Italy in the Horn of Africa and the Ethiopian Islamic Literary Tradition

WPF Historic Publication

Alessandro Gori December 31, 2010

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Italy in the Horn of Africa and the Ethiopian Islamic Literary Tradition: L. Robecchi Bricchetti and his Collection of Manuscripts

Alessandro Gori

Assistant Professor, Department of Linguistics, University of Florence, Italy

Originally published 2010 in World Public Forum Dialogue of Civilizations Bulletin 7, 349–56. 2

Prolegomena

The role played by travellers, explorers, adventurers, commercial agents, and more and less official envoys of European powers in paving the way for the colonial expansion in Asia and Africa cannot be underestimated. It is a well known fact that these forerunners of the military occupation were sometimes also scholars, sincerely interested in the culture of the local peoples, or at least they were conscious that it would have been impossible to control the “natives” without knowing their culture and languages. They thus promoted the collection of manuscripts, artefacts, oral histories and traditions to have a clear image of the peoples whose territories they were visiting. Italians in the Horn of Africa are no exception to this cultural and historical phenomenon. One can just mention the names of one of the most accomplished scholars in the field of Ethiopian and Somali Studies, Enrico Cerulli, who travelled extensively in the Horn and thus acquired a firsthand knowledge of the country and the people they were studying. Here I should like to draw your attention to a relatively less known Italian traveller to the Horn of Africa, Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, and to show how his stay in Harar contributed to the creation of one of the very few collections of Ethiopian Arabic Islamic manuscripts in Europe.

1. Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti: some general biographical data Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti was born in Pavia on the 21st of May 1855 and in his native town in Northern Italy died on the 31st of May 1926. He was a graduated engineer of the Polytechnic Institute in Zürich. His first long trip was to the Libyan Desert in Egypt in 1885-86. He reached the oasis of Siwa, where the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon is located. He visited the ancient ruins whose structure and decoration he described in a series of beautiful sketches. During his stay in Siwa, Robecchi Bricchetti stealthily managed to enter the wide necropolis beside the temple and to collect thirty skulls which are still nowadays kept in the Anthropological Museum of Florence and in the Civic Anthropological Museum of Pavia. 3

In 1888-1889 carried out his stay in Harar with which I deal at some length in the following lines. In 1890 supported by the “Italian Geographical Society” he travelled to the Benadir region (an Italian protectorate since 1889). He landed in Hobyo where he was hosted for a month by the local sultan, Yusuf ‘Ali. From Hobyo he headed northwards to explore, for the first time ever, the valley of the Nogal river which he described from a geographical, anthropological, geological and environmental point of view. In 1891 he was once again in Hobyo by Yusuf ‘Ali. From there, he went south to the Webi Shabelle which he started exploring: however, the full exploration of the river valley was realized only later by Luigi Amedeo di Savoia Duca degli Abruzzi in 1928-9 (Enrico Cerulli took part in this expedition). Robecchi Bricchetti tried to penetrate the Somali hinterland: his idea was to reach Harar from Somalia. He did not succeed, due to the Ethiopian pressure on the Somali regions. He thus decided to completely change direction and moved northwards to Berbera and the “Aromatica regio” (the land of the perfumes: the ancient Punt, where myrrh and frankincense are produced). He explored the Somali coastal regions on the Gulf of Aden and came back to Italy. This was his last travel to the Horn. Robecchi Bricchetti went once more to Libya in 1895, disguised as a Swiss citizen to collect information on account of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Italy was at that time very active in North Africa. The mission failed and Robecchi Bricchetti returned to Italy. Since then, Robecchi Bricchetti seems to have stopped travelling. No other adventurous trip is mentioned in his biographies. At his death, Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti left an enormous and manifold scientific legacy. Besides his travelogues and correspondences full of linguistic and anthropological information, he left to the museum of his native town his maps and detailed itineraries, his collections of fossils, exotic plants, animals and insects (among them most famous is his impressive collection of Somali ants), clothes, jewels and artefacts of different nature are of enormous interest. The photos he took while travelling are exceptional and invaluable first hand documents and was shown in a recent (2004) exhibition.

