PART 1 INTRODUCTION

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL

cc01.indd01.indd 1 228/06/138/06/13 9:199:19 AMAM cc01.indd01.indd 2 228/06/138/06/13 9:199:19 AMAM Chapter 1 The evolution of Keith Russell Federation Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG), , and College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

For most readers, the name “gymnastics” brings to The word “gymnastics” is today an umbrella mind those Olympic sports that gain wide media term, much the same as “aquatics,” in that it attention every 4 years. These include Men’s Artistic encompasses not only a group of competitive Gymnastics (with its six apparatuses: fl oor exercise, sports but also many less formalized gymnastics pommel horse, rings, , parallel bars, and hori- activities in the fi elds of education, recreation, zontal bar); Women’s (with its and fi tness (Figure 1.1). These noncompetitive four apparatuses: asymmetric bars, , forms of gymnastics are showcased every year in vault, and fl oor exercise); gym festivals in many countries, some with over with its lithe, fl exible female gymnasts doing 100,000 participants. There is also the World incredible manipulative skills with hand apparatus; Gymnaestrada held every fourth year with 20,000 and, of course, the acrobatically spectacular sport participants. The Fédération Internationale de of Trampoline Gymnastics (TG). Collectively, these Gymnastique (FIG) is the world’s oldest inter- sports represent a very small percentage of the national sport governing body (incorporated in total gymnastics community. There are, in addi- 1881 as the Fédération Européenne de Gymnas- tion, several non-Olympic sports including Aerobic tique) and has a contemporary stable of sports Gymnastics and Acrobatic Gymnastics plus a large that includes the four Olympic sports plus two family of recreational, educational, and exhibi- non-Olympic multicategory sports of Acrobatic tion forms of gymnastics that are grouped under Gymnastics and . In addition, the moniker Gymnastics for All. The word “gym- there are three competitive subdisciplines of TG nastics” comes to us from the ancient Greek verb that are not contested in the but “gymnazo” meaning to train naked, which is how are included in all other TG competitions: Tum- young men in the 7th to 3rd centuries BC practiced bling, Double Mini-Trampoline, and Synchro- the physical health and fi tness part of their edu- nized Trampoline. cation in the outdoor “gymnasion,” supervised by Gymnastics-type movement was performed the trainers or “gymnastē s.” The aristocratic young in the ancient Chinese, Mesopotamian, Indian, men devoted considerable time to practicing vari- and Mediterranean cultures, which all left ample ous athletic endeavors to be contested at religious records of the importance they placed on this type festivals. They also received education in music, of physical exercise and body movement. It was the letters, and philosophy. Greeks of the Homeric and Classical eras, however, who had the most lasting infl uence on subsequent educational and medical gymnastics practice. Their emphasis on mind/body integration in the educa- Gymnastics, First Edition. Edited by Dennis J. Caine, Keith Russell and Liesbeth Lim. © 2013 International Olympic Committee. tion of their youth would greatly infl uence educa- Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. tors 18 centuries later. Plato, whose original name

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The gymnastic family

FIG’s Sport Disciplines Gymnastics for All

A R T A A G F E R T E G R H R C E Y I D E E S Y T Y A R R M T U C A T M I T M O O N N C R M H N S H P B B E A E E T M O A I F S T A G T I I I L T C E S I T Y I N C C I I S O I M C N C T G N O N O E I Y A N A G T V M L A S Y H A N L T M E * ** L G I N R S Y G C M Y S S N M P N O R T *Olympic sports S

Figure 1.1 The many faces of “gymnastics.” (With courtesy of Keith Russell.)

