to developing larger hectares of operated under the Kyoto Protocol. Afforestation farmland and ensuring the increase in agricultural projects could be registered for carbon trading and the production. More importantly, there should be resources accruing over time used to finance specific intensive public education to change the mindsets of technology transfer projects for climate change those in farming to abandon inimical cultural beliefs adaptation in agriculture. It is also important for the and traditional practices and to develop a culture that state to show its own commitment to the application is positive and supportive of technology adoption. of Science, Technology and information by providing venture capital to commercialize innovations from Thirdly, there is the need to build and sustain strong local research institutions. In a gist, there has to linkages between the institutions of technology be national strategies to provide technological generation and users of technologies such as solutions. The impact will then be holistic and farmers and micro and small-scale processors. The catalytic of national socio-economic development. agricultural extension system with trained personnel providing extension services fairly well ensures that linkage in the production component of the value Sources Consulted chain. However, there is no such institutionalized linkage to ensure vertical and horizontal integration 1. National Development Planning Commission, of industries in the agricultural sector although (2010). Ghana Shared Growth and Development institutions such as the National Board for Small Agenda (GSGDA) 1010 - 2013, NDPC, Accra Scale Industries (NBSSI) attempt to perform 2. Ministry of Environment, Science and that function. There must be a policy action to Technology, (2010). National Science, build and sustain strong linkages for technology Technology and Innovation Policy, MEST, Accra transfer and adoption across the value change in 3. Ministry of Food and Agriculture, (2009). Food agriculture. Such institutional linkages should and Agriculture Sector Development Policy ensure that adaptation is linked to mitigation. (FASDEP II), MOFA, Accra. 4. Essegbey, G.O., (2007). “Technology Transfer Fourthly, it is imperative to pass the Renewable Energy and Diffusion: The Case of Ghana’s Rural Bill. The bill which will lead to the establishment of Enterprises and the Policy Implications”, the Ghana Renewable Energy Fund will stimulate Conference Proceedings of the 1st All Africa entrepreneurial ventures into renewable energy. Technology Diffusion Conference, Boksburg, There are challenges in popularizing the use of South Africa. pp. 1-12. Renewable Energy Technologies especially solar systems as major sources of domestic energy due to the high initial investment cost. However, it must be noted that cost can be reduced through research and development only when usage is high. Other renewable energy technologies also need to be promoted with the same commitment to facilitate value addition and agro-processing at the small-scale level. For example, in the rural areas, the promotion of well managed community woodlots to yield biomass fuel for domestic use has the dual role of addressing energy demand for agro-processing such as shea butter and palm oil extraction, as well as climate change concerns.

Fifthly, there is the need to establish a special framework for addressing the key barrier to

AAP Ghana | 4 The Policy Advice Series (PAS) has beenEnvironmental developed with Protection the aim of enhancingAgency of understanding Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk isues by policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in taking the decisions that are urgently needed. Its development has been coordinated bythe Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and supported by National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management PAS Organization (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Department Orgnaizations and Agencies (MDAs). Financial support was provded by the Africa Adaptation Programme funded by the Japanese Government through the United Nations Development Programme 14 (UNDP). We would like to thank all the people and institutions that have contributed to this PAS. *The EPA PAS Overview (PAS0) gives the context and background of Climate Change and Disaster Risks for Ghana and should be read first.

Public Financing for Climate Change in Ghana: A Shared Responsibility for Government and Donor Partners

Climate is already affecting all aspects of national development in Ghana. Efforts toward building resilience are capital intensive and require huge national and international public financing. This policy brief examines challenges and opportunities of public financing of climate change in Ghana. The analysis indicates that Ghana relies heavily on donor support to direct financing of climate change mitigation and adaptation. However, it is missing out on most funding opportunities due to bottlenecks associated with accessing some funds, lack of knowledge about the existence of funds, procedural errors and limited demonstration of institutional capability to manage accessed funds. It is recommended that the country generates funds internally that would be used to finance adaptation to complement mitigation biased efforts of donor funds, build local institutional capacity to explore funding opportunities, as well as attracting and managing funds effectively if the situation is to be reversed.

Context and Importance of the Problem public financial resources and capacity to effectively address the issue as well as the diverse social and Climate change is unequivocal and continues economic programmes that compete for public to negatively impact on the world. The human financial resources. accelerated change has implications for current and future water availability and accessibility, In the spirit of the “common but differentiated biodiversity conservation, agricultural production responsibilities and respective capacities” under the and food security, disaster frequency and intensity, United Nations Framework Convention for Climate among others. Location specific climate change Change (UNFCCC), developed countries are obliged effects remain unpredictable. Whereas the change to support developing and vulnerable countries with may be disastrous in some areas, other areas could technology, capacity development and financial benefit from such changes. Changes in temperature resources to adapt and mitigate the impacts of climate and rainfall seasonality and intensity has resulted change. The goal of developing countries is to adapt in floods and droughts in different areas, reduced to the unavoidable impacts of climate change and at agricultural productivity and coastal zone erosion. the same time reduce their own carbon emissions. Agriculture, the backbone of Ghana’s economy, Essentially, the support aims at contributing to the supporting about 70% of livelihoods is rain-fed and reduction of global average temperature to below 2°c. at the mercy of climatic elements. The Bali Action Plan and Copenhagen Accord also echoed that financial assistance on climate change Climate change and its associated effects pose activities must be predictable, sustainable, new and daunting environmental and developmental additional to existing developmental assistance to challenges with the potential to reverse the developing countries. successes made towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The intensity of the Public finance refers to all financial allocations by problem is reflected in the fact that even if all governments that are mobilized through tax and mitigation pledges across the globe are redeemed, other sources. Public funds could be nationally or the world will still bear the brunt of climate change internationally sourced. Several international public effects due to the existence of earlier emissions. financial initiatives and mechanisms have been For a developing country like Ghana the situation established to support climate change mitigation and is quite intense largely as a result of inadequate adaptation actions globally. These funds exist in the

GHANA AAP Ghana | 1 Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X

Figure 1: Funding initiatives and their amounts pledged, deposited, approved and disbursed

form of multilateral and bilateral initiatives and are projects in developing countries that are signatories packaged as grants, loans, investment guarantees or to the Kyoto Protocol. In addition, the Copenhagen project insurance. accord committed a “fast-start” amount of about US$30 billion in pledges for disbursement to various Information from the Climate Funds Update, funding initiatives between 2010 and 2012. indicate that the main bilateral financial initiatives In spite of the availability of huge international supporting climate related programmes and actions public financial resources in support of climate include the Japanese Hatoyama Initiative, German change adaptation and mitigation programmes, International Climate Initiative (ICI) and the Ghana has been unable to take full advantage of these Australian International Forest Carbon Initiative facilities. This is partly attributed to accessibility (Figure 1). These initiatives support projects directly challenges inherent within the funding initiatives or through multilateral development banks such as namely: inadequate transparency in disbursement the African Development Bank and the World Bank. procedures, availability of the majority of funds The banks administer the funds through loans, mainly in pledges (figure 1) and the inability of equities, concessional financing, small grants and recipient countries to meet complex eligibility criteria. other initiatives. For example, the Clean Technology The fragmented nature of funds internationally and Fund (CTF) and the Strategic Climate Fund (SCF) nationally hinders efforts to synergise adaptation under the Climate Investment Fund is being financed and national developmental goals. Additionally, the through the World Bank. Other mechanisms include objectives and priorities of many funds are not in the UNFCCC supervised Least Developed Countries agreement with national adaptation priorities. Fund (LDCF) for which Ghana is not eligible and the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) which are In Ghana, Government’s budgetary allocations administered by the Global Environmental Facility exclude adequate direct expenditure on climate (GEF). These two funds support adaptation plans change activities. However, the majority of the and implementation in developing countries. The aforementioned public funding opportunities could Adaptation fund of the Kyoto Protocol is under the be harnessed to address the negative impacts of direct jurisdiction of the UNFCCC and provides climate change and pursue low-carbon production finance for concrete adaptation programmes and alternatives. Unfortunately, a greater percentage