2. Robecchi Bricchetti’s travel to Harar (12/04/1888-25/04/1889)

2.1 General political background In 1869 the opening of the Suez Canal had a long lasting consequence in the network of ports of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Sawakin, for example, was practically substituted by the more modern Port Soudan. Hudayda and Muha were revitalized. More significantly, the decline of the Ottoman presence in the area favoured a slow but steady expansion of the European powers. A harsh competition started to conquer the most favourable positions on the coasts of two seas and the continents. Britain which had already established its presence in Aden (1839/49), created the British Somaliland Protectorate in 1887: Berbera and Zayla‘ were the two main gates of this territory and permitted to the British to secure the control on their trade routes to India. Berbera slowly had the better of Zayla‘ which had been since the Middle Ages the most important way out for the merchandise coming from the Ethiopian hinterland. In 1862 the ‘Afar sultan of Obock (on the gulf of Tadjoura), Dini Ahmad, Abu Bakr ceded to France the area around the port in what is now North Djibouti. In 1880 the Frenchmen Denis de Revoyre and Pierre Arnoux founded the Compagnie Franco- éthiopienne to foster the commercial relationships between Obock and the Ethiopian hinterland. The trading company failed but the French colonial expansion in Indo- China and Madagascar needed a coaling station and a secure port in the area. So in 1884 the governor Léonce Lagarde moved the seat of the colonial administration to Djibouti. The new French colony of the “Territoire des Afar et Issas” was started. In 1896 Djibouti had practically overwhelmed the role of the ports of Zayla‘ and Tadjoura. The French railway Addis Abeba - Djibouti (chemin de fer franco-éthiopien ; since October 1981 Chemin de fer Djibouto-Ethiopien (C.D.E.) begun in 1897 and finished in 1917 marked the emergence of Djibouti as the main outlet of Ethiopian trade. Within this frame of rivalry among France and Great Britain, Italy had already started its own slow penetration into the Horn. 5

In 1869 the Genoan navigation company owned by Raffaele Rubattino (d. 1881) acquired the bay of ‘Asab thanks to the mediation of the traveller and ex-missionary Giuseppe Sapeto. The bay was then sold to the Italian State in 1881 and the “Colonia di Assab” was created. In February 1885 the Italians led by the naval officer Caimmi landed in Massawa under the auspices of the Hewett treaty of 1884 and with the silent place of Great Britain. On the Somali coast, as already mentioned, in 1889 and 1892 Italy established its protectorate on several ports of the Somali coast among which there was also Mogadiscio. Thus towards the end of the eighties of the 19th century Italy’s presence on the shores of Eritrea was already established or was on its way to be started. What was needed, was to secure the roads towards the hinterland.

2.2 The local scenario The years 1887-1889 saw some major changes in the political geography of Ethiopia and Italy was an important factor in creating the new scenario. 1887 was open by the tragic battle of Dog‘ali 25 kilometres from Massawa where an Italian battalion was ambushed and massacred by the troops of the ras ‘Alula Engeda governor of the Mareb Mällash region. The clash had no practical influence on the Italian presence on the Eritrean coast which on the contrary was strengthen by a larger Italian army sent from the mother country at the end of 1887. For Harar and its region, January 1887 is the year of the battle of Cällänqo where the amir of Harar was defeated by the shewan troops of Menelik II led by ras Mäkwännen Wäldä Mika’el. The city of Harar definitively lost its century - long independence and was incorporated into the expanding Ethiopian monarchy. Ras Mäkwännen was named governor of Harar. Italy had already made clear its interest for the town of Harar in the spring 1886 when count Gian Pietro Porro, president of the “Società di Esplorazione Commerciale”, organized and led a commercial and scientific expedition which had to reach Harar. The “Porro expedition” was supported by the main colonial institutions: the “Società Africana di Napoli”, the “Società Geografica Italiana” and the “Filonardi” commercial company (owned by the famous Vincenzo Filonardi), already present and active on the 6

Somali coasts. The expedition tragically ended on April 8th, 1886 in Gildessa, near Harar, where the group of eight Italians was killed by the troops of the amir for unclear reasons. It was suspected that the British at that moment supportive of the Harari ruler pushed the amir to such a grave step but until the present day the facts remain apparently unexplainable. The Italian main political strategy was at that moment to support Menilek king of Shawa against Emperor Yohannes IV (d. 09/03/1889). This approach aimed at undermining the Ethiopian state in the North and favouring the expansion from the Eritrean coast towards the centre of the country and at the same time to gain some influence in the Eastern regions.

