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Insights Into New Zealand Glacial Processes from Studies Of Insights into New Zealand Glacial Processes from studies of glacial geomorphology and sedimentology in Rakaia and other South Island Valleys A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geology by Olivia Marie Hyatt University of Canterbury 2009 ii ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ iii Frontispiece The author in front of Acheron Bank (taken by Henrik Rother 2006). iv ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ v Abstract This thesis investigates the assertion by many early and more recent New Zealand glacial workers, that the high catchment rainfall and low seasonality in New Zealand create unique glacial sedimentary and geomorphic processes. Specifically the thesis examines the nature of glacial sedimentology and geomorphology in South Island, New Zealand focussing on the Rakaia Valley, as most of the early studies that suggested a distinct New Zealand process environment were based on South Island, East Coast glacial valleys. The thesis provides insights into glacial processes operating at glacial termini of late Quaternary glaciers in this region. The primary findings are as follows: Glacial terminus landforms (moraines) and sediments are described in two eastern (Rakaia and Ashburton Lakes) and one western (Waiho) valley of South Island. There are three main types of landforms 1) outwash head, 2) push moraines and 3) ice-contact fans. Outwash heads and push moraines have been identified before in New Zealand, but ice-contact fans have not. The spatial relationships between the three landforms can be complex especially where there is a fluctuating glacier terminus. Outwash heads are the dominant landform, with ice-contact fans deposited at a stationary terminus with channelised meltwater and push moraines preserved during retreat accompanied with outwash head incision. Both ice-contact fans and push moraines are prone to reworking into the outwash head. Supraglacial material comprises a small cap on the moraines and is usually insignificant in this system. The nature of past glacier termini can be gained from detailed study of these three landform relationships and their sediment record. The dominance of glacifluvial processes at the glacier terminus is a reflection of the low seasonality, abundant catchment rainfall, coupled with a large sediment supply. Preservation and deposition of the push moraines and ice-contact fans are controlled by glacifluvial processes on an outwash head, which in turn are controlled by the mass balance of the glacier. Sedimentology, stratigraphy and facies architecture were examined in the lower Rakaia Valley and elsewhere. The main environments recorded by these sediments are largely proglacial lacustrine and fluvial including 1) outwash gravels, with deposition of a sequence of glacier-fed, Gilbert-type deltas deposited over buried ice at Bayfield Cliff, 2) lacustrine silts and sands, 3) sub-aqueous ice-contact fans, 4) sub-aqueous mass flow deposits, and 5) supraglacial melt out material. These glacilacustrine facies are widespread during both retreats and advances. Sub- aqueous deltas are the primary ice terminus form, in this mid-valley lacustrine setting, which vi ______________________________________________________________________________________ record termini advance and retreats. Syn- and postdepositional deformation of lacustine facies are also common as a result of pushing and overriding from the fluctuating glacier termini. Buried ice is also widespread and many of these deposits display evidence of disruption of sedimentation by its meltout. This implies that stagnant tongues of ice were often buried by outwash and lacustrine sediments. From the sediments and geomorphology described in this thesis, two main glacier terminus settings in New Zealand valleys are apparent A) when the glacier terminus is on or abutting its outwash fan-head, or B) when the glacier terminus is within its trough. Both the geomorphic and sedimentological findings allow a better understanding of New Zealand glacial chronologies. Firstly, the sedimentology permits the identification of many more advances and retreats than are recorded in surface sediments. At Rakaia Valley, facies record six significant advances and retreats and many more small oscillations over the last 200 000 years. The geomorphic understanding and high resolution mapping has identified many more ice termini in the valleys than were previously recognised and allow the insights into ice margin behaviour through time. This includes the changing location of outwash heads and glacial troughs, with a migration up-valley since the OIS 6 advance/s, in the Rakaia Valley. The glacier overran its outwash head to reach its LGM position, and subsequently retreated slowly over about 10,000 years, back to its outwash head. It then changed to a calving margin and continued retreating but with no terminal moraines preserved, only lateral features. The research in this thesis has contributed to greater understanding of the New Zealand glacial system. Although low seasonality and large volumes of meltwater do play a role, and equally important control in New Zealand valleys is that of tectonics in terms of delivering huge sediment supply. This sediment supply enables large outwash head and fans to accumulate, which allow large stable lakes to form during glacier recession. The data and interpretations from this thesis will underpin the development of a New Zealand glacial land system, of which other valleys such as the Himalayas have. This land system development is important for understanding the temperate, high sediment yield glacial environment end member. ______________________________________________________________________________________ vii Acknowledgements The research for this thesis was supported in part by the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Marsden Fund contract UOC303, the Brian Mason Scientific and Technical Trust, the Geology departments Mason Trust and the internal departmental PhD scholarship. Thank you to Uwe Rieser and Ningsheng Wang at VUW for luminescence results and David Fink at ANSTO for the cosmogenic results. Thank you to all the technical and academic staff in the Department of Geological Sciences with a special thanks to Pat and Janet who have been extremely helpful over the years , with various departmental and PhD matters. Thank you also to Kerry, Rob, Cathy, Vanessa, John and Anekant. I will miss this place and the people. A special thanks to all the visiting academics to the department who have generously given some of their time. I would especially like to thank those who I spent some time with in the field, including Chris Smart, Dough Clark, Nick Christy-Blick, Mike Bentley and Ken Hewitt among many others. I have been very fortunate to have many people willing to offer support, time, knowledge and robust discussion over the years and I feel I would not have enjoyed this experience as much without this input. I also extend this to my many fellow PhD students, especially, Kate, Natalya, Tom, Sam, Rose, Chad, Anja, Henrik, Craig and Phil. Thank you also, Mike and Jeremy, for the opportunity to be involved and contribute to your MSc projects. I would also like to thank all the field assistants I have had during this thesis. A big thank you to the Bell’s of Bayfield Station, Ben and Donna Todhunter at Cleardale Station, Pat and Mac McElwain at Blackford Station and Ad and Marjo Bruijn at Montrose, for continued free access to their properties in the Rakaia Valley and their interest in this research. Thank you to my parents Raewyn and Philip, none of this would have been possible without your never ending support, I am extremely fortunate to have you both in my life. Thanks also to the rest of my family, especially my sister Susan, brother Alan and Gran. A special thanks also to Nicks parents, Adele, Hugh (and Lynda) and Annie, for your ongoing support. This thesis would not have happened without my international supervisory team consisting of Jamie Shulmeister, Tim Davies, David J.A. Evans and Glenn Thackray. I have immensely enjoyed working with you all and have learned a great deal from the time spent with you all in viii ______________________________________________________________________________________ the field, over a quite beer at the end of a long day and the many discussions in the tea room back in the department. Thank you all. A further big thanks to Jamie, for you’re on going support, patience and large input into this thesis. I have been very fortunate to have you as my principle supervisor. Lastly, to Nick, I thank you for your support, understanding, continual patience and love. You enrich my life and I’m very lucky to have found you. ______________________________________________________________________________________ ix Table of Contents Title Page.........................................................................................................................................i Frontispiece...................................................................................................................................iii Abstract...........................................................................................................................................v
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