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Neurotechnologies for Human Cognitive Augmentation: Current State of the Art and Future Prospects View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Essex Research Repository REVIEW published: 31 January 2019 doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00013 Neurotechnologies for Human Cognitive Augmentation: Current State of the Art and Future Prospects Caterina Cinel 1, Davide Valeriani 1,2 and Riccardo Poli 1* 1 Brain Computer Interfaces and Neural Engineering Laboratory, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom, 2 Department of Otolaryngology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States Recent advances in neuroscience have paved the way to innovative applications that cognitively augment and enhance humans in a variety of contexts. This paper aims at providing a snapshot of the current state of the art and a motivated forecast of the most likely developments in the next two decades. Firstly, we survey the main neuroscience technologies for both observing and influencing brain activity, which are necessary ingredients for human cognitive augmentation. We also compare and contrast such technologies, as their individual characteristics (e.g., spatio-temporal resolution, invasiveness, portability, energy requirements, and cost) influence their current and future role in human cognitive augmentation. Secondly, we chart the state of the art on neurotechnologies for human cognitive augmentation, keeping an eye both on the applications that already exist and those that are emerging or are likely to emerge in the next two decades. Particularly, we consider applications in the areas of communication, cognitive enhancement, memory, attention monitoring/enhancement, situation awareness and complex problem solving, and we look at what fraction of the population might benefit from such technologies and at the demands they impose Edited by: in terms of user training. Thirdly, we briefly review the ethical issues associated with Hasan Ayaz, Drexel University, United States current neuroscience technologies. These are important because they may differentially Reviewed by: influence both present and future research on (and adoption of) neurotechnologies for Marom Bikson, human cognitive augmentation: an inferior technology with no significant ethical issues City College of New York (City University of New York), United States may thrive while a superior technology causing widespread ethical concerns may end Ioan Opris, up being outlawed. Finally, based on the lessons learned in our analysis, using past University of Miami, United States trends and considering other related forecasts, we attempt to forecast the most likely *Correspondence: future developments of neuroscience technology for human cognitive augmentation Riccardo Poli [email protected] and provide informed recommendations for promising future research and exploitation avenues. Received: 15 November 2018 Keywords: neuroscience, cognitive augmentation, brain-computer interfaces, decision-making, neuroergonomics Accepted: 10 January 2019 Published: 31 January 2019 Citation: 1. INTRODUCTION Cinel C, Valeriani D and Poli R (2019) Neurotechnologies for Human Cognitive Augmentation: Current Human enhancement refers to a very broad range of techniques and approaches aimed at State of the Art and Future Prospects. augmenting body or cognitive functions, through performance-enhancing drugs, prosthetics, Front. Hum. Neurosci. 13:13. medical implants, human-computer teaming, etc., that result in improved characteristics and doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00013 capabilities, sometimes beyond the existing human range (Moore, 2008). Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 1 January 2019 | Volume 13 | Article 13 Cinel et al. Neurotechnologies for Human Cognitive Augmentation For two decades many alternative definitions of human issues may thrive while a superior technology causing widespread enhancement have been proposed and discussed (Parens, 1998; ethical concerns may end up being outlawed. Bostrom, 2005; Agar, 2008; Bostrom and Roache, 2008; Moore, Based on the lessons learnt in our analysis and using past 2008; Savulescu and Bostrom, 2009; Cabrera, 2017), a particular trends as predictors of future ones, in section 5 we attempt to bone of contention being the question of whether an intervention forecast the most likely future developments of neuroscience that simply attempts to restore function lost due to illness, injury, technology and provide informed recommendations for or disability could still be identified as enhancement. promising future research and exploitation avenues. In this paper, we will focus on a subset of means for human augmentation—neuroscience technologies—and only on one particular area—human cognitive enhancement. Our 2. NEUROSCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES FOR aim here is providing a snapshot of the current state of RECORDING AND INFLUENCING BRAIN the art of neuroscience technologies for human cognitive ACTIVITY enhancement and a motivated forecast of their most likely developments in the next two decades. Here, by cognitive The development of techniques for recording and stimulating enhancement we mean the improvement of the processes of neural activity has produced a revolution in the ability to acquiring/generating knowledge and understanding the world understand the cognitive mechanisms related to perception, around us. Such processes encompass attention, the formation of memory, attention, and the planning and execution of actions. knowledge, memory, judgement and evaluation, reasoning and However, whether or not these techniques can realistically be computation, problem solving and decision making, as well as the used for cognitive augmentation depends not only on how comprehension and production of language. For these reasons, effective they are at detecting interpretable neural activity unlike previous efforts, here we choose to review applications and/or stimulating specific target areas of the brain, but of these technologies by the cognitive function they augment also on a number of other relevant factors. Among these is (more on this below). Readers interested in more details on the degree of invasiveness—i.e., to what extent a technology recent techniques in brain function augmentation and futuristic requires introduction of instruments into the body—as well applications are encouraged consult the comprehensive three- as other practical factors, including how portable or expensive volume, 148-article special issue/research topic edited by Lebedev technologies are, which influence their usability in everyday life et al. (2018). for human cognitive augmentation. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In section 2, we In the following sections we will review these technologies survey the main neuroscience technologies for both observing with their pros and cons. For space limitations, we will not and influencing brain activity, which are necessary ingredients discuss in details the principles of these technologies. However, for human cognitive augmentation. We also compare and for each technique we will indicate to what degree it has helped contrast such technologies, as their individual characteristics in relation to human cognitive augmentation, leaving a more (e.g., spatio-temporal resolution, invasiveness, portability, energy extensive description of the actual applications to section 3. requirements, and cost) influence their current and future role in human cognitive augmentation. Section 3 charts the state of the art on neurotechnologies 2.1. Technologies for Recording Brain for human cognitive augmentation, keeping an eye both Activity on the applications that already exist and those that are 2.1.1. Non-invasive Recording Technologies emerging or are likely to emerge in the next two decades. The most popular non-invasive technologies for recording neural Particularly, we consider human enhancement applications in activity are electroencephalography (EEG), functional near- the areas of communication, cognitive enhancement, memory, infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), functional magnetic resonance decision making, attention monitoring/enhancement, situation imaging (fMRI), and magnetoencephalography (MEG). awareness, social interactions, and complex problem solving. We EEG records electrical activity from electrodes placed on the cover some of the cognitive augmentation technology (language scalp. One of the main advantages of EEG (Niedermeyer and in particular) aimed at restoring lost functions in severely disable da Silva, 2005; Luck, 2014) is that it has very good temporal individuals, as those technologies may one day develop to the resolution, is relatively inexpensive (compared to other non- point of augmenting able-bodied and able-minded people. We invasive recording technologies) and is portable and practical also look at what fraction of the population might benefit from to use, an aspect that is very important when considering the such technologies and at the demands they impose in terms of usability outside the lab for cognitive augmentation. However, user training. spatial resolution is generally low. Because technology always develops hand in hand with fMRI measures brain activity by detecting changes in the society, in section 4 we briefly review the ethical issues blood flow (hemodynamic response) in the brain (Logothetis associated with current neuroscience technologies for human et al., 2001; Buxton, 2009). It has much better spatial resolution cognitive augmentation. These are important because they than EEG,
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