AAP Ghana | 2 Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X of such funds have eluded the country due to lack external funding sources is at variance with national of awareness of the existence of such facilities and development goals. It is in this regard that the the country’s ineligibility to access those funds. In development of strategies to source funding internally many cases, pursued funds are not approved by to bridge the financial gap becomes imperative. fund administrators due to procedural flaws and the inability to demonstrate institutional competencies Critique of Policy Options in managing funds. The inability to secure funding has made it difficult to adequately finance climate Ghana is committed to mitigating and adapting to change activities in the country. the impacts of climate change. Ghana’s medium and long-term development frameworks such as the Ghana Vision 2020, Ghana Poverty Reduction Figure 2: Funding Initiatives supporting climate Strategies, Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy change in Ghana recognized the impact of climate change on the country’s development. The current development framework - Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda- also adequately addressed the issue of climate change. Embedded in these documents are strategies to cushion Ghanaians against the negative impacts of climate change, among others. However, the policy documents fail to state the sources and quantum of financial resource needed to implement climate-related activities. As a result, Ghana’s national budget statements have been unable to adequately make direct financial allocation towards climate change related programmes. Climate change is mentioned in budgets only when donor funds are being sourced or reported. In spite of the meager direct financial resources for climate change activities, MDAs are mandated to mainstream Notwithstanding these challenges, Ghana has climate related strategies into their activities without successfully secured about $21.3 million of the over clear budgetary allocations, largely as a result of the $30 billion pledged for climate change related actions lack of funds. Obviously, such an approach to sector globally. These funds, designated for five mitigation level implementation of climate-related actions will and three adaptation projects were sourced from achieve little results. four of the more than twenty-five international public funded initiatives since 2008 (Figure 2). This Policy Recommendations indicates the inability of the country to fully benefit from international public resources for climate A two pronged approach is required to address change. the issues of making public funding for climate change a shared responsibility - developing internal Even though these funds have translated into some funds generation mechanisms and strategically improvement of national adaptive capacity, more repositioning Ghana to draw funds from diverse needs to be done in this direction. There exist multilateral and bilateral funding initiatives. some evidence to suggest the lack of results-based attitude to project implementation, transparency Developing an internal funds generation mechanism and openness which are key to project ownership Drawing from the implications of climate change and sustainability at the local levels are contributing on the development of Ghana and survival of factors. National estimates of the full cost of climate the citizenry, especially the poor and vulnerable, change adaptation and mitigation is lacking. depending solely on donors to finance climate change However, given the state of technology and capacity activities is not enough for achieving resilience and required to achieve resilience, one can conclude that sustainability. A Climate Endowment Fund should there is a huge funding gap. be established and managed by the National Climate Change Committee (NCCC) to complement external Current discussions on climate change funding are funds. Such funds should focus more on financing donor-focused. However, the attention of these adaptation than mitigation since many donor funds

AAP Ghana | 3 Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X focus on mitigation. Sources of funds should be • Assess the climate finance readiness of the structured in such a way as to promote economic country to enable government know the resources growth and could include: required for climate change mitigation and adapatation. In line with this, spending agencies • A minimal environmental tax levied on products could also be trained to incorporate incremental which have high carbon dioxide emission cost of climate change adaptation into budget potential at sales points. preparation. • Earmarking a percentage of fines imposed on manufacturing companies who fail to adhere to environmental standards stipulated by the Sources Consulted Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of Ghana. 1. National Development Planning Commission, • Introducing a vehicular emission control (2010). Medium-term national development programme and associated sanctions regime to policy framework: Ghana shared growth and be developed by the Environmental Protection development agenda, Accra Ghana Agency (EPA) and appropriate research 2. Environmental Protection Agency . (2011). institutions and implemented by the Driver and Ghana’s Second National Communication to the Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA) as part of UNFCCC. in press. the vehicle road worthy assessment procedure. 3. Ministry of Environment, Science and • Allocating a small percentage of the Value Added Technology. (2010). Ghana Goes for Green Tax to the Fund. Growth. Accra: Ministry of Environment, Science • Imposing carbon tax on oil and gas as well as and Technology. other operations that involve the two natural 4. Heinrich Böll Stiftung. (2010). Evolving global resources climate finance architecture, North America, http://www.climatefundsupdate.org/fast-start- Repositioning Ghana to draw funds from diverse finance, accessed on 09.08/2011 multilateral and bilateral funding initiatives 5. Heinrich Böll Stiftung. (2010). Mitigation finance, Measures that will enable the country to benefit North America, http://www.climatefundsupdate. from multilateral and bilateral financial mechanisms org/fast-start-finance, accessed on 09.08/2011 available to support climate change actions in Ghana 6. Heinrich Böll Stiftung. (2010). Adaptation should include but not limited to the following: finance, North America, http://www. climatefundsupdate.org/fast-start-finance, • Establishing an Advisory Desk either with the accessed on 09.08/2011 EPA or NCCC to collaborate with the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning to explore climate-related funding opportunities and assess Ghana’s eligibility to access such funds in order to advise policy makers. • Enhancing the capacities of institutions that deal with climate change finance in the areas of international negotiation skills and related procedural ethics needed to attract funds. • Developing and packaging a national climate vulnerability assessment and prioritization of adaptation and mitigation programmes for engagement with bilateral and multilateral donors. • Striving to deliver on the outcomes of projects that have already attracted funding to demonstrate the nation’s ability to administer and implement projects successfully and in a transparent manner. • Ensuring more transparency and openness in the administration of climate change funds as well as involving more stakeholders in the process.

AAP Ghana | 4 The Policy Advice Series (PAS) has beenEnvironmental developed with Protection the aim of Agencyenhancing of understandingGhana | Policy Advisory Series X and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk isues by policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in taking the decisions that are urgently needed. Its development has been coordinated bythe Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and supported by National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management PAS Organization (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Department Orgnaizations and Agencies (MDAs). Financial support was provded by the Africa Adaptation Programme funded by the Japanese Government through the United Nations Development Programme 15 (UNDP). We would like to thank all the people and institutions that have contributed to this PAS. *The EPA PAS Overview (PAS0) gives the context and background of Climate Change and Disaster Risks for Ghana and should be read first.

Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction: Engaging the Private Financial Sector

Adaptation to climate change and disaster risk reduction in Ghana will require significant resources, especially in this era where donor funds which are focused more on mitigations are dwindling following the economic crisis. This implies that the private financial sector will have a vital role to play in bridging the climate change financial gap. Unfortunately, in Ghana, the sector lacks relevant information to assess vulnerability of its specific activities to climate change and therefore make climate- sensitive decisions. There are potentials for private financial sector funding and active participation in climate change issues in Ghana. However, the dearth of information, coupled with lack of credit enhancement schemes has compounded efforts by Banks and Insurance companies to risk into climate change adaptation and mitigation projects. There is therefore the need to involve the private financial sector in climate change activities and to provide information as well as engage in partnerships with them to enable the sector to contribute its quota to climate change adaptation and mitigation.