2.3. The geopolitical aims of Robecchi Bricchetti’s stay in Harar Italy was looking for a way to expand its influence inside the Horn to bridge the coasts already under its control and the hinterland where the Shewan monarchy was expanding at expense of the central monarchy. Harar was the most attractive towns of the area and it was natural that it raised the attention and ambitions of the colonialist circles in the country. Robecchi Bricchetti was convinced that Italy could easily step into the economy of the town which - he thought - was stable and promising of a rapid grow. His travel and stay in Harar aimed exactly at collecting the objective data to prove the hypothesis that Italy would have benefited from a strong commercial presence in Harar. This presence would have put the basis for a further extension of the Italian influence on Ethiopia. The main obstacle in this strategy was - according to Robecchi Bricchetti - France that was also trying to implement a similar plan moving from Obock - Djibouti towards the hinterland of Ethiopia, exactly via Harar. On the contrary, he hoped for a condescending attitude of Great Britain. In particular, he thought that a special agreement between Italy and Great Britain on the ports of the Gulf of Aden was viable so that Zayla‘ and possibly also Berbera could be given to Italy in exchange of a free access for the British. The Italian traveller arrived in Harar on July 8th, 1888: he had passed through Aden, Berbera and Zayla‘. In his travelogue “Nell’Harrar”, published in 1896 in Milan, he describes at length the two possible itineraries that connect the port on the Gulf of 7

Aden with the town of Harar and he explains the advantages and disadvantages of both according to the season of the year. The description of the itineraries is of course always the first prerequisite for any further expansion in the area. Once arrived in town, he was introduced into the European community, made up of Italians, Greeks, Frenchmen (among them A. Rimbaud) and others. He vividly describes the activities that this variegated human group carried out to survive and the relationship that every individual had with the local people. Thanks to the mediation of count Pietro Antonelli (d. 1901) the Italian diplomat who negotiated the treaty of Wecale (1889), Robecchi Bricchetti was summoned by ras Mäkwännen (the Shewan governor of Harar) who asked him to sketch a project for a church to be built on the main central square of Harar where the big mosque of the town stand before the battle of Cällänqo. Robecchi Bricchetti drew the project and presented it to the governor. It was approved and the Italian engineer started immediately looking for the manpower and the material for realize it. He wanted to call to Harar Italian specialized workers and craftsmen. He thought that this was the best way to make the Italian influence wider and deeper felt in town. He did not succeed in his plans because the Italian consul in Aden did not manage to respond positively to his request and also because in Italy the public opinion did not appreciate Robecchi Bricchetti’s idea: it was perceived as a personal attempt to get rich at the State’s expenses. However, Robecchi Bricchetti managed to start the building of the church which was successively completed (Mädhane ‘aläm) on the basis of Robecchi Bricchetti’s project and is still there in Faras Magala square in Harar. Living in Harar until March 3rd 1889, Robecchi Bricchetti was able to register the detailed commercial movement of the town and to make very acute observations on the possible way of improving the trade in the area. The long and precise list of wares and commodities exported from and imported in Harar with their prices is really impressive and was surely taken into account by the political authorities when the Italian Prime Minister Crispi asked Mäkwännen to receive the revenues of the Harar custom as a security for the 4 million loan Italy granted to Ethiopia in 1889.