was believed to be Aristocles, was given the name Gymnastics evolution from the Plato by his “gymnastai” Ariston of Argos because performing arts he had a broad (platon) and athletic chest (Yian- nakis and Yiannakis, 1998). The Romans followed the Greeks and contin- The earliest pictorial references to gymnastics ued many of their practices, but with more mili- activities come from paintings and engravings at tary emphasis. After the classical Greek era, the several Egyptian sites. Most of them depict female ensuing 10 centuries (the Middle Ages) had very performers and balancing and are dated little emphasis on sport, games, or the practice from 2300 to 1000 BC (Touney, 1984). The tombs of integrating the mind and the body in educa- at Beni-Hassen show tumbling and ball passing tion as extolled by the Greeks. It was not until and juggling skills that are surprisingly compara- the 1400s that we see a shift in thinking and a ble to the contemporary sports of Tumbling and rebirth of the educational concepts introduced Rhythmic Gymnastics (Figure 1.2). many centuries before by the Greeks. Let us trace Around the same time, the Minoans, another how the contemporary sports and activities of great Mediterranean society centered on Crete, gymnastics have coalesced via a fascinating and left many pictorial examples of performers vault- long journey through four primary ancestries: ing and performing on large adult bulls. (1) the performing arts, (2) military training, Both male and female acrobats are illustrated and (3) the medical professions, and (4) the education they appear to be paid professional performers professions. (Gardiner, 1930). It would appear that subsequent

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1st century BC, a combination of dance, acrobatics, and music called Juedixi was very popular in . The circuses, traveling minstrel shows, and court performers throughout the world contained acro- batic performers and they often used a variety of devices to extend the acrobats’ time in the air. The ancient Minoans used the momentum from grasp- ing a bull’s horns while being tossed in the air, while the Inuit of northern Canada used skins stretched between several throwers to toss one member high in the air to better see distant animals and also to entertain during celebratory events. The tossing of one acrobat by one or more others has a long tradi- tion that continues in today’s Acrobatic Gymnastics. Many aerial enhancement devices like teeterboards, Russian swings, trapezes, and contemporary devices like Double Mini-Trampoline and Trampoline have a clear genesis in the performing arts, and circuses had such devices that allowed performers to be propelled into the air. American inventor and per- former George Nissen used his springing invention in a three-person traveling “rebound tumbling” act called the Three Leonardos soon after designing and building it in 1934. It was while traveling in Mexico that he learned that the Spanish word for diving board was trampolin. It is obvious that the sports of Trampoline, Tumbling, Acrobatic Gym- nastics, and Rhythmic Gymnastics can trace part of their lineage directly to the various performing arts that have evolved over the millennia. Figure 1.2 Ancient Egyptian gymnasts from tombs at Beni-Hassen (Source: Gardiner, E., Athletics in the Ancient World (1990) with permission from Oxford University Press.) Gymnastics evolution from military training societies on mainland Greece took much of their reverence of athleticism and physical fi tness from the Minoans and it became an integral part of Greek There was an obvious appreciation for physical education. The Homeric poems describe Corfu artists prowess in most ancient societies as a requisite for combining acrobatics and dance with ball and musi- survival. The ancient Greek city-states developed a cal accompaniment (Frantzopoulou et al., 2011). strong competition ethos that resulted in intercity When we follow acrobatic performances through competitions in many endeavors including physical history, there is a clear thread of continuity running activities like running, throwing, wrestling, and cal- through them. The performances were often com- isthenics. Many of these activities were associated bined with dance and musical accompaniment, with military prowess and are wonderfully described and are depicted in illustrations and text in both in Homer’s epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Western and Eastern civilizations. Chinese stone Greek city-state competitions and regional athletic carvings from 1000 BC as well as 3rd century BC competitions evolved into large gatherings that writing described acrobatic performances. By the culminated in four major games, one of which was