Context and Importance of the Problem of production and probably make it difficult for them to honor their loan obligations which may inform the With the oil find, the economy of Ghana is projected cost and tenor of commercial banks lending. to grow at about 12.3 % in 2011 but reduce to about 9.3% and 8.3% in 2012 and 2013 respectively. As evidenced by the October 26, 2011 flooding in The industrial and service sectors are expected to Accra, the burden of any climate change induced contribute significantly to this envisaged growth. disaster tends to fall disproportionately on the Climate change poses significant risk to project vulnerable and the private financial sector cannot portfolio across several sectors that are expected to be complacent and idle. The excessive rainfall that propel growth. The private financial sector, especially caused the flood damaged valuables and properties banks and insurance companies remain a vital source and exerted pressure on disposable income and of additional financing resources to complement savings. This can increase the cost of borrowing since government’s budget and donor funding in the banks’ ability to mobilize funds locally will be limited financing of climate-sensitive projects. and consequently reduced profitability. Similarly, insurance premium will increase which can have The impact of climate change on the private adverse impact on the industry. In fact it is estimated financial sector will mainly be indirect through the that the cost of the 26 October flooding to insurance direct impact on the sector that they finance. As companies is about US$20 million. climate changes, the frequency of disaster events, such as floods, droughts, sea-level rise and coastal A major problem that confronts the private financial erosion could increase dramatically and commercial sector today is the lack of information on climate funding to climate sensitive sectors such as mining, change impacts in specific sectors in order to make road construction, tourism, housing, energy and climate sensitive financing that directly or indirectly agricultural infrastructure will be exposed to high addresses the challenges it pose. Many banks today default and may never get funding, and if they do, have very little knowledge on the risks of climate will attract high interest rates. Also, reduced rainfall change as well as specific adaptation measures for resulting from climate change may make it difficult specific micro, small and medium scale industries in to generate the required electricity needed by the country. This limits the Sector’s ability, especially industries. This will lead to an increase in their cost banks to proffer solutions that can reduce financial

GHANA AAP Ghana | 1 Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X crisis (melt-down). It can also impact on the risk USA. This will be very relevant for Ghana where appetite of banks to venture into carbon credit many climate change projects are not considered projects under various mechanisms such as the Clean “bankable” and therefore require incentives to Development Mechanism (CDM). The availability of encourage the commercial banks to venture into such information will invariably change the way the this area. Unfortunately, such incentives are not private financial sector does business in that it may available. offer them the opportunity to systematically include parameters to address climate risk reduction in credit The good thing is that there are several external sources application approval processes and to take advantage of funding that are exclusive to commercial banks for of the CDM. Chapter 4.2 of the GSGDA emphasizes on-lending to projects with the potential to address that the lack of knowledge on environmental issues climate change impacts across several sectors if the and capacity to deal with issues on the management private and public sector will collaborate effectively. of the environment and sanitation, are major Such external sources include but not limited to World drawbacks militating against progress in ensuring Bank Carbon Funds; French Development Agency sustainable development. (AFD) Environmental Finance; European Carbon Fund; Kyoto Mechanisms-CDM; Voluntary Markets; In the private financial sector the issue of information Clean Technology Fund (World Bank/International and knowledge on climate change risks is quite intense financial Corporation/African Development Bank); and has made it difficult for the sector to design Climate Investment Funds (European Bank for ‘planned adaptation’ strategies in Ghana which is Reconstruction and Development). Unfortunately, described as a response to maintaining or achieving very little has been done by the private financial a desired business flow in the banking sector, whilst sector and the government to secure such funds for forecasting and adjusting to the climate change climate change adaptation and mitigation. impacts on economic growth and development. Planned adaptation is an awareness based and a Critique of Policy Options forward looking strategy that focuses on vulnerable sectors, such as water and land based projects, The GSGDA does not make specific mention of which can have serious destabilizing implications engaging the private financial sector in climate change for infrastructure such as mining, road, energy and adaptation and disaster risk reduction neither does agriculture with a threat to erode efforts made at any of the policies aim at mainstreaming the private achieving sustainable development. In fact, lack of sector into climate change adaptation and disaster climate risk information will heighten commercial risk management. In general, many have argued that banks’ exposure in asset value and lower rates of the government’s perception of the private financial return. It also denies climate change adaptation banks is that the sector has less interest and therefore projects the opportunity to attract carbon financing focuses mainly on donor support for climate change mechanisms, a monetized reward from carbon project mitigation and adaptation activities. In this regards, off-set (forestry or bus reduced transit). From the key government agencies such as the Bank of Ghana, private financial sector’s perspective, carbon finance Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, has the potential to inject additional revenue into National Development Planning Commission and project finance stream and consequently make less the Ministry of Environment Science and Technology attractive carbon projects to attract bank funding. have no guidelines and policies focusing on This is evidenced by the European Investment Bank’s mainstreaming or encouraging the private financial (EIB) £400 million loan to the UK united utilities sector to integrate climate change adaptation and for climate change, energy efficiency and water mitigation. The accent is only on donor funds and management with potential 6.8 million beneficiaries. budget support.

Banks financing is informed by revenue generation Currently, the country is in the process of establishing and regulated environmental policies such as feed- the Mining Fund which is coming from government in tariffs1, will stimulate demand for renewable revenue and the Adaptation Fund, which in turn is technologies, which has been a driving force behind funded by the Global Climate Change Fund. Instead the clean technology investment in Europe and of lodging these Funds with the banks and other 1 This is a policy that pays people for creating their own “green electric- private financial institutions to administer the funds ity”. It is done by paying people for the electricity they produce, even if they do not use it themselves. Bonus payments are made for electric- for only climate change adaptation and mitigation ity exported into the grid. Also, there can be a reduction on standard activities, emphasis has rather been placed on electricity bill from using energy you produce yourself.

AAP Ghana | 2 Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X allowing the Bank of Ghana to administer the funds. sector; The government can take cue from the collaboration • Strengthen engagement with the private financial between the Forestry Commission and Ecobank as sector as part of concerted efforts toward elaborated in Box 1. addressing and mainstreaming climate change mitigation and adaptation programme; Some commercial banks in Ghana, such as Ecobank, • Increase knowledge and information access of have already started mainstreaming climate change the financial stakeholders for more appropriate adaptation into project cycle management. This methodology for climate disaster risk assessment; include screening of projects with high vulnerability • Stimulate agribusiness value chain intensification profile, developing sector-specific climate risk approach to reverse land and natural resources degradation through adoption of technology, Box 1: Collaboration between Forestry such as high yield variety, fertilizer, rain Commission and Ecobank Ghana harvesting and irrigation; The Forestry Commission has a Forestry Revolving • Provide incentives (taxes, subsidies and green Fund with Ecobank. The focus of the Fund is not awards) to the private financial sector to fund directly on climate adaptation and mitigation but valuable project categories, which yield a rather to grow trees for commercial purpose. One of the eligibility conditions for accessing this fund return on investment, but less attractive than is that the borrower should demonstrate market off alternative investments. This will stimulate taker. The fund provides matching funds for foresters commercialization and the conversion of liquid who are into tree planting and the Commission and solid waste into organic manure and biogas, recommends and jointly approves disbursements. Ecobank provides matching Funds to the amount to address environmental pollution from wastes; approved by the Commission in the ratio of 1:1. • Communicate government framework plan on the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) and Sustainable Extraction tool to facilitate harmonized approach to project and Management of Mineral Resources to all due diligence, as well as defining a methodology stakeholders, including banks, for review and through which the cost of adaptation components mainstreaming into project finance assessment can be assessed and tracked overtime. Others such criteria; as Agriculture Development Bank and Standard • Inclusion of banks and insurance in the Chartered Bank are in diverse ways mainstreaming mobilization and management of the National climate change into their activities. However, some of Mineral Fund and National Climate Change these activities can more be considered as Corporate Adaptation Fund; Social Responsibility rather than financing towards • Strengthen public partnership with banks to adaptation and disaster reduction. mobilize special funds that were created to scale- up and commercialize climate change adaptation; Policy Recommendations • Encourage the private financial sector to develop climate adaptation projects, accelerate fund The predicted impacts of climate change on all sectors mobilization and investment and thereby help of the economy- human health, costly disruption deploy adaptation technologies and reduce of economic activities, significant destruction of disaster risks; material assets and irreversible damage to natural • Collaborate with the Association of Bankers to ecosystems and its downstream impacts on the develop guidelines for mainstreaming of climate private financial sector suggests that the business as change issues and strategies into banking usual attitude is no longer an option. operations; • Provide policies such as feed-in tariff to accelerate Achieving the GSGDA will need a set of practical the deployment of clean technology, such as policies to help remove funding obstacles to adoption renewable energy. and application of climate change adaptation and • Assess the climate finance readiness of the disaster risk reduction strategies. This requires country to enable government know the government to engage in collaborative partnership resources required for climate change mitigation with the financial sector as a business driver, in order and adaptation. for the country to achieve its sustainable development goals. In a gist government should:

