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The Body Fluid Compartments: Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids; Edema

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The Body Fluid Compartments: Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids; Edema C H A P T E R 2 5 U N I T V The Body Fluid Compartments: Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids; Edema The maintenance of a relatively constant volume and a conditions. This loss is termed insensible water loss stable composition of the body fluids is essential for because we are not consciously aware of it, even though homeostasis. Some of the most common and important it occurs continually in all living humans. problems in clinical medicine arise because of abnor­ Insensible water loss through the skin occurs indepen­ malities in the control systems that maintain this relative dently of sweating and is present even in people who are constancy of the body fluids. In this chapter and in born without sweat glands; the average water loss by dif­ the following chapters on the kidneys, we discuss the fusion through the skin is about 300 to 400 ml/day. This overall regulation of body fluid volume, constituents of loss is minimized by the cholesterol­filled cornified layer the extracellular fluid, acid­base balance, and control of of the skin, which provides a barrier against excessive loss fluid exchange between extracellular and intracellular by diffusion. When the cornified layer becomes denuded, compartments. as occurs with extensive burns, the rate of evaporation can increase as much as 10­fold, to 3 to 5 L/day. For this FLUID INTAKE AND OUTPUT reason, persons with burns must be given large amounts ARE BALANCED DURING of fluid, usually intravenously, to balance fluid loss. STEADY-STATE CONDITIONS Insensible water loss through the respiratory tract averages about 300 to 400 ml/day. As air enters the respi­ The relative constancy of the body fluids is remarkable ratory tract, it becomes saturated with moisture, to a because there is continuous exchange of fluid and solutes vapor pressure of about 47 mm Hg, before it is expelled. with the external environment, as well as within the dif­ Because the vapor pressure of the inspired air is usually ferent body compartments. For example, fluid intake is less than 47 mm Hg, water is continuously lost through highly variable and must be carefully matched by equal the lungs with respiration. In cold weather, the atmo­ output of water from the body to prevent body fluid spheric vapor pressure decreases to nearly 0, causing an volumes from increasing or decreasing. even greater loss of water from the lungs as the tempera­ ture decreases. This process explains the dry feeling in the DAILY INTAKE OF WATER respiratory passages in cold weather. Water is added to the body by two major sources: (1) it is Fluid Loss in Sweat. The amount of water lost by ingested in the form of liquids or water in food, which sweating is highly variable, depending on physical activity together normally add about 2100 ml/day to the body and environmental temperature. The volume of sweat fluids, and (2) it is synthesized in the body by oxidation normally is about 100 ml/day, but in very hot weather of carbohydrates, adding about 200 ml/day. These mecha­ or during heavy exercise fluid loss in sweat occasion­ nisms provide a total water intake of about 2300 ml/day ally increases to 1 to 2 L/hour. This fluid loss would (Table 25-1). However, intake of water is highly variable rapidly deplete the body fluids if intake were not also among different people and even within the same person increased by activating the thirst mechanism discussed in on different days, depending on climate, habits, and level Chapter 29. of physical activity. Water Loss in Feces. Only a small amount of water DAILY LOSS OF BODY WATER (100 ml/day) normally is lost in the feces. This loss can increase to several liters a day in people with severe diar­ Insensible Water Loss. Some water losses cannot be rhea. For this reason, severe diarrhea can be life threaten­ precisely regulated. For example, humans experience a ing if not corrected within a few days. continuous loss of water by evaporation from the respira­ tory tract and diffusion through the skin, which together Water Loss by the Kidneys. The remaining water loss account for about 700 ml/day of water loss under normal from the body occurs in the urine excreted by the kidneys. 