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the games at Olympia fi rst documented in 776 BC. was followed a year later by another book Exercises There was great debate in Greek literature about the for Ladies Calculated to Preserve and Improve Beauty value of so much time being devoted to training for in which Walker described the use of smaller, two these festivals, especially when the athletes became pound Indian clubs he called “sceptres,” which are increasingly more professional and the rewards for the precursors of contemporary clubs in Rhythmic winning multiplied (Manning, 1917). Gymnastics (Todd, 2010). Indian club swinging The subsequent Roman Empire took these fi tness subsequently became an important part of physi- arts to even greater sophistication but directed the cal education training in many countries. training to military applications instead of purely Other examples of military antecedents to con- athletic contests at religious festivals. One of the most temporary gymnastics sports are the obstacle courses infl uential medical writers in history was Claudius on which soldiers trained. The balancing and loco- Galenus (Galen of Pergamon, 129–200 AD) who motory activities on horizontal logs and beams, studied in the best medical schools in the Mediter- the strength demands of rope climbing, the trapeze ranean region. He began his medical career treating swinging, and the pole vaulting across ditches all the gladiators in his home city and was responsible led to future sport events. These types of activities, for greatly reducing fatalities. Through this military together with massed group calisthenics, were regu- medical exposure he learned much about training, lar parts of military training, and they evolved, via rehabilitation, and the knowledge that physical fi t- inter-academy competitions, into several of today’s ness (gymnastics) was a natural and necessary part of gymnastics apparatuses and competitive disciplines. life. Through his large body of publications he edu- The 10 centuries following the Roman era (5th to cated the entire world thereafter on Hippocratic the- 15th centuries) saw a decrease in intellectual and ory and the practice of medicine (Machline, 2004). athletic pursuits that had been so prevalent dur- It was not long after, that we see the fi rst docu- ing the Greek and Roman eras. There was, how- mentation on the use of wooden horses for military ever, continual development of the military arts training. The fi rst written description was a 375 AD in which physical fi tness and prowess were highly description by Vegetius of a Roman legion training valued. During this time, the training of soldiers on them (Kaimakamis et al., 2007). In the 6th and continued to employ and develop gymnastics-type 7th century Europe, military skills on the wooden skills and many military physical training instruc- horse were considered one of the seven knightly vir- tors subsequently became the physical education tues, and there are many references to such military teachers and sport masters in the public and private training. Soldiers practiced mounting, dismounting, schools of Europe, thus establishing a prominent vaulting over, and weapon use while mounted on place for gymnastics in school physical education. wooden practice horses. The practice moved from military venues to fencing academies to universi- ties, and we see it today in the sport of Equestrian Gymnastics evolution from the Vaulting as well as pommel horse, and vaulting in medical professions both Men’s and Women’s Artistic Gymnastics. A similar military infl uence is apparent with “Indian” clubs. There are ancient Persian and It is from the medical professions that we see Indian depictions of stone and wooden clubs being the earliest writings on gymnastics. The word swung as part of physical training. The British sol- “gymnastics” was synonymous with purposeful diers in colonial India were very impressed with exercise and could refer to running, physical prep- the physical robustness of practitioners of “Indian” aration in general, or for wrestling and . club (jori) swinging. The British army incorpo- There were increasing references to “medical gym- rated this exercise into their training, combining it nastics” such as by Herodikos of Selymbria in the with Swedish gymnastics. The fi rst book to appear 5th century BC, and Galen’s De Sanitate Tuenda in in Europe describing Indian club exercises was 1st century AD. Galen advocated the importance of Donald Walker’s 1834 British Manly Exercises. This exercise in the cultivation of both the mind and the

