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Chapter 1. Introduction Magnetic Fusion Technology

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Chapter 1. Introduction Magnetic Fusion Technology Thomas J. Dolan NPRE 421 University of Illinois 2011 dolan 2010 1 Some Forms of Energy Dolan - Energy Sources 2 Some Forms of Energy Dolan - Energy Sources 3 Energy usage in the USA Industrial 41 % Transportation 25 % Residential 19 % Commercial 14 % Dolan - Energy Sources 4 Energy to agriculture and manufacturing ~ 8 Joules (tractor, chemicals, transportation) One Joule of food Processing energy costs are > 30% of following product costs: •steel •aluminum •glass •cement •paper. dolan 2010 5 GDP vs. Energy Cosumption 103 $/cap 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 kW/cap AG = Argentina, AL = Australia, AU = Austria, BR = Brazil, CA = Canada, CH = China, CZ = Czech, DE = Germany, FR = France, GR = Greece, HU = Hungary, ID = Indonesia, IN = India, .IR = Iran, IT = Italy, JA = Japan, MX = Mexico, NO = Norway, PK = Pakistan, RU = Russia, SA = South Africa, SP = Spain, SW = Sweden, SZ = Switzerland, TU = Turkey, UK = United Kingdom, US = USA. dolan 2010 6 International Energy Outlook W 25 n, T n, oo 20 20 TW sumpti 15 y Con 10 gg Ener 5 0 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 Year dolan 2010 7 World energy resources Power Limits, TW Renewable Energy Resources Current Ultimately Solar 13.5 1580 Biomass 1.74 8.56 Wind 0090.09 130 Wave and Tidal 0.05 1-10 Hydro 0.75 11 Geothermal 0.01 0.3 Organic Waste 0.02 0.1 dolan 2010 8 World energy resources ELiitEnergy Limits Recoverable Fossil Fuels Joule TW-years Coal and Lignite (9.09E11 ton) 2.4x1022 753 Crude Oil (1.34E12 barrels) 7.9x1021 249 Natural Gas (1.7E14 m^3) 6.6x1021 208 Tar-Sand Oil (3. 7E12 barrels) 2. 2x1012 703 Shale Oil (3.33E12 barrels) 1.9x1022 613 dolan 2010 9 World energy resources Nuclear Fission Fuels Joule * TW-years U-235 (3. 88E4 tonnes) 2. 5x1021 95 U-238 (5.43E6 tonnes) 3.5x1023 13000 Th-232 (2.57E6 tonnes) 1.7x1023 6300 Nuclear Fusion Fuels Joule TW-years Lithium in ocean (2.3E14 tonnes) 1.4*1031 4.2*10^11 Lithium on land (2. 84E7 tonnes) 17*101.7*1024 5. 2*10^4 Deuterium (5.17E13 tonnes) 1.6*1031 5.1*10^11 dolan 2010 10 Why develop fusion reactors? dolan 2010 11 Fusion reactions power the sun and other stars Dolan - Energy Sources 12 World energy flows, TW Mankind uses ~ 20 TW dolan 2010 13 Mass per nucleon vs. atomic number E = Mc2 Fe dolan 2010 14 Why develop fusion reactors? Deuterium & lithium are • Abundant 1 L(H2O) = 300 L(gasoline) • Cheap • Available to all nations. Safe – no supercriticality or meltdown hazard Materials No fission fragments or actinides No high level radioactive waste (but much low level radioactivity) Recycling of tritium, lithium and vanadium Fusion could help reduce pollution competition for fossil fuels threa t o f war Dolan - Energy Sources 15 Temperature units T K kT J k = 1.381x10-23 J/K kT/e eV e = 1. 602x10-19 C It is common to speak of T in units of kVkeV. 1 eV = 11605 K 1 keV = 11.605 MK Dolan - Energy Sources 16 Energy released by fusion reactions D+T 4He(3.52) + n(14.1) 17.59 MeV D+D 3He(0.82) + n(2.45) 3.27 MeV D+D T(()()1.01) + H(3.02) 4.03 MeV D+3He 4He(3.66) + H(14.6) 18.3 MeV T+T n + n + 4He 11.3 MeV H+6Li 4He + 3H402MVHe 4.02 MeV H+11B 4He + 4He + 4He 8.68 MeV Dolan - Energy Sources 17 dolan 2010 18 Example Problem How many deuterium atoms are there in one liter of water, and how much energy could they produce in a cataldlyzed DD reactor (7. 2 M/dMev/deuteron )? 23 N(water) = Nav/M = (1000 g/liter) (6.02x10 molecules/mole) / (18 g/mole) = 3.34x1025 molecules/liter. Deuterium ~ 1.53x10-4 of hydrogen atoms. N(deuterium) = 2 (3.34x1025) 1.53x10‐4 = 1.02x1022 atoms The energy released is W = 1.02x1022 (7.2 MeV) 1.60x10‐13 J/MeV = 1.18x1010 J = 11.8 GJ. dolan 2010 19 Main reactions for breeding tritium fuel 6Li + n(thermal) 4He(2.05) + T(2.73) 4.78 MeV 7Li + n(fast) 4He + T + n -247MeV2.47 MeV endothermic Na tura l lithium = 7. 42% 6Li an d 92. 