• Increase awareness and information access to build the knowledge of the private financial

AAP Ghana | 3 Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X

Materials Consulted

• National Development Planning Commission, (2010). Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda, 2010-2013, NDPC ,Accra • Dai, A., K. E. Trenberth, and T. Qian, (2004). A global data set of Palmer Drought Severity Index for 1870-2002: Relationship with soil moisture and effects of surface warming. J. Hydrometeorology, 5, 1117-1130 • Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, (2011). Rapid Disaster Waste Management Assessment, 26 October Flash Flooding Central Accra-Ghana

Visited websites: • Climate Institute- http://www.climate.org/ Online [accessed on 18 April, 2011] • International Energy Agency- http://www.iea. org/ online [accessed on 18 April, 2011] • International Scientific Congress on Climate Change- International Alliance of Research • Universities (IARU)- http://climatecongress. ku.dk/ Online [accessed on 17 May, 2011] • Stern Review on the economics of climate change- http://www.occ.gov.uk/activities/stern.htm • Insurance in a Changing Risk Landscape: Local lesson from the Southern ape of South Africa http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/ insurance_changing_risk_landscape.pdf Online [Accessed on 21 January 2012] • Financing Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the Rural Areas of Developing Countries http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/ PNADO826.pdf Online [accessed on 20 April, 2011] • Flood to Cost USD20m http://business. peacefmonline.com/news/201110/76405.php Online [Accessed on 18 January, 2012] • EIB Funds Climate Change Adaptation & Biogas Investments in the UK http://climate-l.iisd.org/ news/eib-funds-climate-change-adaptation- and-biogas-investments-in-the-uk/ Online [accessed on 7 January, 2012] • Deutsche Bank Clean Technology Fund https:// www.dws-investments.com/EN/docs/fund- literature/Fact=sheet/DCTF-FACT.pdf Online [accessed on 20 January, 2011]

AAP Ghana | 4 The Policy Advice Series (PAS) has beenEnvironmental developed with theProtection aim of enhancing Agency ofunderstanding Ghana | Policy and Advisory Series X appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk isues by policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in taking the decisions that are urgently needed. Its development has been coordinated bythe Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and supported by National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management Organization (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, PAS Department Orgnaizations and Agencies (MDAs). Financial support was provded by the Africa Adaptation Programme funded by the Japanese Government through the United Nations Development Programme 16 (UNDP). We would like to thank all the people and institutions that have contributed to this PAS. *The EPA PAS Overview (PAS0) gives the context and background of Climate Change and Disaster Risks for Ghana and should be read first.

Taking Advantage of Opportunities in Climate Change

Climate change is real and affecting livelihoods. It offers both opportunities and risks, depending on how it is approached. This brief takes a look at the opportunities worth exploring to reduce Ghana’s vulnerability. Improving financial support, technology transfer, institutional and human resource capacity development, research and business development would help to explore opportunities that climate change offers.

2020 (1996-2000), whose First Medium-Term Plan (1997-2000) was implemented; Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (2003-2005) and the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (2006-2009) which was fully implemented with varying degrees of success. These policies came at a time that issues of climate change were not as strong as it is today and as such could be pardoned for their lack of bearing on climate change issues, more specifically on the opportunities that it offers. Since 2010 Ghana has been implementing the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA, 2010-2013). This comes at a time when issues of climate change are high on the global agenda, but so far all discussions on climate change impacts have have tended to focus on how to address negative effects with less emphasis Context and Importance of the Problem on exploring the opportunities that it offers. The Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP Climate change offers not only risks (possible loss) II, 2007), for example, focuses on addressing the but also opportunities (possible gains), despite the risk that climate change poses with nothing on the well-publicised adverse impacts of climate change on opportunities. A dual approach that considers both natural systems and consequently on economic and risks and opportunities will allow the country to social development in Ghana. The trade-offs between mitigate and adapt to climate change better. opportunities to be exploited and risks to be avoided continue to pose a serious challenge to public policy Policy Recommendations makers and resource managers. Other countries have identified and explored opportunities offered by It should be recognised that implementing a universal climate change. Unfortunately, Ghana is yet to take climate change policy whose goal is to enhance full advantage of the financial support, technology society’s wellbeing should focus not only at reducing transfer, institutional and human resource capacity the risks that it poses but also the opportunities that development, research and business development it offers irrespective of how small it may be. This is which climate change offers as a result of the world’s due to the fact that ‘A lost opportunity can be as bad resolve to tackle this problem. as a negative risk.’ Policies in this direction should focus on: Critique of Policy Option(s) Financial Support - Although there are still some Since 1996 Ghana has been developing and negotiations at the global level yet to reach completion implementing frameworks to address the various on some funding mechanisms for climate change development challenges including the Ghana Vision adaptation, there are many multilateral and bilateral

GHANA AAP Ghana | 1 Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X agencies that could be engaged in climate change adaptation and mitigation financing if the country carefully analyses those opportunities and puts in place adequate measures and programmes to tap into them. There are provisions for direct financing through various funds including the Green Climate Fund, Adaptation Fund, Fast-start financing and the Special Climate Change financing, among others. Also, available are market-based financing schemes which have not yet been adequately explored by the country. These include the regulated carbon market and the Voluntary Carbon Markets, where specific carbon mitigation projects can be implemented to attract funds through Certified Emission Reductions (CER). The National Climate Change Policy Framework (NCCPF) can provide concrete Resistant breeds of sheep reared at Tumu (credit: AAP) guidance in this direction in terms of the finance, technology and capacity needs of the country. The In order to make full use of the provisions under Forest Investment Fund (FIP) and other facilities technology transfer, the country needs to clearly which are administered by the World Bank are useful understand the current and potential impacts of in developing the forest sector. It must be noted climate change on all sectors of the economy and that financial support in climate change mitigation associated technology needed to adapt and mitigate. projects could also create jobs in the various sectors where they will be implemented. Institutional and human resource capacity development: National institutions can be aligned Technology transfer: The country needs to do to international ones where they can learn from a comprehensive sector-wide assessment of our best practices. Personnel from local institutions can technology needs, based upon which we will be in a be given scholarships and mentorships to develop position to approach specific partners for support. themselves to better and efficiently operate in Technology transfer in agriculture will be very their organisations or sectors. Short courses and beneficial in reducing vulnerability and enhancing internships can be negotiated at the national level the resilience of about 60% of Ghanaians who depend to develop the capacity of personnel responsible on agriculture for their livelihoods. Technology for climate change programmes in Ghana. Building transfer in agriculture can focus on developing institutions that can effectively and transparently disease resistant breeds of crops and animals that implement and monitor climate change programmes can withstand changing climatic regimes; improving and ensure that the goals of climate change farming technology, irrigation development and adaptations and mitigation are achieved will be very sustainable land management techniques which have vital. A vital organisation that can benefit from such the capacity to build resilience of farming systems to arrangement is the Ghana Meteorological Agency climate change. (GMet). Also, it is imperative to engage planners and professionals effectively in the adaptation discussion since they have the knowledge required for adaptation in certain areas especially in the area of infrastructural development.