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body (Bakewell, 1997). As previously mentioned, 1553 and advocated exercise for health, but it was Galen’s writing on the virtues of exercise were little mainly for Spanish speaking general readers and known during the Middle Ages in Europe, but were was not widely known to the Latin reading intel- widely translated in Arabic and they strongly infl u- lectual classes of Europe (Machline, 2004). enced Islamic medicine. It was physician Girolamo About 100 years after Mercurialis, the Italian Mercuriale (or Hieronymus Mercurialis in Latin), physiologist Giovanni Borelli (1608–1679) dis- who reintroduced Europeans to the teachings of puted Galen’s principles of movement and linked the ancient Greeks. His book De Arte Gymnastica movement to mechanical laws and to contracting was the most infl uential book regarding this shift muscles and, as such, is regarded as the father of in medical thinking. Written in 1569 and reissued biomechanics. His two books De Motu Animalium I with elaborate illustrations of heavily muscled (1680) and II (1685) changed forever the way phy- boxers, wrestlers, and gladiators in 1573, this book sicians and educators viewed movement and exer- educated and infl uenced physicians and educators cise. The human body was now considered a series about the value of exercise, as taught by the Greeks of mechanical levers moved by muscles, which (Figure 1.3). An earlier book, Libro del Exercicio by were elastic, dynamic, and needed to be main- Spanish author Cristobal Méndez, was published in tained to function effectively. Gymnastics practice was about to change. These and similar publications fueled an intense interest in ancient Greek ideals and many publica- tions appeared during the British Enlightenment period extolling the health benefi ts of regular exercise (medical gymnastics). The British medical writer Francis Fuller (the Younger) published Medic- ina Gymnastica: A Treatise Concerning the Power of Exercise in 1705 and the essayist and magazine founder Joseph Addison wrote in the magazine Spectator in 1711 that he exercised 1 hour every day with a dumbbell (cast iron bell silenced by remov- ing the clapper). Fellow countryman and physician George Cheyne published the very popular book Essay on Health and Long Life (1724) in which he advocated a wide array of daily exercises (Batch- elor, 2012). Medical gymnastics now had a more scientifi c footing and was gaining acceptance in the medical professions. This was bolstered by the 1741 Paris publication of L’Orthopédia by Nicolas Andry in which he highlights bone plasticity and rehabilitative properties in children. Thus, we see the births of biomechanics, physical therapy, phys- ical education, and orthopedics all occurring at the same time, and central to all was “gymnastics.” It is also a time of renewed emphasis on exercise and sport in public education. This was in part due to the revival of Greek educational philosophy, and in part to the medical professions’ imprimatur. There was also the role public education was playing in Figure 1.3 Gymnasts from Mercurialis’s 1573 book. bolstering a population of healthy military-ready (Source: De Arte Gymnastica, Girolamo Mercuriale (1573).) youth in the climate of growing nationalism.

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Gymnastics evolution from the his students including wooden vaulting horses, education professions climbing ropes, trapezes, rope ladders, seesaws for hanging from, and balance beams. Another German teacher Gerhard Vieth (1763–1836) pub- The Renaissance period (1400–1600) also saw lished an encyclopedia of physical education in many educators such as the Italian Vitorrino da 1794 that included passive activities and active Feltre and the Swiss Johann Pestalozzi reintroduc- activities such as climbing, mounting, and vault- ing the Greek model of education. These educators ing over wooden horses (Kaimakamis et al., 2007). and philosophers, who are often grouped under A third German teacher and soldier, Freidrich the banner of “humanists,” in turn infl uenced the Jahn (1778–1852), using similar apparatus and Swiss Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), and the methods, had the greatest infl uence of all by orga- German Johann Basdow (1724–1790) who both nizing turnvereins, or gymnastics clubs, which wrote extensively about “natural” education and spread all over Europe and the world. Jahn visited strongly infl uenced our next group of four educa- GutsMuths in 1807 and later opened an open-air tors: GutsMuths, Vieth, Jahn, and Ling. It was this gymnasium (a turnplatz) in ’s Hasenheide latter group who combined the scientifi c, medical, from 1811 to 1819. He expanded GutsMuths’ sys- and educational changes into teaching systems, tax- tematic approach and developed exercises and skills onomies of movement, and inventions of fi tness to be performed on the various apparatuses. He is apparatus that evolved into comprehensive systems credited with widely popularizing the apparatus of physical education (Figure 1.4). Now we can fi ll that would subsequently defi ne Artistic Gymnastics. in the remaining parts of the history of present day Another very infl uential educator who studied gymnastics. GutsMuths and visited the German schools was Pehr The very infl uential German teacher Johann Henrik Ling (1776–1839) from . Ling, who GutsMuths (1759–1839) published Gymnastik Fur was a fencing master in his home country, developed Die Jugend in 1793, which inspired many sub- a very different style of gymnastics that incorporated sequent educators. GutsMuths outdoor gymna- some apparatus, but mostly consisted of rhythmical sium had many devices for physically developing and free-fl owing calisthenics (Figure 1.5). He designed

Figure 1.4 Swiss turnschule 1850. (Source: Huguenin A., 100 Years of the International Gymnastics Federation 1881–1981, FIG, Moutier, Switzerland 1981 with permission from Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique.)