305 V The Body Fluids and Kidneys Unit V The Body Fluids and Kidneys Table 25-1 Daily Intake and Output of Water OUTPUT INTAKE (ml/day) • Kidneys • Lungs Normal Prolonged, Heavy Exercise • Feces • Sweat Plasma Intake • Skin 3.0 L Fluids ingested 2100 ? Capillary membrane From metabolism 200 200 Interstitial Total intake 2300 ? Lymphatics fluid Extracellular Output fluid (14.0 L) 11.0 L Insensible: skin 350 350 Insensible: lungs 350 650 Cell membrane Sweat 100 5000 Feces 100 100 Urine 1400 500 Total output 2300 6600 Intracellular fluid 28.0 L Multiple mechanisms control the rate of urine excretion. In fact, the most important means by which the body maintains a balance between water intake and output, as well as a balance between intake and output of most Figure 25-1. Summary of body fluid regulation, including the major electrolytes in the body, is by controlling the rates at body fluid compartments and the membranes that separate these which the kidneys excrete these substances. For example, compartments. The values shown are for an average 70-kilogram urine volume can be as low as 0.5 L/day in a dehydrated adult man. person or as high as 20 L/day in a person who has been drinking tremendous amounts of water. This variability of intake is also true for most of the obesity. As a person grows older, the percentage of total electrolytes of the body, such as sodium, chloride, and body weight that is fluid gradually decreases. This decrease potassium. In some people, sodium intake may be as low is due in part to the fact that aging is usually associated as 20 mEq/day, whereas in others, sodium intake may be with an increased percentage of the body weight being as high as 300 to 500 mEq/day. The kidneys are faced with fat, which decreases the percentage of water in the body. the task of adjusting the excretion rate of water and elec­ Because women normally have a greater percentage trolytes to match precisely the intake of these substances, of body fat compared with men, their total body water as well as compensating for excessive losses of fluids averages about 50 percent of the body weight. In prema­ and electrolytes that occur in certain disease states. In ture and newborn babies, the total body water ranges Chapters 26 through 31, we discuss the mechanisms that from 70 to 75 percent of body weight. Therefore, when allow the kidneys to perform these remarkable tasks. discussing “average” body fluid compartments, we should realize that variations exist, depending on age, gender, BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS and percentage of body fat. In many other countries, the average body weight (and The total body fluid is distributed mainly between two fat mass) has increased rapidly during the past 30 years. compartments: the extracellular fluid and the intracellu- Currently, the average body weight for men older than 20 lar fluid (Figure 25-1). The extracellular fluid is divided years in the United States is estimated to be approxi­ into the interstitial fluid and the blood plasma. mately 86.4 kg, and for women, it is 74.1 kg. Therefore the There is another small compartment of fluid that data discussed for an “average” 70 kg man in this chapter is referred to as transcellular fluid. This compartment (as well as in other chapters) would need to be adjusted includes fluid in the synovial, peritoneal, pericardial, and accordingly when considering body fluid compartments intraocular spaces, as well as the cerebrospinal fluid; it in most people. is usually considered to be a specialized type of extracel­ lular fluid, although in some cases its composition may INTRACELLULAR FLUID COMPARTMENT differ markedly from that of the plasma or interstitial fluid. All the transcellular fluids together constitute about About 28 of the 42 liters of fluid in the body are inside 1 to 2 liters. the 100 trillion cells and are collectively called the intra- In a 70­kilogram adult man, the total body water is cellular fluid. Thus, the intracellular fluid constitutes about 60 percent of the body weight, or about 42 liters. about 40 percent of the total body weight in an “average” This percentage depends on age, gender, and degree of person. 306 Chapter 25 The Body Fluid Compartments: Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids; Edema The fluid of each cell contains its individual mixture of red blood cells occurs, resulting in polycythemia. In these different constituents, but the concentrations of these persons, the hematocrit can rise to 0.65. substances are similar from one cell to another. In fact, the composition of cell fluids is remarkably similar even CONSTITUENTS OF EXTRACELLULAR in different animals, ranging from the most primitive AND INTRACELLULAR FLUIDS U N I T V microorganisms to humans. For this reason, the intracel­ lular fluid of all the different cells together is considered Comparisons of the composition of the extracellular fluid, to be one large fluid compartment. including the plasma and interstitial fluid, and the intra­ cellular fluid are shown in Figures 25-2 and 25-3 and in EXTRACELLULAR FLUID COMPARTMENT Table 25-2. All the fluids outside the cells are collectively called the IONIC COMPOSITION OF PLASMA AND extracellular fluid. Together these fluids account for INTERSTITIAL FLUID IS SIMILAR about 20 percent of the body weight, or about 14 liters in a 70­kilogram man.
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