Research and Development: Climate change research must meet a specific need whether in mitigating greenhouse gas emission or adapting to the effects of climate change. It must be recognised that government alone cannot single-handedly finance research and development linked to climate change. There is therefore the need for a coordinated approach involving the public sector, private sector Resistant species of Maize (credit: AAP) and development partners in climate change

AAP Ghana | 2 Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X research finance with the view to avoiding duplication Sources Consulted of efforts and ensuring that research findings benefit the country. 1. Sagoe, R., (2006). Crops Research Institute, Kumasi. Climate Change and Root Crop Some research has been conducted on crops which Production in Ghana. A Report Prepared for have properties that make them resilient to changes Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Accra- in climate. In Ghana, the Crop Research Institute has Ghana. http://www.nlcap.net/fileadmin/NCAP/ developed species of some cereals which are tolerant Countries/Ghana/ROOT_TUBERS_DRAFT_ to climate variations. More research is required in FINAL_REPORT.pdf this direction for other crops and farm animals. 2. Deschênes, Olivier, and Michael Greenstone. There should also be research into the opportunities 2007. The Economic Impacts of Climate Change: that changing weather patterns may offer for crop Evidence from Agricultural Output and Random diversification; growing of new crops to take advantage Fluctuations in Weather. American Economic of changed micro-climates; taking advantage of Review 97(2): 354–385. extended growing seasons in some regions as well as 3. Scheraga, J.D. and Grambsch, A.E., (1998). planting crops that will suit the altered climates in other Risks, opportunities, and adaptation to climate regions. Example, research in Brazil demonstrated change. Climate Research, Vol. 10: 85–95. that elevated temperatures increases yield of rice and http://ottokinne.de/articles/cr/11/c011p085.pdf wheat. There should be research on crops known to 4. EPA Ghana, (2000). First National have properties that makes them resilient to changing Communication to the United Nations climate as well as developing crop varieties that are Framework Convention on Climate Change heat and drought-resistant, with particular emphasis (UNFCCC). Environmental Protection Agency on short rotation crops. (EPA) of Ghana, Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology. Accra. Business development: Many businesses stand to benefit from climate change if they recognise some of the opportunities that climate change offers. The insurance industry can take advantage of changing climate and the risks that it presents to design climate risk insurance products to take care of crop failure due to uncertainties associated with extreme weather events such as flooding, storm, dry spells and excessive temperatures. The banking industry can consider climate change in loan approval and team up with insurance industry to institute micro insurance for small scale farmers and businesses. This could provide the much needed buffer to the sustenance of rural economies and livelihoods. Also, this is a good business and elsewhere, companies are making money from it. Additionally, climate change brings diverse opportunities to forward-thinking businesses in risk management and reduction, including options for micro-insurance, resilience building and economic diversification. Unfortunately, much is not heard from the private business sector in the area of developing such businesses due partly to the lack of interest by the private sector or lack of information.

AAP Ghana | 3 The Policy Advice Series (PAS) has beenEnvironmental developed with Protection the aim of Agencyenhancing of understandingGhana | Policy Advisory Series X and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk isues by policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in taking the decisions that are urgently needed. Its development has been coordinated bythe Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and supported by National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management PAS Organization (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Department Orgnaizations and Agencies (MDAs). Financial support was provded by the Africa Adaptation Programme funded by the Japanese Government through the United Nations Development Programme 17 (UNDP). We would like to thank all the people and institutions that have contributed to this PAS. *The EPA PAS Overview (PAS0) gives the context and background of Climate Change and Disaster Risks for Ghana and should be read first.

Indigenous Knowledge: Relevance in Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction

Most natural disasters recorded in Ghana in recent years are climate related and if current observed climatic trends should continue as has been projected, Ghana stands a risk of increased natural disasters. To prevent major losses to life and property, an efficient and pragmatic disaster risk reduction programme is needed. With most rural communities still relying on their local knowledge in sustaining their livelihoods, this knowledge must be identified, studied, documented and integrated into our disaster risk reduction programmes. Such disaster risk reduction programmes are readily accepted by expected beneficiaries as they can easily relate with it.

Context and Importance of the Problem

Many rural communities, especially those living in low-lying coastlines, forest communities and dry areas are observing increases in climate variability and already suffering from the negative impacts. Recent natural disasters have mainly been climate related: flooding in the northern parts of Ghana; rising sea levels leading to coastal erosion in parts of Greater Accra and Volta Regions and intense dry spells resulting in wildfires in Brong-Ahafo and northern parts of Ghana. Weather-related disasters are projected to increase and this is well known to policy makers but appropriate response has generally been weak.

In spite of modest improvements in weather forecasting and disaster awareness, preparedness Photo 1: Flooding in Eastern Region for climate related disasters is still low. The greater majority of Ghanaians live in rural areas and are less dependent on weather information from the Indigenous knowledge has been critical in conserving Ghana Meteorological Agency for decisions on their natural resources, protecting the environment, livelihoods. Majority of them depend on their own making farming decisions, predicting weather, understanding of times and seasons which have managing health and coping with extreme climate worked for them for many years. This knowledge, variability. Generations have predicted weather wisdom and practices of indigenous people which and seasons through observation and monitoring of has been accumulated, preserved and transmitted behaviour of animals, birds, plants and insects before in a traditional and inter-generational context the coming of conventional weather forecasting and over a long period is one resource that can be early warning systems. To date, most rural farmers harnessed to complement contemporary scientific rely heavily on natural indicators in predicting heavy weather forecasting and implementation of coping rains, long dry seasons or higher temperatures strategies in Ghana’s disaster risk reduction efforts. and upon these predictions, decisions on farming Unfortunately, efforts in this direction is virtually operations are made. However, climate change is absent in disaster risk management. also adversely impacting on plants, animals and

GHANA AAP Ghana | 1 Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X

insects which have served as indicators for changes in weather conditions and there is the need to protect these resources to enable them continue to perform their vital ecosystem functions.

Photo 3: Frog croaking in the dry season means the rainy season is imminent Photo 2: Dry spells cause crop failures reduction programmes through scientific research Critique of Policy Options has been done in most parts of East Africa. It is less expensive and more effective compared with There is currently no specific policy on climate providing aid for disaster-ravaged communities. A change and disaster risk reduction using indigenous nationwide effort at mapping and documenting knowledge and this brief is not advocating a indigenous knowledge should focus on: totally new, independent policy on Indigenous • Efficacy of indigenous knowledge and knowledge. Application of indigenous knowledge complementarity with scientific knowledge and the occurrence of disasters cut across sectors in disaster anticipation, preparedness and so indigenous knowledge should be incorporated forecasting. into the various national sectorial policies. Over the • Identifying, validating and documenting years, several strategic documents providing policy indigenous farming practices, weather prediction, direction for national agenda such as the Ghana crop selection, etc that farmers have depended on Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2003-2005; Growth for so long. and Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2006-2009 and the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda, 2010-2013 have not emphasised the application of the key themes on which the documents are anchored. The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS) and the National Climate Change Policy Framework (NCCPF) which are in the draft stages have the opportunity to make a strong case for the use of indigenous knowledge in climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction. The NCCAS recognises the need for strengthening the relationship between scientific knowledge and indigenous knowledge in the strategies for adapting livelihoods and agriculture to the adverse impacts of climate change and climate variability.