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exercises and routines to systematically develop all 30 pretrained athletes, and included competition anatomical movements. His system was used around in mast and rope climbing as well as pole long leap the world in both educational and military training (pole vault) and there was also an exhibition of mass and from his infl uence we can trace fl oor exercise gymnastics by 100 school children (Rühl, 2004). and the balance beam style of early Women’s Artis- During this same time period in England, tic Gymnastics. Likewise, the practice of Swedish Dr Penny Brookes organized a national version (Ling)-style gymnastics in female physical education of his Wenlock Olympian Games—the National colleges and institutions, especially when combined Olympian Games—which were held in London with music and dance, can be seen as the antecedent in 1866 and three successive years in different cit- of the sports of Rhythmic Gymnastics and Aerobic ies in England. These Olympian Games included Gymnastics. This marriage of dance, music, and gym- an extensive gymnastics component, which is nastics thus has deep roots in educational practices, not surprising given the other two major organiz- as well as the performing arts. When combined with ers. One was John Hulley the gymnasiarch of the the military and medical infl uences we now have a Liverpool Gymnasium and promoter of another full picture of the genesis and evolution of the con- Olympic Festival that ran for 6 years in and around temporary sports and activities of gymnastics. Liverpool commencing in 1862. The other was Ernst Ravenstein the president of the German Gymnastics Society of London. These same three men were amongst the small group of founders of Gymnastics in the Olympic Games the National Olympian Association in 1865, and which was a forerunner of the British Olympic The concept of athletic festivals, in the tradition of Association. Ravenstein and Hulley were also co- the ancient games in Greece, has had many mod- authors of two gymnastics books. ern rebirths. Rühl (1997) identifi ed 13 different In 1890, the young French academic Pierre Frédy, “Olympic Games” prior to the IOC Olympics of Baron de Coubertin paid a visit to Much Wenlock 1896. A few were one-off events such as the 1844 to witness the Olympian Games. This was one of Olympic Games and the 1853 New York Coubertin’s many trips to the United Kingdom to Olympic Games, but the rest were repeating events study how British schools encouraged sports and in Drehberg , Rondeau France, Ramlösa games in physical education. In Dr Penny Brookes, Sweden, Lake Pali Serbia plus fi ve different “Olym- Coubertin found an advocate for reestablishing the pic” festivals in England including a local festival Olympic Games as an international event incorporat- started in 1850 in the small Shropshire town of ing modern sports. Four years later Coubertin orga- Much Wenlock under the leadership of Dr William nized an international conference in Paris that formed Penny Brookes. In 1859, just 2 months after the the International Committee of the Olympics, which, newly named Wenlock Olympian Games took place in turn, spearheaded the fi rst Olympic Games under (and still runs annually), the fi rst of the so-called the auspices of the IOC in Athens in 1896. Zappas Olympic Games was launched in Athens It should not be forgotten that in addition to Greece. These “Zappas Games,” funded by Greek these “Olympic” events there were also many business magnate Evangelis Zappas, were modern large gymnastics festivals (turnfests) in German versions of the ancient games. The fi rst two games speaking Europe. GutsMuths refl ects in his book in 1859 and 1870 (20,000 spectators) included, that they were like “…revived Olympic Games” amongst other apparatuses, the ancient gymnas- (Borgers, 2003). The fi rst Deutsches Turnfest was tics competitions in pole climbing and balancing. held in Coburg Germany in 1860 with 970 gym- In the 1875 Zappas Games, the German gymnastics nasts and grew so rapidly that the 1863 Turnfest in apparatuses of parallel bars and horizontal bar were Leipzig had 20,000. The year 1860 was also when added, but since not all the program could be com- Miroslav Tyrš founded the fi rst Sokol club in Prague. pleted, no awards were given. The next, and the last, The Czech Sokol movement was similar to the Ger- of these games in 1889 was quite small with only man Turnverein movement and it quickly spread

