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Dormancy and Revitalization: the Fate of Ethnobotanical Knowledge of Camel Forage Among Sahrawi Nomads and Refugees of Western Sahara Gabriele Volpato and Rajindra K

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Dormancy and Revitalization: the Fate of Ethnobotanical Knowledge of Camel Forage Among Sahrawi Nomads and Refugees of Western Sahara Gabriele Volpato and Rajindra K Dormancy and Revitalization: The fate of ethnobotanical knowledge of camel forage among Sahrawi nomads and refugees of Western Sahara Gabriele Volpato and Rajindra K. Puri Research Abstract Knowledge about forage is fundamental to the survival of cidental. Se analiza también la distribución de estos pastoral populations around the world. In this paper, we conocimientos a través de un análisis de consenso address the knowledge of camel forage of Sahrawi no- cultural, y se desarrolla una explicación para la vari- mads and refugees of Western Sahara. We analyze the ación intra-cultural basada en el cambio de los pro- distribution of this knowledge through cultural consensus cesos de transmisión de conocimientos entre los re- analysis and develop an explanation for intra-cultural vari- fugiados. En total, 100 especies de plantas fueron ation based on changing processes of knowledge trans- enumeradas por los informantes, con cinco especies mission. In total, 100 plant species were free-listed by in- (Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne, Nucularia perrinii Batt., formants, with five species (i.e., Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Astragalus vogelii (Webb) Bornm., Panicum turgidum Hayne, Nucularia perrinii Batt., Astragalus vogelii (Webb) Forssk., and Stipagrostis plumosa Munro ex T.Anderson) Bornm., Panicum turgidum Forssk., and Stipagrostis plu- culturalmente muy relevantes. Las plantas forrajeras mosa Munro ex T.Anderson) found to be culturally highly se clasifican en cinco categorías que son necesarias salient. These five represent five local categories of forage para la gestión de camellos en el desierto del Sahara . that are necessary for camel management in the West- occidental Los saharauis reconocen 25 plantas for- rajeras que influyen en el sabor y las propiedades de ern Sahara desert. The Sahrawi listed 25 forage plants la leche de camella, hecho que muestra cómo los va- that influence the taste and properties of camel milk, dem- lores culturales, tanto como las funciones de super- onstrating that cultural values, as much as survival func- vivencia, sustentan los sistemas de conocimientos tions, underpin local knowledge systems. Perhaps unsur- locales. Tal como era de esperar, la edad y la expe- prisingly, age and nomadic experience are positively cor- riencia nómada están correlacionadas con el cono- related with forage knowledge. Forced displacement and cimiento de plantas forrajeras. El desplazamiento y sedentarization are hypothesized as causes of progres- sive non-use of this knowledge and the lack of its trans- mission to younger generations of refugees. Nonetheless, across the study area, refugees are re-engaging with pas- Correspondence toralism and nomadism, which is leading to a revitalization of forage knowledge and its transmission. This should be Gabriele Volpato, Department of Social Sciences, Wagenin- regarded as an adaptation pathway for refugees. gen University, THE NETHERLANDS. [email protected] Resumen Rajindra K. Puri, Centre for Biocultural Diversity, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent at Para las poblaciones pastorales de todo el mundo, el Canterbury, Canterbury, UNITED KINGDOM. conocimiento de las plantas forrajeras es fundamen- tal para su supervivencia. En este trabajo se aborda el conocimiento sobre forraje de camellos entre los Ethnobotany Research & Applications 12:183-210 (2014) nómadas y los refugiados saharauis del Sáhara Oc- Published: 26 June 2014 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-183.pdf 184 Ethnobotany Research & Applications la sedentarización forzada parecen ser la causa de la and the resumption of transmission among certain groups progresiva falta de utilización y transmisión de estos (Ohmagari & Berkes 1997). conocimientos a las generaciones más jóvenes de los refugiados. Sin embargo, dentro de un proceso Within the corpus of plant knowledge held by pastoral más amplio de re-pastoralización de los refugiados, populations across the world, ethnobotanical knowledge estos conocimientos están siendo reactivados y otra about forage and its characteristics is among the most vez transmitidos a través de un proceso de revital- fundamental to survival (Fernandez-Gimenez 2000). In ización que debe considerarse como una vía de adap- this paper, we use the term “forage” to indicate plants tación de los refugiados. grazed or browsed by camels directly, whereas “pasture” indicates the land with vegetation cover used by camels within the Sahrawi pastoral system. Livestock husbandry نيب لبإلا فالعأب ةفرعملا لوانتن فوس ،ةقرولا هذه يفو -is possible only through the rational exploitation of grass موقن فوس ثيح .