Policy Recommendations Photo 4: When the Onyina tree (Ceiba pentandra) Integrating IK into early warning systems starts gaining leaves after it has shed its leaves from and research: December to March, then it is an indication that the rainy season is near Integrating indigenous knowledge into disaster risk

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Switching to a bottom-up approach in Sources Consulted disaster risk reduction: Policy formulation on disaster risk reduction should 1. Chang’a, L.B., Yanda, P.Z., and J. Ngana, (2010). adopt a bottom-up approach which recognizes and In seasonal rainfall prediction in Tanzania: A builds on the potential of community knowledge and case of the South-western Highland of Tanzania. actions. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning Vol. 3(4). ISSN 2070-1845. Academic Journals. Demonstrating applicability and pp. 66-72 http://www.academicjournals.org/ improvement for up-scaling: JGRP Some indigenous knowledge which have been 2. Early warning systems, (2005). In UNEP/GRID- assessed and proven to have wide applicability, Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved should be advocated for through demonstrations at 12:33, May 5, 2011 http://maps.grida.no/go/ national, regional and district pilot programs. Where graphic/early_warning_systems. need be, adjustments must be made to suit different 3. Gyampoh, B. A., S. Amisah, M. Idinoba, and J. contexts. Nkem, (2009). Using traditional knowledge to cope with climate change in rural Ghana. Learning from lessons for adaptation: Unasylva No. 231/232, Vol 60. FAO .ftp://ftp. Communities with years of developed local practices fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0670e/i0670e14.pdf in coping with certain conditions, such as drought 4. Sperling, F. and F. Szekely, (2005). Disaster Risk or flood, can provide lessons and strategies for Management in a Changing Climate. Discussion other communities newly facing these conditions. Paper prepared for the World Conference on For example, with downward shift of the savannah, Disaster Reduction on behalf of the Vulnerability lessons from the savannah could be of great and Adaptation Resource Group (VARG). Reprint importance to those in the transitional zones. with Addendum on Conference outcomes. Washington, D.C. Education and Advocacy: 5. Owusu, K. and P. Waylen, (2009). Trends in Education and advocacy should be promoted in spatio-temporal variability in annual rainfall in formal education by incorporating into education Ghana (1951-2000). Weather, Vol. 64, No. 5, pp. curricular development as part of a comprehensive 115-120. Disaster Risk Reduction Programme. 6. European Union /International Strategy for Disaster Reduction EU/ISDR, (2009). Indigenous Knowledge, Disaster Risk Reduction. Policy Note. European Union, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, Kyoto University, SEEDS.

There’s Figure a 1: lot Education to and learn from Advocacy from Patenting: Patenting indigenous knowledge being used by specific individuals or communities in the country will allow them to have property rights to specific and officially acknowledge their originality and contribution to the advancement of technology and innovative problem solving.

AAP Ghana | 3 The Policy Advice Series (PAS) has beenEnvironmental developed with Protection the aim of enhancingAgency of understanding Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk isues by policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in taking the decisions that are urgently needed. Its development has been coordinated bythe Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and supported by National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management PAS Organization (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Department Orgnaizations and Agencies (MDAs). Financial support was provded by the Africa Adaptation Programme funded by the Japanese Government through the United Nations Development Programme 18 (UNDP). We would like to thank all the people and institutions that have contributed to this PAS. *The EPA PAS Overview (PAS0) gives the context and background of Climate Change and Disaster Risks for Ghana and should be read first.

Climate Change: Ensuring Equal Opportunities for Men and Women

Climate change will affect the most vulnerable, of which the majority are women. Poor women, the aged and children are at risk of being most impacted by climate change and variability due to their lack of resilience. The limited adaptive capacities of women arise from factors such as social inequalities that have been perpetuated for decades, ascribed social and economic roles that manifest themselves in unequal access to resources and to decision-making processes, reduced access to information, ineffective property rights and reduced mobility. Traditionally women are responsible for household food production, family health and nutrition and management of some natural resources—areas that are particularly sensitive to climate change. Awareness of gender mainstreaming and adaptation to climate change as two separate strands of knowledge and action is growing. However, there is the need to mainstream gender issues into climate change responses at all levels. The rights based approach holds considerable promise for injecting urgency and ambition into national climate action while safeguarding the most vulnerable in society. By focusing on equity and social justice, it offers both a compelling moral and ethical argument for action and a more authoritative basis for advocacy, giving voice to vulnerable groups.

Context and Importance of the Problem TableTable 1: Some 1: Some indicators indicators of gender of inequality gender (in percentages)inequality (in percentages) Whilst it is clear that climate change is impacting both men and women, the impact and degree of Indicator Males Females vulnerability is different for men and women. Never been to school 22.3 38.3 Women are more vulnerable to the effects of climate Self employed 33.8 60.3 change than men—primarily as they constitute the Contributing family 4.1 11.0 majority of the poor and are more dependent on workerWage employment 25.0 8.2 natural resources for their livelihood. Their limited Savings accounts 59.7 40.3 adaptive capacities also arise from factors such as Agriculture 59.1 52.7 social inequalities that have been perpetuated for decades, ascribed social and economic roles that Unemployed 3.5 3.6 manifest themselves in unequal access to resources Housekeeping activities and to decision-making processes, reduced access Collecting firewood 16.9 37.5 to information, ineffective property rights and Fetching water 40.9 64.2 reduced mobility. Women’s vulnerability to climate Washing dishes 30.4 65.1 change is exacerbated by their comparative lack of Caring for children 13.7 35.6 assets: physical, financial and social. Many national Cooking 17.7 71.9 surveys including the fifth round of the Ghana Living Source: GLSS 5 Standard Survey (GLSS 5) provide evidence of inequality in all socio-economic indicators in favour geographical disparities in development and access of men (Table 1). to resources are major factors driving gender inequalities. Hence women in rural areas, those in In education, there are fewer women than men who the northern part of Ghana as well as the coastal attend school. Whilst primary school enrolment zones are more vulnerable to the adverse impacts of rates have increased dramatically over the years the climate change. survival rates among girls remains lower; 72.4% for boys and 62.9% for girls at the Junior High School To understand the linkages between gender level in 2007/2008. Apart from social inequalities,

GHANA AAP Ghana | 1 Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X

of the country. It is for this reason that ensuring equal opportunities for men and women becomes imperative. Critique of Policy Options

At the policy level, the Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MEST) is in charge of the development and coordination of environmental policies, including climate change and hosts the National Climate Change Committee. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the main Country Implementation Institution for the technical coordination of activities on climate change, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Smoking fish in Moree, Central Region Change and other environmental conventions ratified by Ghana. With reference to gender issues, the and climate change, it is vital to understand the Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs (MOWAC) social relations, women’s and men’s roles and responsibilities, their access to resources and how these shape their capacity to cope with livelihood stresses, including climate-related impacts (Box 1). It must be noted that If one half of the adult population is disproportionately affected by climate change impacts, it could reflect in the general development

Box 1: Gender differentiated impacts of climate change Livelihoods: Due to a gender-based division of labour, men and women perform different tasks. Climate change will alter what they can do, exposing men and women to different risks and opportunities. For example, in coastal areas men may migrate to work in productive waters possibly in other countries, leaving women behind to become, de facto, heads of households in addition to their traditional roles.