58% 7Li Dolan - Energy Sources 20 Catalyzed DD fuel cycle D+D 3He(0.82) + n(2.45) D + 3He 4He(3.66) + p(14.6) D+D T(1.01) + p(3.02) D+T 4He(3.54) + n(14.05) _____________________________ Net: 6D 2n + 2p + 2(4He) + 43.2 MeV dolan 2010 21 H + 6Li and H + llB reactions no neutron emission all reaction products are charged particles direct conversion to electricity but low power densities and cross sections very high temperature operation Ignition difficult or impossible Dolan - Energy Sources 22 Approximate Fuel Costs, 2009 $/GJ Fossil Fuels Crude Oil 10.18 OPEC Natural Gas 5.19 EIA Macquarie Group Coal Limited Thermal 2.6 Coke 3.82 Fission Fuels Ux Consulting Uranium Company U-235 0.2 U-238 0.0014 Los Alamos Thorium 0.066 National Laboratory Fusion Fuels Sigma-Aldrich Deuterium 0150.15 Corporation Sigma-Aldrich Lithium 0.038 Corporation dolan 2010 23 Fusion advantages over fission * No supercriticality hazard * no emergency core cooling systems * no fission products or long‐lived high‐level radioactive waste (there would still be lower‐level radioactive wastes) * possible recycling of materials (such as V‐Cr‐Ti alloy) * widespread availability and easy transport of fuels * low cost of fuels. dolan 2010 24 How can we make a fusion reactor? dolan 2010 25 Fusion Power Plant Magnetic fusion reactor power plant blanket turbine shield IHX steam generator magnet Dolan - Energy Sources 27 Need for Heating T = 10 keV (120 Million Kelvin). positive fuel ions repel each other hig h velitilocities approach close for reactions to occur. fuel becomes “plasma” = fully ionized gas, stars fluorescent lights welding arcs flames ionosphere idindus tiltrial plasma processing didevices gaseous lasers nuclear fusion experiments dolan 2010 28 Plasma requirements for a fusion reactor Heating T > 10 keV to overcome Coulomb repulsion Confinement n > 1020 m-3s “Lawson Criterion” Magnetic confinement n ~ 1020 m-3 ~ 1 s Inertial confinement n ~ 1029 m-3 ~ 1 ns Dolan - Energy Sources 29 Confinement Long enough for a few percent of the fuel to “burn”. * solid walls. Low‐temperature plasmas, such as fluorescent lights. * gravity. Stars * inertia. Laser beams fuel pellet extremely high density. Inertia limits expansion rate for times ~ 1 ns. * electrostatic fields. Spherical High voltage grids * magnetic fields. Lorentz force F = electrons and ions spiral around B field lines. * electromagnetic waves. Radiofrequency waves and microwaves dolan 2010 30 Toroidal magnetic field dolan 2010 31 Plasma energy loss mechanisms Plasma flow along B – open magnetic systems Plasma Drift across B, caused by E, B, magnetic field curvature, … Heat Transport – conduction and convection Radiat io n Losses– line radi atio n aadnd bberem sstasstrahlu n g radi ati on Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instabilities (plasma shape) driven by gradients of pressure or current density Microinstabilities –interactions of particles and waves Charge exchange (neutralization of hot ions, allowing their escape) dolan 2010 32 Plasma Heating Methods Ohmic Compression Charged particle injection Alpha particle heating Neutral beam injection Radiowave and microwave heating dolan 2010 33 Plasma beta = (plasma p)/(gpressure)/(magnetic field p)pressure) 2 = p/(B /2o) If B = 1 Tesla, then 2 B /2o = 0.4 MPa = 4 atmospheres dolan 2010 34 Energy gain ratio Q Q = (fusion pp)ower) / ((pinput pp)ower) Q ≈ 5(nT) / [ 5x1021 -nT ] n = fuel ion density, m-3 T = ion temperature, keV = energy confinemen t time, s dolan 2010 35 Energy gain ratio vs. triple product 1000 Q 100 10 1 0.1 012345 nTt , 1021 m-3keV-s dolan 2010 36 Typical values for triple product * magnetic confinement fusion: n ~ 1020 m‐3, T ~ 10 keV, ~ 1s. * inertial confinement fusion: n ~ 1029 m‐3, T ~ 10 keV, ~ 1 ns. dolan 2010 37 Reaction Rate with Two Maxwellian Distributions r(x,t) = n1(x,t) n2(x,t) <v> If nD = nT = ½ n, then 2 r=¼nr = ¼ n <v>DT Dolan 2010 38 Interactions among like particles N = n(n-1)/2 ≈ n2/2 if n>>1 For DD reactions r = (½)n2 <v> Dolan 2010 39 Fusion Power Density nD = nT = ½ n 2 PDT = (¼) n <v>WDT 2 PDD = Pf = (½)n [<v>ddnWddn + <v>ddpWddp] 2 ≈ (½) n <v>ddWdd 2 Pcat ≈ (½) n <v>ddWcat The factor of ½ avoids counting the same DD reaction twice. Catalyzed DD fuel cycle D+D 3He(0.82) + n(2.45) D + 3He 4He (3. 66) + p (14. 6) D+D T(1.01) + p(3.02) D+T 4He(3.54) + n(14.05) _____________________________ Net: 6D 2n + 2p + 2(4He) + 43.2 MeV Each DD reaction results in consumption of 3 deuterons, yielding 21.6 MeV = 3.46x10‐12 J. dolan 2010 41 Reaction rate Parameters <v> 1. D+T 2. D+3He 3. D+DH+T 4TT4. T+T 5. T+3He 6. H+11B Dolan 2010 42 Reaction Rate Parameters 3 3 TkeVT, keV <v>DT, m /s <v>DD, m /s 8 5.94E-23 6.90E-25 10 1.09E-22 1.21E-24 15 2.65E-22 2.97E-24 20 4.24E-22 5.16E-24 25 5.59E-22 7.60E-24 30 6.65E-22 1.02E-23 Fusion Power Density Example: n=2x1020 m-3, T = 10 keV 2 PDT = (¼) n <v>WDT 40 -22 -12 PDT = ¼ (10 ) 1.09x10 2.82x10 = 7.