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throughout the Slavic world and beyond Europe. to the other scores to determine the combined all They too initiated a large gymnastics festival, called around champions. Also listed were the specialty a Slet, in 1882 and by the end of the century they apparatuses of rope climb and club swinging. were hosting 10,000–12,000 gymnasts. There were In the 1908 London Olympics, there were no indi- also similar large gymnastics festivals occurring in vidual apparatus medals, so athletes had to compete Scandinavia as well as multisport, multinational ath- on all seven (heptathlon): (1) horizontal bar, swing- letic exhibitions and competitions occurring in con- ing; (2) horizontal bar, slow movements; (3) paral- junction with the growing number of national and lel bars; (4) rings, stationary; (5) rings, swinging; international trade and commerce fairs that eventu- (6) pommelled horse; and (7) rope climb. There was ally evolved into the world fairs. Not surprisingly, also, however, a Swedish-style team mass exercise the fi rst three IOC Olympic Games were integrated competition of 16–40 competitors doing free exercise and organized under the programs of world fairs. or exercises with hand apparatus with a maximum In the evolution of contemporary gymnastics, time limit of 30 minutes. there was considerable debate regarding the vir- In 1912 in Copenhagen and again in 1920 in tues of the German versus the Swedish styles of Antwerp, there were only the four German gym- gymnastics, and both of them versus the English nastics apparatuses of horizontal bar, parallel bars, sports approach in education. Coubertin was a still rings, and pommelled horse that were summed strong believer in the English approach to physi- to determine the individual all around medal, but cal education but he believed the German style there were also three separate team competitions. of gymnastics was superior to the more medically One was the apparatus team competition, another oriented Swedish system “… German gymnastics was the Swedish gymnastics team competition, … is energetic in its movement, based on strict and the third was a free team competition. discipline and, in a word, military in its essence” The 1924 games in Paris saw compulsory and (Coubertin, 1892). Thus, we see in the fi rst IOC voluntary routines being performed on the same Olympic Games in Athens in 1896 the inclusion four apparatuses used in the previous two Olym- of the German gymnastics apparatus of horizontal pics plus voluntary skills on rope climb, side bar, parallel bars, pommelled horse, rings, horse horse vault (no pommels), and long horse vault vault, and rope climb, but there was also group (interestingly by vaulting over a high jump bar synchronized competitions on horizontal bar and before contacting the horse). From this date on, parallel bars. In the Paris Olympics of 1900, the there have been individual apparatus awards given gymnastics competition consisted of 16 different in each Olympic competition. There was also a types of apparatus including compulsory and vol- group “drill” routine that was added into the team untary routines on the same apparatus used in the total. Five countries performed demonstrations of 1896 Olympics. In addition, there were freestand- their particular styles of group gymnastics (men’s ing exercise, pole climb, combined jumps (high groups and women’s groups) and they included the jump, long jump, pole vault), and a weight lift- Danish men’s group formed 4 years earlier by Neils ing competition. The battle between the Swedish Bukh. This group introduced a fresh and artisti- and German styles played out in the next several cally infl uential approach to the Scandinavian Olympics with some interesting twists and turns. style of gymnastics (Figure 1.5). They subsequently In the 1904 St. Louis Olympics, there were actually traveled extensively internationally and strongly two separate gymnastics competitions held several infl uenced the male aesthetic in subsequent gym- months apart. The Turnverein (German) compe- nastics generations and had a particularly strong tition was held fi rst and then 4 months later the infl uence in where universities still compete Swedish gymnastics competition. The events listed in this style of men’s team “rhythmic” gymnastics. in the offi cial results include horizontal bar, paral- Danish demonstration teams still tour extensively. lel bars, pommelled horse, rings, vault, 100-yard In in 1928, rope climb was deleted and run, long jump, and shot put. The latter three were compulsory and voluntary routines were performed called the triathlon and these scores were added on the same four apparatuses as in the previous years

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Figure 1.5 Scandinavian-style group gymnastics. (Reprinted with permission from Olympic Museum Collections.)

