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Neuroergonomics: a Perspective from Neuropsychology, with a Proposal About Workload

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Neuroergonomics: a Perspective from Neuropsychology, with a Proposal About Workload brain sciences Review Neuroergonomics: A Perspective from Neuropsychology, with a Proposal about Workload David J. Hardy 1,2 1 Department of Psychology, Loyola Marymount University, 1 LMU Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90045, USA; [email protected] 2 Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90045, USA Abstract: In a brief overview of neuroergonomics, including some personal reminiscences of Raja Parasuraman, it is recognized that the field of human factors and ergonomics has benefitted greatly from the inclusion and integration of neuroscientific methods and theory. It is argued that such synergistic success can work in the other direction as well with the inclusion of methods and theory of human factors by a neuro field, in this case, neuropsychology. More specifically, it is proposed that neuropsychology can benefit from the inclusion of workload measures and theory. Preliminary studies on older adults, persons living with HIV, and patients with a traumatic brain injury or multiple sclerosis, are reviewed. As an adjunct measure to neuropsychological tests, the construct of workload seems perfectly suited to provide an additional vector of information on patient status, capturing some of the large individual differences evident in clinical populations and facilitating the early detection of cognitive change. Keywords: neuroergonomics; neuropsychology; workload Citation: Hardy, D.J. Neuroergonomics: A Perspective from Neuropsychology, with a Proposal about Workload. Brain Sci. 1. The Emergence of Neuroergonomics 2021, 11, 647. https://doi.org/ Raja Parasuraman’s laboratory was surprisingly diverse in personnel and in the 10.3390/brainsci11050647 research topics under investigation. As a graduate student, my research focused on event- related brain potential correlates to various aspects of visual-spatial attention [1], but some Academic Editors: Edmund Wascher, of the others pursued projects involving computer programs and measures such as the Stefan Arnau and Thorsten Plewan Multi-Attribute Task [2], the NASA Task Load Index [3], an air traffic control simulator, and heavier equipment such as a single prop fixed-wing flight simulator. Indeed, at the time, Received: 26 March 2021 the graduate degree you earned there was a Ph.D. in Applied-Experimental Psychology, Accepted: 11 May 2021 Published: 15 May 2021 emphasizing the applied nature of much of the research. On top of all this, Raja also spent time at the National Institutes of Health in nearby Bethesda, Maryland, collaborating Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral on functional brain imaging projects of cognition, e.g., [4]. The lab environment was with regard to jurisdictional claims in international, multicultural, interdisciplinary, and flexible. For instance, Raja had no published maps and institutional affil- problem at the time with me publishing a rather long paper on the cognition of older iations. aircraft pilots [5], a topic having nothing directly related to my ongoing dissertation project. However, that is how Raja was, and it was an exciting place to be. With such a diverse research portfolio and strong interest in application, it is no surprise that several years later in 2007, he co-edited with Matthew Rizzo the pioneering volume Neuroergonomics: The Brain at Work [6]. As far as I can tell, Raja coined the term neuroergonomics almost Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. ten years earlier. In a 2003 paper [7], he cites a page from his lab website dated 1998, This article is an open access article “Neuroergonomics: The Study of Brain and Behavior at Work” (no longer active, the site distributed under the terms and was listed as http:/arts-sciences.cua.edu/csl/neuroerg.htm). Researchers rightly claim conditions of the Creative Commons that “Raja Parasuraman’s pioneering work led to the emergence of Neuroergonomics as Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// a new scientific field.” [8] (p. 7). The word emergence seems to be the proper word here, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ rather than creation or discovery. There was a lot of relevant research taking place at the 4.0/). time, within and without his own projects, but he had the creativity, experience, and vision Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 647. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11050647 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/brainsci Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 647 2 of 10 to pull it all together, and indicate the need for a comprehensive view, a theoretical and conceptual framework to further develop and advance this growing body of work. Neuroergonomics can be simply defined as “the study of brain and behavior at work”, with a focus on “investigations of the neural bases of such perceptual and cognitive functions as seeing, hearing, attending, remembering, deciding and planning in relation to technologies and settings in the real world.” [7] (p. 5). There are many fine papers in this special issue of Brain Sciences, and a comprehensive review of neuroergonomics research is not necessary here. I am not the right person to do a proper review anyway. Nonetheless, I present in Table1 a simple analysis, listing chapter or paper titles from two volumes, the edited book by Parasuraman and Rizzo [6] and the edited book (a large collection of papers in the journal Frontiers in Human Neuroscience) ten years later by Gramann et al. [9]. Both of these collections serve as useful “snapshots” of the state of neuroergonomics at these two time points. In the introductory chapter [10] of the Parasuraman and Rizzo book [6], they make the claim that “a coherent body of concepts and empirical evidence that constitutes neuroergonomics theory does not exist.” (p. 6), a claim made, verbatim, four years earlier [7]. On the other hand, it is also claimed in the concluding chapter that there is “strong evidence for the growth and development of neuroergonomics since its inception” and that “Better understanding of brain function is leading to the development and refinement of theory in neuroergonomics” [11] (p. 381). One way or the other, it is clear in Table1 that ten years later, in 2017, topics and techniques have further developed and advanced. Although the open-access platform of Frontiers in Human Neuroscience might be contributing to the voluminous nature of this collected volume (making a somewhat awkward-looking Table1), the fact that such a collection could be successfully gathered speaks, in my view, to the success of neuroergonomics. Another claim in Parasuraman and Rizzo [6] is that “An imminent challenge in neuroergonomics will be to disseminate and advance new methods for measuring human performance and physiology in natural and naturalistic settings.” [11] (p. 382). It appears that researchers in neuroergonomics are vigorously engaging with this challenge. Advances are evident in the assessment of brain states and processes, especially with electroencephalography (EEG) and functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and also with the coupling together of established methods such as pupillometry, the electrocardiogram (ECG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and others. Some of these advancements, as the editors of this 2017 collection note, are enabling more neuroergonomics research to move “into the wild” [8] (p. 8). Studies of brain stimulation are also interesting, such as with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in various training situations, as well as developments in brain computer interface (BDI) systems, where the brain has some control of a system, something of value to performance, and rehabilitation scenarios. Something of particular interest involves the topic of workload, especially mental workload, which seems to have waxed and waned over the years and is waxing again. This can be illustrated with subsequent editions of the substantial Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics edited by Gavriel Salvendy. In the second edition, the title of the chapter by Tsang and Wilson is “Mental Workload” [12]. In the third edition, Tsang and Vidulich changed the title to “Mental Workload and Situation Awareness” [13] where it remained as thus in the fourth edition in 2012 [14], with some discussion about whether other constructs, such as situation awareness, had supplanted or subsumed mental workload. With advancements in technology and analytic techniques, with the rise of neuroergonomics, workload and mental workload seem to be front and center once again, and this is clearly evident in the Gramann et al. collection from 2017 [9]. Workload is of central interest in the present paper. Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 647 3 of 10 Table 1. Comparison of topics in Neuroergonomics: The Brain at Work edited by Parasuraman and Rizzo [6] and Trends in Neuroergonomics: A Comprehensive Overview edited by Gramann et al. [8]. Parasuraman and Rizzo (2007) Gramann et al. (2017) 1 Introduction to Neuroergonomics Introduction Mobile Brain/Body Imaging (MoBI) of Physical Interaction with Dynamically Moving Objects Age-Sensitive Effects of Enduring Work with Alternating Cognitive and Physical Load. A Study Applying Mobile EEG in a Real-Life Working Scenario Benefits of Instructed Responding in Manual Assembly Tasks: An ERP Approach Pre-Trial EEG-Based Single-Trial Motor Performance Prediction to Enhance Neuroergonomics for a Hand Force Task Evaluation of a Dry EEG System for Application of Passive Brain–Computer Interfaces in Autonomous Driving An Intelligent Man-Machine Interface—Multi-Robot Control Adapted for Task Engagement Based on Single-Trial
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