ةيبرغلا ءارحصلا نم نيئجاللاو نييوارحصلا -land, mountain, or desert pastoral resources, and this can ،ةيفاقثلا ءارآلا ليلحت لالخ نم ةفرعملا هذه عيزوت ليلحتب .not occur without detailed knowledge of these resources كلت نيب اميف نيابتلل بسانملا ريسفتلا عضو مث نمو The importance of this knowledge becomes even more لاقتنا تايلمع ىلع أرطت يتلا تاريغتلا ساسأ ىلع تافاقثلا crucial among camel pastoralists living in desert environ- ءاربخلا لبق نم ةتبن 100 جاردإ مت دقف ،ماع لكشبو .ةفرعملا ments (Johnson 1993). In fact, “the science of pastures is ىلإ ايفاقث ةزراب اهنأ نيبت عاونأ ةسمخ اهنمو لاجملا اذه يف a difficult art” (Caratini 1989b:36) as it requires in-depth Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne، Nucularia :يهو ،ريبك دح knowledge of camel physiology and ethology, of the lo- -perrinii Batt.، Astragalus vogelii (Webb) Bornm.، Pani cal vegetation (i.e., species diversity, abundance, distribu- cum turgidum Forssk.، Stipagrostis plumosa Munro ex tion, growth rates, forage qualities, and camel preferenc- .es), and of climatic patterns, places, paths, and distances فالعألا نم تائف سمخ لثمت ةسمخلا عاونألا هذه .T.Anderson دقلو .ةيبرغلا ءارحصلا يف لبإلا ةرادإل ةيرورضلا ةيلحملا -In this paper, we describe Sahrawi knowledge of cam ىلع رثؤت يتلا ةيفلعلا تاتابنلا نم 25 نويوارحصلا ركذ el forage in Western Sahara and discuss the role of this ،ةيفاقثلا ميقلا نأ ىلع لدي امم ،لبإلا بيلح صئاصخو معط -knowledge in the production and reproduction of Sah ةفرعملا ةمظنأ مئاعد نم يه ،ةايحلا ديق ىلع ءاقبلا فئاظو ردقب rawi society. We argue that the Sahrawi have a detailed ىدل ةربخلاو نسلا نإف ،امبر ةشهدلا ريثي ال اممو .ةيلحملا knowledge of camel forage and its properties within their .فالعألا ةفرعملا عم رشابمو يباجيإ لكشب طبترت ودبلا nomadic territories, that this knowledge is pivotal to their بابسأ يه نيطوتلاو يرسقلا ريجهتلا نأ ةقرولا ضرتفتو -mode of subsistence based on camel husbandry and no ةباشلا لايجألا ىلإ اهلاقتنا مدعو ةفرعملا هذه مادختسا مدع مقافت madism, and that it is underpinned by cultural values. With وقطنملاي ف ققحتلا مت دقف ،كلذ نم مغرلا ىلعو .نيئجاللا نم forced sedentarization in refugee camps and widespread يعرلا عم طارخنالا ةداعإب اوأدب دق نيئجاللا نأ نم ةساردلا ديق loss of camel herds, this knowledge has become largely فالعألاب ةفرعملا طيشنت ىلإ دوقي يذلا رمألا وهو ،ةوادبلاو inactive although not lost in a theoretical sense. We posit ةباثمب هرابتعا يغبني يذلا رمألا وهو .لايجألا ربع اهلاقتناو -that in contexts of changes in culture and productive ac .نيئجالل فيكت راسم tivities, transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge may be Introduction impaired, leading to its dormancy, i.e., it is held by former practitioners but not used and barely transmitted. How- ever, this dormant knowledge may be revitalized and its Ethnobotanical knowledge is crucial to the production and transmission recovered once it again becomes of mate- survival of human populations around the world (Ander- rial or cultural importance among people who re-engage son et al. 2011). It is particularly central to food security with past livelihood and environmental management strat- among populations that depend directly on the production egies. Such revitalization is occurring among the Sahrawi and harvesting of food for survival (e.g., small farmers, as refugees re-engage with pastoralism and seasonal no- nomads, pastoralists, and hunter-gatherers), to tradition- madism within a wider process of livelihood diversification al food-producing systems (Scoones et al. 1992), and to and cultural revitalization. We finally argue that the inabil- people who strive to diversify their livelihoods to meet their ity to transmit this knowledge to younger refugees might material and cultural needs (e.g., migrants and refugees; prevent their return to pastoralism and nomadism as live- see Pieroni & Vandebroek 2007). Indeed, ethnobotanical lihood strategies, particularly important today as food aid knowledge is often rich, detailed, and adaptive (Ber- has decreased in recent years (Abdelrahim 2013). Pro- kes et al. 2000), and it deserves as such to be recorded cesses of knowledge revitalization can be understood and its cultural transmission promoted (Cavalli-Sforza et as adaptation pathways for Sahrawi populations (sensu al. 1982, Ellen et al. 2013). Although the literature often Thornton & Manasfi 2010). stresses that loss of ethnobotanical knowledge occurs within wider processes of globalization, urbanization, and This paper first presents background information and re- displacement (Folke 2004, Turner & Turner 2008, Zent search methods used in the study, after which follow the 2001), few studies have addressed the processes that results and discussion of Sahrawi knowledge of camel for- occur with inactivity (knowledge dormancy) and revital- age that are presented in four parts: (1) the cultural do- ization of such knowledge for survival or cultural reasons main of camel forage; (2) folk classification of camel for- www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-183.pdf
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