plus a compulsory vault over side horse with pommels exercise, (2) pommel horse, (3) still rings, (4) vault, and a voluntary vault over long horse. This was the (5) parallel bars, and (6) horizontal bar. The women fi rst Olympics in which women offi cially competed competed on individual apparatus for the fi rst time, in gymnastics even though there had been women’s even though only a team score was awarded med- gymnastics group exhibitions in most of the former als. They also competed in two group routines, one Olympics. For the women, there was only a team with and one without “portable” (hand) apparatus. award that was decided by adding the cumulative Interestingly, the offi cial Olympic report shows the scores from voluntary team routines on vault (jumps), Polish team using long bows as their “portable” drill with or without hand apparatus, and exercises on apparatus. Again it is not clear if this is a competi- the apparatus. It is not clear what apparatuses were tive or a display group. They competed compul- competed since “Each country is entirely free in its sory and voluntary routines on three apparatuses: choice of exercices (sic), apparatus and jumps” (Offi - (1) balancing beam, (2) vault, and (3) parallel bars cial Report, 1928 Olympic Games). It is possible, from (on which the compulsory routine was done on viewing the pictures in the offi cial report, that one but it appears that, at least, some of the team chose group rope climbing. This could, however, voluntary routines were done on the even parallel also have been an exhibition group. bars, as per the men’s apparatus). Women did not compete in gymnastics in the In the 1948 London Olympics, the men’s appara- 1932 Olympics in Los Angeles, where the men had tuses were the same as in Berlin 1936 Olympics, and an unusually large selection of apparatus. Still rings the women again had only team awards, but inter- were replaced with fl ying rings, and the all around estingly the women competed on swinging rings and team competitions used scores from the usual (compulsory routines only). The other women’s four apparatuses (fl ying rings instead of still rings) apparatus included compulsory and optional rou- plus long horse vault. All apparatuses were awarded tines on balance beam and pommelled side horse medals including the Indian clubs, rope climb, tum- vault plus two group routines, one with and one bling, and individual freehanded exercise. This latter without hand apparatus. was Swedish-style calisthenics without hand appara- The 1952 Olympics program included tus, thus “freehanded,” and was to become one of the the six contemporary apparatuses for men and the six permanent apparatuses in subsequent Olympic four contemporary apparatuses for women (except competitions. It has also been variously called free vault was listed as long horse, not side horse) in exercises, freestanding exercise, and fl oor exercise. both compulsory and optional routines. The The Berlin 1936 Olympics saw the standardization women also competed on an optional routine in of the men’s apparatus to the current six: (1) fl oor the Swedish-style gymnastics group competition

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with hand apparatus. Medals were given for indi- and synchronized pairs), Tumbling, and Double vidual apparatus, individual all around, and team. Mini-Trampoline. Trampoline (individual male and The exact same apparatuses were contested in female) was added to the Olympic program in 2000. the 1956 Melbourne Olympics, and subsequent Olympics, but Melbourne would be the last time, under the banner of Artistic Gymnastics, that the Summary women would compete in a Swedish-style group competition with hand apparatus. In summary, whether it is the competitive sports of gymnastics or the large massed group displays seen at the quadrennial World Gymnaestrada, Contemporary Olympic gymnastics or the recreational gymnastics class in the local municipal hall, all can trace their existence back The Swedish-infl uenced group gymnastics and gym- to the performing arts, military training, medical nastics with hand apparatus continued to evolve professions, or educational professions. It has been and develop and was strongly infl uenced by mod- a fascinating journey that continues to evolve at a ern dance personalities like Emile Jaques-Dalcroze of rapid pace. Switzerland and American dancer Isadora Duncan as In the past 20 years, when compared to changes well as by the Rhythmic Gymnastics styles evolving in other sports over the same time, change in in the , , and Estonia. The sport gymnastics has been extraordinary. The appa- of modern gymnastics came under FIG’s umbrella ratuses have undergone, and are still undergo- in 1961 and changed its name to Rhythmic Sport- ing, extensive modifi cations that have changed ive Gymnastics and had its fi rst world championship gymnastics sports as radically as fi berglass poles in 1963 (Figure 1.6). It was then “reintroduced” into have changed pole vaulting. Consider the recent Olympic competition in the 1984 Olympics as the adaptations only in the single sport of Artis- sport of Rhythmic Gymnastics. tic Gymnastics, where increasing elasticity has A similar evolutionary process was happening occurred in all apparatus—springy fl oor exercise with another group of sports that joined the FIG in area; padded and slightly sprung balance beams; 1999 as TG. These include Trampoline (individual sprung-top and much wider vaulting tables