Natural resources: Men and women have different access to resources. Women are largely responsible for food and household fuel collection. This means Floods in Ghana. Source: GOG, 2010 that their time burden will increase if drought, floods, deforestation and erratic rainfall undermine is the national gender institution responsible for the the quality and availability of natural resources. formulation and coordination of gender policies and programmes. Agriculture and food security: Women produce 70% of subsistence crops and distribute 85% of fish and crop products in the country. Climate A major challenge facing the MOWAC is that most change may affect agricultural production and of the responsibilities of gender mainstreaming consequently, exacerbate food insecurity. Women who are at the centre stage in the food value are designated to Gender Desk Officers in other chain could lose or have reduced livelihoods. Ministries, most of who are not working on gender on full time basis. This makes the mainstreaming Health: Climate change may aggravate the risk of contracting some vector borne diseases such of gender issues, which is crosscutting into national as malaria and water borne diseases such as policies difficult. cholera. As primary caregivers, women will have to spend more time to care for sick family members. In addition pregnant women are particularly Awareness of gender mainstreaming and adaptation susceptible to vector and water-borne diseases. to climate change as two separate strands of knowledge and action is growing. Policy documents Water: Women are the primary users and managers of water for household activities including cooking, such as the Ghana Shared Growth Development cleaning, subsistence agriculture, health and sanitation. Agenda and the Ghana Goes for Green Growth Climate change will increase time spent by women and highlight issues pertaining to climate change as well children especially girls in collecting water, preventing as to gender. However, there is the need to increase them from schooling or working for an income. the awareness on the inter-linkages between climate

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Table 2: Some policy documents relating to climate change and gender

Policy Documents Consideration of gender Consideration of climate change Environmental Policy (1992) No No Environmental Policy (Draft) Yes Yes Ghana Shared Growth Development Agenda Yes Yes (2010-2013) National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (Draft) Yes Yes National Environmental Action Plan (1992) No No National Policy Framework for Climate Change (Draft) Yes Yes National Gender and Children’s Policy (2004) Yes No National Gender Policy (Draft) Yes Yes change responses and gender equality. The low level profoundly responsive to gender related issues. In a of political and public acceptance of gender as a policy gist, a number of tangible steps can be taken to ensure instrument and the poor awareness of the public that issues relating to gender are more effectively of gender issues and their inter-linkages remains integrated into climate action, including: a major setback. Issues such as gender, women’s affirmative action and the state of the environment 1. Establishing coherence among the institutions are still treated as marginal issues by Government. responsible for climate change and gender policies The significance of a gender perspective in policy such as the EPA, MEST, MOWAC and NDPC as formulation and implementation is that it offers well as including Civil Society Organizations in the possibility to examine, for men and women the climate change discussions; separately, their vulnerabilities, their capacities and 2. Building the capacity of the relevant institutions access to resources, and to analyse the underlying for mainstreaming gender into climate change factors for these inequalities, leading to more policy formulation, planning, monitoring and effective responses. evaluation; 3. Collecting gender-disaggregated data to inform policy development at all levels and carrying out a Policy Recommendations gender analysis to understand the different roles of women and men play especially in climate Climate change does not affect women and men in the change adaptation and mitigation; same way. It has, and will have, gender-differentiated 4. Establishing a system for including gender- impacts. This means that aspects related to climate sensitive indicators and criteria in national change (that is mitigation, adaptation, policy reporting to the United Nations Framework development, decision making) must include a Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) gender perspective. The rights-based approach to Secretariat; development provides a framework of rights and 5. Identifying and analyzing gender-specific needs, commitments that support the mainstreaming impacts, protection and support measures of gender concerns into national climate change related to climate change and variability such as policies and legislation. The approach also holds floods, drought and diseases; considerable promise for injecting urgency and 6. Promoting women and other vulnerable group’s ambition into the national climate action and needs meaningful participation in decision-making on to be considered. Gender mainstreaming which climate change responses to ensure that climate assesses the different implications of any planned change policy and grassroots interventions action for men and women and pertains to legislation, respond to their specific needs and draw on policies or programmes in any area and at all levels their knowledge and experience. In this regard, should be properly implemented. This will involve allowing the carbon trade to focus on addressing the transformation of the existing unequal social gender problems associated with the trade will be and institutional structures in order to make them very imperative.

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Sources Consulted

1. Aguilar, L., ( 2007). Gender and climate change. 4. Mensah-Kutin, R., (2010). Gender and Climate IUCN Fact Sheet. Change Issues: the Challenge for Policy 2. Boko, M.; Niang, I.; Nyong, A.; Vogel, C.; Advocacy In Ghana. Paper presented at Ghana Githeko, A.; Medany, M.; Osman-Elasha, B.; Research and Advocacy Programme (G-RAP) Tabo and R.; Yanda, P., (2007). “Climate Change National Gender Forum on Civic Engagement 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability”, In for Gender Equality and Good Governance in Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Ghana: Sharing Experiences, Contesting Spaces, Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental, Renewing Commitments. 16th and 17th March by M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, 2010, Airport West Hotel, Accra. P.J. Van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, 433-467. 5. Government of Ghana, (2010). Ghana Goes for Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Green Growth, a discussion paper towards the 3. Chinwe, I. S., (2011). Promoting Gender Equality National Climate Change Policy Framework. in Responses to Climate Change, the Case of Ministry of Environment, Science and Kenya. Discussion Paper/Deutsches Institut für Technology. Entwicklungspolitik. 6. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO), (2009). Policy That Supports Gender Equality. Climate Change Connections

AAP Ghana | 4 The Policy Advice Series (PAS) has beenEnvironmental developed with Protection the aim of enhancingAgency of understanding Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X and appreciation of Climate Change and Disaster Risk isues by policy makers and senior technocrats, and to support them in taking the decisions that are urgently needed. Its development has been coordinated bythe Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and supported by National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and National Disaster Management PAS Organization (NADMO), in collaboration with the Ministries, Department Orgnaizations and Agencies (MDAs). Financial support was provded by the Africa Adaptation Programme funded by the Japanese Government through the United Nations Development Programme 19 (UNDP). We would like to thank all the people and institutions that have contributed to this PAS. *The EPA PAS Overview (PAS0) gives the context and background of Climate Change and Disaster Risks for Ghana and should be read first.

Assessing Ghana’s Capacity for Addressing Climate Change

The consequences of climate change is already being observed as we are experiencing general reduction and erratic rainfall patterns, high average temperatures and their associated impacts in the form of flooding, crop failure, dry rivers and lakes, etc. Ghana, as a Party to the Kyoto Protocol (KP) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), has obligations under the Convention to meet in the area of mitigation and adaptation. However, the current capacities for implementing the Conventions are not adequate and need to be strengthened if the country is to meet her international obligations and effectively adapt to climate change. Ghana’s capacity constraints can be identified in many areas including national communication; measurement, reporting and verification; international negotiations; climate finance; adaptation measures, among others. Dealing with these capacity constraints will involve improving public access to information on climate change; assessing institutional capacity gaps; developing and implementing capacity-building programmes on climate change for relevant institutions and individuals and implementing education and training programmes for Ghanaians.

Context and Importance of the Problem change, adequate knowledge of the subject matter in terms of its diverse impacts on different sectors Ghana is already experiencing the impacts of climate of the economy as well as the requisite adaptation change. As a Party to both the KP and the UNFCCC, and mitigation measures is inadequate partly as Ghana is obliged to undertake some domestic and a result of inadequate human and institutional international actions to meet her commitments capacity and resources to educate the masses. under the Convention. The ability of Ghana to do Furthermore, training and re-training of personnel this depends much on the extent to which systemic, in the different areas of climate change capacity institutional and human capacity of the country is needs to meet international commitments have been built. Unfortunately, systemic capacity in the form weak and inadequate. In the absence of the requisite of an enabling environment in which institutions, capacity needs to mitigate, adapt and respond to organizations and individuals operate and interact international needs, it is possible that the main goal formally and informally in the context of the legislative of the country’s development agenda – sustainable framework, system level resources, public support growth and poverty reduction – will be a mirage. and coordination is weak. Additionally, institutions are not functioning properly whilst personnel with Effective implementation of policies and measures to the requisite expertise to adequately respond to the address climate change impacts will require strong numerous obligations imposed by the Convention institutional and human capacities in a variety of areas are generally inadequate. The lack of willingness such as energy, transport, agriculture, forestry, among to establish and/or strengthen relevant national others. In addition, capacities in specific institutional institutions to address various commitments under mechanisms such as strategic planning in sustainable the UNFCCC is systematically affecting the level of development, integration of climate concerns into delivery. Efforts to engage more people even within overall national development policy are also crucial. the existing leading climate change institution – the Table 1 summarizes the roles of different institutions Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to work in dealing with climate change issues whilst Figure 1 specifically on climate change has not received the summarizes the areas that capacity is needed in order required attention though there is the recognition to effectively address the impact of climate change. within the Agency of the relevance of climate change for national sustainable development. Though many Ghanaians may have heard about climate