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    IAEA-TECDOC-1168 Compilation and evaluation of fission yield nuclear data Final report of a co-ordinated research project 1991–1996 December 2000 The originating Section of this publication in the IAEA was: Nuclear Data Section International Atomic Energy Agency Wagramer Strasse 5 P.O. Box 100 A-1400 Vienna, Austria COMPILATION AND EVALUATION OF FISSION YIELD NUCLEAR DATA IAEA, VIENNA, 2000 IAEA-TECDOC-1168 ISSN 1011–4289 © IAEA, 2000 Printed by the IAEA in Austria December 2000 FOREWORD Fission product yields are required at several stages of the nuclear fuel cycle and are therefore included in all large international data files for reactor calculations and related applications. Such files are maintained and disseminated by the Nuclear Data Section of the IAEA as a member of an international data centres network. Users of these data are from the fields of reactor design and operation, waste management and nuclear materials safeguards, all of which are essential parts of the IAEA programme. In the 1980s, the number of measured fission yields increased so drastically that the manpower available for evaluating them to meet specific user needs was insufficient. To cope with this task, it was concluded in several meetings on fission product nuclear data, some of them convened by the IAEA, that international co-operation was required, and an IAEA co-ordinated research project (CRP) was recommended. This recommendation was endorsed by the International Nuclear Data Committee, an advisory body for the nuclear data programme of the IAEA. As a consequence, the CRP on the Compilation and Evaluation of Fission Yield Nuclear Data was initiated in 1991, after its scope, objectives and tasks had been defined by a preparatory meeting.
  • Policy Brief Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development

    Policy Brief Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development

    OCTOBER 2008Policy Brief ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT Nuclear Energy Today Can nuclear Introduction energy help make Nuclear energy has been used to produce electricity for more than half a development century. It currently provides about 15% of the world’s supply and 22% in OECD sustainable? countries. The oil crisis of the early 1970s provoked a surge in nuclear power plant orders How safe is and construction, but as oil prices stabilised and even dropped, and enough nuclear energy? electricity generating plants came into service to meet demand, orders tailed off. Accidents at Three Mile Island in the United States (1979) and at Chernobyl How best to deal in Ukraine (1986) also raised serious questions in the public mind about nuclear with radioactive safety. waste? Now nuclear energy is back in the spotlight as many countries reassess their energy policies in the light of concerns about future reliance on fossil fuels What is the future and ageing energy generation facilities. Oil, coal and gas currently provide of nuclear energy? around two-thirds of the world’s energy and electricity, but also produce the greenhouse gases largely responsible for global warming. At the same For further time, world energy demand is expected to rise sharply in the next 50 years, information presenting all societies worldwide with a real challenge: how to provide the energy needed to fuel economic growth and improve social development while For further reading simultaneously addressing environmental protection issues. Recent oil price hikes, blackouts in North America and Europe and severe weather events have Where to contact us? also focused attention on issues such as long-term price stability, the security of energy supply and sustainable development.