Figure 1.6 1969 Bulgarian Rhythmic World Championship team. (With courtesy of Vera Marinova-Atkinson.)

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instead of narrow vaulting horses; spring-loaded to decrease the advantage of small prepubertal ring suspension on frames designed to bow and female Artistic gymnasts. recoil; thicker landing mats; much thinner, In Rhythmic Gymnastics, there has been a trend hollow fi berglass rails on parallel bars and asym- for increased fl exibility that now crosses over into metric bars; higher and much wider separation contortion and this has generated great discussion of asymmetric bars; and adjustable springs on within the ranks of FIG offi cials. This trend has vaulting boards. These modifi cations have pro- partially been ameliorated by recent rule changes duced radically different gymnastics skills. giving less reward for it, but the debate continues. Now, prepubertal gymnasts around the world The following trends are realities of contempo- commonly perform skills that Olympic cham- rary gymnastics, and all need continual monitor- pions were incapable of performing only a few ing and debate: years ago! • The ages of gymnasts training at high levels has Trampoline has added the brand new evalua- progressively decreased. tion component of measuring bounce height (air • The training hours, notably for young children, time) that has an immediate infl uence on perfor- have increased dramatically. mance. In addition, the non-Olympic disciplines • The skill diffi culty levels have increased expo- of Acrobatic and Aerobic Gymnastics are also nentially, which results in greater forces being sus- evolving rapidly. Aerobic Gymnastics recently tained by the body, for longer periods of time, at added two new competitive categories aerobic younger ages. dance and aerobic step to its competitive roster. • Injury rates, especially growth plate injuries, The other discipline under the FIG’s direction is seem higher than previously reported (Kolt and Gymnastics for All, and it too has recently made Kirkby, 1999, Kolt and Caine, 2010). a major change in its program by adding the new • Subjective evaluation of athletes contains the international Gym For Life Challenge compe- inherent pitfalls of nationalistic bias. tition, which pits individual clubs against one • The importance of, and meaningful use of, music another in a world championship of exhibition has diminished. gymnastics. • Rule makers are predominantly from the ranks This rapid evolution has, however, also brought of judges with little input from the coaching com- changes that are more diffi cult to evaluate as munity. being favorable or unfavorable. Younger than nor- • Skill convergence in Women’s Artistic and Rhyth- mal gymnasts began to appear at the Dortmund mic Gymnastics has led to overuse injuries. World Championships in 1966, and by 1975 Yes, there are challenges in the world of gym- Nadia Comaneci won every gold medal except nastics, but the 5000-year-old adventure contin- one at the European Championships. She was 13 ues with no signs of stagnation. The many forms years old. At the Montreal Olympics in 1976 we of gymnastics are wonderful foundations to other had the two 14 year olds Nadia Comaneci and physical pursuits, and are amongst the most excit- Nellie Kim take the spotlight with their incredible ing sports to perform and to watch. The marriage level of performance. This trend has been recently of artistry and sport is not an easy union. However, reversed by the imposition of a minimum age of the outcomes are well worth the struggle and the 16 for Olympic competition. This increase in age, many forms of gymnastics deliver innumerable while positive, has opened the possibility that positive outcomes. the most successful female Artistic Gymnastics competitors may be those who are actually much later maturers than was previously the case, as Acknowledgment evidenced by the fact that the average height and weight of the female Olympic gymnasts has not changed, even though the age has increased. Per- The author would like to thank John Atkinson and haps changes in the judging rules will be needed Hardy Fink for making helpful suggestions.

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