GHANA AAP Ghana | 1 Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X

Table 1: Roles of Main Institutions Dealing with Climate Change Issues

ORGANISATION/INSTITUTION ACTIVITIES Ministry of Environment Science and Technology Mitigation, Adaptation and Policy Environmental Protection Agency Adaptation, Green House Gas Inventory (GHGI), National Com- munication, Mitigation Ministry of Food and Agriculture Adaptation, GHGI Ministry of Energy Mitigation National Development Planning Commission Climate Change Policy Research and Academia Assist with funding for climate change research for Adaptation and Mitigation Forestry Commission Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) Water Resource Commission Mitigation and adaptation Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and other Financial Climate finance Institutions National Disaster Management Organisation Adaptation Ghana Meteorological Agency Climate information and data Parliament of Ghana Laws and policies on climate change Civil Society Organisations Research and implementation of climate change Adaptation and Mitigation, Advocacy, etc International Non-Governmental Organisations and Non- Adaptation and Mitigation Governmental Organisations Metropolitan, Municipal and Districts, Assemblies Coordination of climate change activities at the policy level National Climate Change Committee Coordination of climate change activities at the policy level Energy Commission Mitigation Ministry of Transportation Mitigation

In general, Ghana’s commitment under the UNFCCC requires that capacity is developed and strengthened Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and in the following areas in order to effectively Degradation (REDD): This mechanism aims at implement the Convention: reducing deforestation in developing countries and consequently encouraging carbon sequestration Adaptation measures: The geographical location by compensating countries which reduce their of Ghana in the tropics and her absolute dependence emissions from deforestation. The initiative (REDD) on natural resources makes her vulnerable to climate requires capacity for robust and transparent national change. There is the need for robust adaptation monitoring and reporting systems without which measures in all climate sensitive areas. This will approval and implementation of REDD activities require capacity to streamline adaptation measures would be a challenge. To date, base line data as well in areas of the economy highly susceptible to the as clear methodology to monitor deforestation and impacts of climate change, such as agriculture and degradation is not available partly as a result of the health. lack of capacity and resources to undertake such an assignment. Mitigation measures (including Clean Development Mechanism): Negotiations at the Greenhouse Gas Inventory (GHGI): Countries UNFCCC (Cancun Agreement) require developing that are Parties to the UNFCCC are required to countries to undertake some emission reduction report their national greenhouse gas inventories actions at sector or country level either unilaterally to the Secretariat of the Convention. Unlike or supported by developed countries. This will developed countries which report on an annual require substantial human and institutional capacity basis, developing countries prepare their national to develop and implement projects either unilaterally inventory when funds are available. However, by or in collaboration with other countries that will help the Cancun Agreement, developing countries would reduce the emission of greenhouse gasses locally. soon report on their GHGI bi-annually. As a result,

AAP Ghana | 2 Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X the frequency in reporting would increase and Figure 1: Capacity needs for climate change actions consequently require capacity to be strengthened in meeting this commitment.

National Communication: The core elements of the national communications for non-Annex I Parties (including Ghana) are information on emissions and removal of greenhouse gases and details of the activities to implement the UNFCCC. National communications usually contain information on national circumstances - vulnerability assessment, financial resources, transfer of technology, education, training and public awareness; and should be submitted every four years. The existing capacity needs to be strengthened in order to achieve the requirements of a national communication.

Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV): This is an emerging action that Parties to the UNFCCC’s mitigation actions would be subjected to ensure transparency, comparability, completeness Critique of Policy Option(s) and value for money. Domestic capacity for undertaking MRV exercise needs to be built as there As it stands now, there are no clear policy options are plans to roll out mitigation programmes and to addressing capacity needs for climate change projects at the sectoral and national levels in Ghana. mitigation and adaptation. More proactive and urgent actions and initiatives on institutional, International Negotiations: Parties to the systemic and human capacity are needed if Ghana is UNFCCC have different national circumstances to address climate change impacts holistically. Based and therefore negotiation skills and processes on the areas of capacity needs discussed in figure are important in achieving a common focus 1, any intervention on the capacity needs should while respecting each Party’s sovereignty. The address the following questions: limited number and capacity of people involved in • What are the key climate change related negotiation makes it difficult for the country to state institutions in Ghana? her position on climate change related issues at the • What are the main activities in the area of climate international level. There is therefore the need to change undertaken by these institutions? develop the capacity of potential negotiators • How related are the roles played by these institutions and individuals? Climate Finance: Climate change adaptation • Are there gaps? If yes, how are these gaps obviously puts extra financial burden on nations. addressed? The financial institutions need to be strengthened to • What are the capacity constraints and how can understand the issues of climate change and develop they be addressed? products and climate sensitive packages that will meet those needs. Again, climate change does not only One reason that explains the inability of many present negative impacts but a lot of opportunities in developing countries including Ghana to tackle the area of funding. Ghana, however, does not at the the capacity needs for climate change is the many moment have the requisite institutional and human pressing development challenges such as poverty, capacity to attract international and local funding poor education, health, etc. As such, policies, plans for projects. Moreover, the emission trading scheme and programmes of the country rarely recognize requires strong financial institutions to be at the edge the capacity needs for climate change in spite of of financing climate change. The capacity of financial the fact that the impacts pose a major threat to the institutions therefore needs to be enhanced to enable sustainability of Ghana’s development which is them support climate change adaptation. much dependent on natural resources. In general, climate change is regarded as a distant issue and hence there has been little capacity development

AAP Ghana | 3 Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana | Policy Advisory Series X to deal with it. The Ghana Shared Growth and Sources Consulted Development Agenda recognizes the importance of climate change in national development. However, 1. EPA, (2008). Report on Climate Change Impacts adaptation and mitigation measures are tackled Assessment in Ghana under the Netherlands with less emphasis on specific capacities to deal with Climate Change Studies Assistance Programme. these issues. Coordination of capacity needs is also EPA, Ghana not well articulated. In a gist, current climate change 2. EPA, (2011). Ghana’s Second National actions have the following capacity shortfalls: Communication to the UNFCCC. EPA, Ghana • Inadequate climate-specific and climate-relevant 3. National Development Planning Commission capacity to deal with the issues of climate change. (NDPC), (2010). Ghana Shared Growth • Limited public access to information on climate and Development Agenda, Medium Term change and its effects. Development Policy Framework, NDPC, Ghana • Weak participatory processes for addressing 4. OECD and IEA, (2003). Institutional Capacity climate change and its effects. and Climate Actions. OECD. • Non integration of climate change components 5. UNFCCC, (2010). Report of the Conference into sectoral policies like agriculture, health, of the Parties on its sixteenth session, held in energy supply, forest plantation programmes, Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010. road and transport, housing and infrastructure, Decision 1/CP.16. etc.

Recommendations

There is the urgent need to reflect on the climate change capacity needs of the country with the view to developing relevant systemic, institutional and human capacities now and in the future to be able to meet the challenge that climate change poses. The following recommendations will put the nation in a better position to deal with climate change and to meet her international obligations: • Develop proper institutional arrangements for formulation and implementation of the national and international climate change policy. • Identify climate-specific and climate-relevant human, systemic and institutional capacity needs. • Improve public access to information on climate change and its effects. • Develop and implement capacity building programmes on climate change and its effects. • Develop and implement education and training programmes including the strengthening of national institutions and exchanges in attachment of personnel to train and build capacity in the field of climate change. • Develop linkages among stakeholders in order to weave synergies on capacity requirements. • Undertake research of specific capacity needs for climate change mitigation and adaptation. • Integrate climate change into sectoral policies and address sector-specific capacity needs. • Effectively monitor, evaluate and verify organizational developments and systems to ensure transfer on knowledge and creation of institutional and systemic knowledge.

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