3. The scientifical achievements of Robecchi Bricchetti’s stay in Harar The stay of Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti in Harar had also several cultural results. The Italian traveller was able to collect information on the people of Harar and its region. Their language, customs, traditions are described in his travelogue and in a series of articles. Sometimes, his perception of things is not precise and the translations of Oromo or Harari texts that he collected are definitely wrong. Nevertheless, the bulk of the data is huge and, if used with great attention, remains extraordinarily useful. During an excursion to Cällänqo, Robecchi Bricchetti managed to collect some skulls of the dead in the battle: these skulls are now preserved in the Anthropological Museum of Rome. Two botanical and geological collection were also set up by the Italian traveller and were analyzed by scientists who underlined their high value. Last but not the least, Robecchi Bricchetti collected manuscripts which are now kept in the “Biblioteca Civica Carlo Bonetta”. During his stay in Harar Robecchi Bricchetti purchased 12 manuscripts. He cursorily mentions them in his travelogue (pp. 131-32). It does not seem that he exactly understood the content of his collection and was not able to describe them properly. In 1972 they were eventually catalogued by Renato Traini. It is not possible to give a detailed description of each of the twelve manuscripts. Let’s cast a glance at them. First of all, from an aesthetical point of view the collection is not particularly impressive: all the manuscripts are written in a very current and simple hand, with no calligraphic pretensions. Bindings are also quite average. No attractive ornaments and embellishments are present. The manuscripts are also relatively recent: only three of the manuscripts are surely dated (ms. 5, until f. 63v, 1763; ms 6, 1795 and ms 7; 1843- 44); the others are all probably datable to the 18th and 19th centuries. Nevertheless, the collection has something exceptional at least for two reasons. It is the only well structured and variegated collection of manuscripts coming from Harar existing in Europe; it is so set up that it gives us a partial but clear idea of the Arabic Islamic literature existent in the town of Harar. Main highlights of the collection are two copies (ms 5. ff. 3v-57; ms 6, ff. 5-49r) of the very famous “Kitab al-Fath al-Rahmani”, a work by shaykh Abu ‘Abdallah Hashim b. ‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Harari. It is a very widespread collection of prayers and 9 pious invocations to be recited on the different days of the week to honor of the Prophet and to ask God’s forgiveness. The text was printed several times in Ethiopia and it is considered as one of the masterpieces of Harari Arabic literature. Until nowadays Fath al-Rahmani is commonly read on religious festivals, during weddings and other family occasions. Other texts contained in the manuscripts collected by Robecchi Bricchetti are not works of local learned men but they are of a crucial importance to gain insight into the Islamic theological and legal thought in the town of Harar. We thus find in the collection all the handbooks of theology and Law on which the religious education in Harar is based. For example, we find the “Jawhar al-tawhid” by al-Laqani (m. 1631; ms 8, ff. 5r-9r), the “Bidayat al-hidaya” by al-Ghazzali (ms 8, ff. 9v-97v), the ‘Aqidat al-Shafi‘i (ms 8, ff. 101v-102r), the commentary (sharh) of al- Suyuti on the “al-Kawkab al-waqqad” of al-Sakhawi (ms 8, ff. 104v-109v), the very famous sharh al-‘Aqa’id al-nasafiyya of al-Taftazani (m. 1390; ms 7, ff. 3r-54r), the also much renowned “Umdat ahl al-tawfiq wa-al-tasdid fi sharh ‘aqidat al-tawhid” commentary of al-Sanusi on his ‘Aqidat ahl al-tawhid. In the field of fiqh, the collection contains the text of Manhaj al-tullab of Zakariya al-ansari, abridgment of the Minhaj al-talibin by al-Nawawi (ms 9, ff. 1r- 110v) and the Safwat al-zubad by Ibn Raslan al-Dimashqi (d. 1441; ms 10, ff. 3r-42r). The famous al-Qasida al-Shatibiyya on qira’at is also present in the collection (m. 10; ff. 47v-88r) together with some grammatical texts (e.g. Mukhtasar al-lum‘a fi al-nawh by Ibn al-Jinni; ms 12, ff. 9-12). The collection presents also many representatives of religious and devotional poetry, mystical and magical texts. All the material is of invaluable help in getting a first hand idea of the frame within which the intellectual activities of Harari learned men developed between the 18th and the 19th century. We thus come to know what they were reading and copying, what they were reflecting on, what they were teaching. In a wider perspective, the data that the collection of Robecchi Bricchetti gives us can be compared to those coming from other Muslim regions. This enables us to draw up a network of possible connections which enable us to understand the external links of the Harari intellighentsia. This comparative effort is of tremendous interest to reconstruct the 10 historical and cultural evolution of Harari Islam. In particular, one should be thus able to identify the external influences that were felt in the shaping of the Islamic tradition in the town and the The collection of Robecchi Bricchetti is thus a very effective tool for the study of Harari Islam. Considering the incredibly scanty amount of Arabic manuscripts from Harar known to the researchers until now, the collection of Pavia is also a very strong impute to continue collecting manuscripts in the same area of the Horn of Africa.

References

Sofia Bompiani, Italian Explorers in Africa, London, 1892, pp. 169-182.

Salvatore Bono, Storiografia e fonti occidentali sulla Libia, 1510-1911, Roma, 1982, pp.93-94 (Quaderni dell’Istituto Italiano di Cultura di Tripoli, n.s. 2).

Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, Nell’Harrar, Milano, 1896.

Renato Traini, I manoscritti arabi esistenti nelle biblioteche di Pavia, Roma 1974 [printout of Atti Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei; anno CCCLXX, serie ottava, Rendiconti Classe di Scienze morali, storiche e filologiche, vol. XXVIII, fascicoli 7-12].